Antiinflammatory: From 1 Different Sources
Controlling inflammation
One of the NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) that is an analgesic (see ANALGESICS) for mild to moderate pain in RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS, OSTEOARTHRITIS and other musculoskeletal disorders. Also used for DYSMENNORRHOEA and MENORRHAGIA. It must be used with care as it has several side-effects, in particular diarrhoea and occasional haemolytic ANAEMIA. It must not be used in patients with INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE (IBD).... mefenamic acid
An intermediate risk, oral non-steroidal antiin?ammatory drug (see NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS)) with prolonged action. Used to treat pain and in?ammation in RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS, other musculoskeletal disorders, and acute GOUT.... piroxicam
Eclipta prostrataAsteraceaeSan: Bhrngarajah, Tekarajah;Hin: Bhamgra, Mocakand, Babri;
Ben: Kesutthe, Kesraj;
Mal: Kannunni, Kayyonni, Kayyunnni;Tam: Kayyantakara, Kaikeri;Kan: Kadiggagaraga;Tel: Guntagalijeran; Arab: Kadim-el-bintImportance: Eclipta is one of the ten auspicious herbs that constitute the group dasapuspam which is considered to destroy the causative factors of all unhealthy and unpleasant features and bestow good health and prosperity. The members of this group cure wounds and ulcers as well as fever caused by the derangement of the tridosas - vata, pitta and kapha. It is used in hepatitis, spleen enlargements, chronic skin diseases, tetanus and elephantiasis. The leaf promotes hair growth and use as an antidote in scorpion sting. The root is used as an emetic, in scalding of urine, conjuctivitis and as an antiseptic to ulcers and wound in cattle. It is used to prevent abortion and miscarriage and also in cases of uterine pains after the delivery. The juice of the plant with honey is given to infants for expulsion of worms. For the relief in piles, fumigation with Eclipta is considered beneficial. A decoction of the leaves is used in uterine haemorrhage. The paste prepared by mincing fresh plants has got an antiinflammatory effect and may be applied on insect bites, stings, swellings and other skin diseases. In Ayurveda, it is mainly used in hair oil, while in Unani system, the juice is used in “Hab Miskeen Nawaz” along with aconite, triphala, Croton tiglium, Piper nigium, Piper longum, Zingiber officinale and minerals like mercury, sulphur, arsenic, borax, etc. for various types of pains in the body. It is also a constituent of “Roghan Amla Khas” for applying on the hair and of “Majun Murrawah-ul-arwah”.Distribution: This plant is widely distributed in the warm humid tropics with plenty of rainfall. It grows commonly in moist places as a weed all over plains of India.Botany: Eclipta prostrata (Linn) Linn. syn. E. alba Hassk. is an annual, erect or postrate herb, often rooting at nodes. Leaves are sessile, 2.5-7.5cm long with white appressed hairs. Floral heads are 6-8 mm in diameter, solitary and white. Fruit is an achene, compressed and narrowly winged. Sometimes, Wedelia calendulacea, which resembles Eclipta prostrata is used for the same purpose.Properties and activity: The leaves contain stigmasterol, -terthienylmethanol, wedelolactone, dismethylwedelolactone and dismethylwedelolactone-7-glucoside. The roots give hentriacontanol and heptacosanol. The roots contain polyacetylene substituted thiophenes. The aerial part is reported to contain a phytosterol, -amyrin in the n-hexane extract and luteolin-7-glucoside, -glucoside of phytosterol, a glucoside of a triterpenic acid and wedelolactone in polar solvent extract. The polypeptides isolated from the plant yield cystine, glutamic acid, phenyl alanine, tyrosine and methionine on hydrolysis. Nicotine and nicotinic acid are reported to occur in this plant.The plant is anticatarrhal, febrifuge, antidontalgic, absorbent, antihepatic, CVS active, nematicidal, ovicidal and spasmolytic in activity. The alcoholic extract of entire plant has been reported to have antiviral activity against Ranikhet disease virus. Aqueous extract of the plant showed subjective improvement of vision in the case of refractive errors. The herbal drug Trefoli, containing extracts of the plant in combination with others, when administered to the patients of viral hepatitis, produced excellent results.... eclipta
Baliospermum montanumEuphorbiaceaeSan: Danti;Hin: Danti;Mal: Danti, Nagadanti;Tam: Nakatanti;Tel: NelajidiImportance: Danti or Nagadanti is a stout undershrub with numerous flowers. Root, which is the officinal part, is used in abdominal pain, constipation, calculus, general anasarca, piles, helminthic manifestations, scabies, skin disorders, suppurative ulcers and diseases caused by the morbidity of kapha and pitta. Root paste is applied to painful swellings and piles. Leaves cure asthma and seeds are used in snakebite (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma, 1983). The drug forms an important constituent of preparations like Dantyarishta, Dantiharitakileham, Kaisoraguggulu gulika, etc.(Sivarajan et al, 1994).Distribution: The plant is found throughout the sub-Himalayan tracts from Kashmir to Khasi Hills. It is common in West Bengal, Bihar and Central and Peninsular India.Botany: Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell-Arg. syn. B. axillare Bl., B. polyandrum Wt. belongs to the family Euphrobiaceae. It is a stout under-shrub 0.9-1.8m in height with herbaceous branches from the roots. Leaves are simple, sinuate-toothed, upper ones small, lower ones large and sometimes palmately 3-5 lobed. Flowers are numerous, arranged in axillary racemes with male flowers above and a few females below. Fruits are capsules, 8-13mm long and obovoid. Seeds are ellipsoid smooth and mottled (Warrier et al,1993).Agrotechnology: The tropical plant is suited to almost all soils. It can be cultivated either as pure crop or intercrop. It is propagated vegetatively by cuttings. About 15-20cm long rooted cuttings are used for planting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and top soil and formed into a mound. On these mounds, rooted cuttings are to be planted at 2 cuttings/mound. Cuttings establish within one month. Weeding is to be carried out at this time. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is beneficial. Irrigation during summer months is preferable. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Roots can be collected at the end of second year. The roots are to be cut and dried in sun before marketing. The yield is about one tonne root/ha (Prasad et al,1997).Properties and activity: Roots contain diterpenes, baliospermin, montanin, phorbol-12-deoxy-13-O-palmitate, phorbol-12-deoxy-16-hydroxy-13-O-palmitate and phorbol-12-deoxy-5 -hydroxy-13 – myristate (Ogura et al, 1978). Alcoholic extract of plant showed hypotensive activity in experimental animals (Bhakuni et al, 1971). Antilukaemic and cytotoxic activities have been demonstrated in the esters of both 12-deoxyphorbol and 12-deoxy-16-hydroxyphorbol, isolated from B. montanum (King-horn, 1979). The roots are acrid, thermogenic, purgative, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, anthelmintic, diuretic, diaphoretic, rubefacient, febrifuge and tonic. Seed is purgative, stimulant, rubefacient and antidote for snakebite. Seed oil is antirheumatic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and wound healing. Root and seed oil is cathartic and antidropsical. Stem is anti-dontalgic.... nagadanti
Croton tigliumEuphorbiaceaeSan: Jepalah, DantibijahHin: JamalgotaBen: Jaypal Mal: NirvalamTam: Nervalam, SevalamkottaiTel: NepalaImportance: Purging croton or croton oil plant, a small evergreen tree with separate male and female flowers, is one among the seven poisons described in Ayurveda. The drug is well known for its drastic purgative property. The drug is found to be useful in ascites, anasarca, cold, cough, asthma, constipation, calculus, dropsy, fever and enlargement of the abdominal viscera. The seed paste is a good application for skin diseases, painful swellings and alopacia. The seed-oil is useful in chronic bronchitis, laryngeal affections, arthritis and lock jaw. Misraka-sneham is an important preparation using the drug (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980; Sharma, 1983).Distribution: It is distributed throughout North India. It is cultivated in Assam, West Bengal and South India.Botany: Croton tiglium Linn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is a small evergreen tree, 4.5-6.0m in height with ash coloured smooth bark and young shoots sprinkled with stellate hairs. Leaves are oblong to ovate-lanceolate, obtuse or rounded at the 2-glanded box, acuminate, membraneous, yellowish green and minutely toothed. Flowers are small, unisexual, males on slender pedicels, females larger and on short thick pedicels. Fruits are ovoid or oblong trigonous capsules. Seeds are smooth, testa black and enclosing reddish brown oily endosperm (Warrier et al,1994). Other species belonging to the genus Croton are as follows:C. aromaticus Linn. C. caudatus Geisel C. jouera Roxb.C. malabaricus Bedd.C. oblongifolius Roxb.C. polyandrus Roxb. syn. Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg.C. reticulatus(Chopra et al, 1980)Agrotechnology: The plant is propagated by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and about 2 months old seedlings are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and formed into a mound. The seedlings are to be planted on these mounds. Irrigation during summer months is beneficial. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is desirable. Weeding is to be carried out one month after transplanting. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Fruits are formed at the end of first year. Fruits when ripen and start to crack are to be collected, dried in sun, then the outer shell is removed and again dried for one day before marketing (Prasad et al,1997).Properties and activity: Oil contains phorbol myristate acetate (Husain et al, 1992). Seeds contain upto 20% protein and 30-50% lipids. Iso-guanine-D-ribose (crotoniside) and saccharose were isolated from the seeds. In fractionation of croton oil, liquid-liquid distribution procedures proved to be the separation tools of choice. The per hydrogenated parent hydrocarbon of phorbol is a perhydrocyclopropabenzulene called tigliane and phorbol is 1, 1a , 1b , 4, 4a, 7a , 7b, 8, 9, 9a-decahydro-4a , 7 , 9 , 9a - tetrahydroxy-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1, 1, 6, 8 tetramethyl-5-H-cyclopropa[3,4] benz [1.2-e]azulen-5- one. Phorbol, a tetracylic diterpene with a 5, 7, 6 and 3- membered ring has 6 oxygen functions. Phorbol accounts for 3.4% and 4- deoxy- 4 - phorbol for 0.29% of the weight of croton oil. Twenty- five phorbol-12, 13-diesters have been detected (Hecker et al, 1974). A toxin croton 1, mol. wt 72,000 has been isolated from the seeds (Lin et al, 1978).Phorbol myristate acetate activates nitroblue tetrazolium reduction in human polymorphs. Seed and oil is purgative, rubefacient and anti-dote for snakebite. The seeds and oil are acrid, bitter, thermogenic, emollient, drastic purgative, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, vermifuge, deterent, diaphoretic, expectorant, vesicant, irritant and rubefacient.... purging croton
Drugs which relieve or abolish PAIN. Unlike local anaesthetics, they are usually given systemically – affecting the whole body – and produce no SENSORY or MOTOR blockade stopping the activity in the sensory or motor nerves respectively that supply a part of the body. The many di?erent types of analgesics have varying modes of action. The choice of drug and method of administration will depend upon the type and severity of pain being treated.
Non-opioid analgesics include ASPIRIN, PARACETAMOL and NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS), which are used to treat mild or moderate pain such as headache (see also MIGRAINE), DYSMENORRHOEA, and transient musculoskeletal pain. Some analgesics – for example, aspirin and paracetamol – also reduce PYREXIA. A strong non-opioid analgesic is NEFOPAM HYDROCHLORIDE, which can be used for persistent pain or pain that fails to respond to other non-opioid analgesics, but does have troublesome side-effects. These non-opioid analgesics can be obtained without a doctor’s prescription – over the counter (OTC) – but the sale of some has to be supervised by a quali?ed pharmacist. A wide range of compound analgesic preparations is available, combining, say, aspirin or paracetamol and CODEINE, while the weak stimulant CAFFEINE is sometimes included in the preparations. Most of these are OTC drugs. NSAIDs are especially e?ective in treating patients with chronic diseases accompanied by pain and in?ammation. They, too, are sometimes combined with other analgesics.
Paracetamol acts within the central nervous system by inhibition of PROSTAGLANDINS. It is often combined with other analgesics – for example, aspirin or codeine; in proprietary compounds and in therapeutic doses it has few side-effects. Overdosage, however, can cause damage to the liver or kidneys (20–30 tablets are su?cient to do this). Paracetamol is often used by individuals attempting suicide. Even if there are no immediate symptoms, individuals suspected of having taken an overdose should be sent to hospital urgently for treatment.
The NSAIDs (including aspirin) inhibit prostaglandin synthesis. Prostaglandins are released by tissues that are in?amed, and may cause pain at peripheral pain sensors or sensitise nerve endings to painful stimuli: by inhibiting their production, pain and in?ammation are reduced. NSAIDs are particularly e?ective for pain produced by in?ammation – for example, ARTHRITIS. Side-effects include gastrointestinal bleeding (caused by mucosal erosions particularly in the stomach), inhibition of platelet aggregation (see PLATELETS), and potential for renal (kidney) damage.
Severe pain is often treated with opioid drugs. The original drugs were naturally occurring plant ALKALOIDS (e.g. MORPHINE), whilst newer drugs are man-made. They mimic the action of naturally occurring compounds (ENDORPHINS and ENCEPHALIN) which are found within the brain and spinal cord, and act on receptors to reduce the transmission of painful stimuli within the central nervous system (and possibly peripherally). They tend to produce side-effects of euphoria, respiratory depression, vomiting, constipation and itching. Chronic use or abuse of these drugs may give rise to addiction.... analgesics
See ANALGESICS; NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS).... anti-inflammatory drugs
A drug used to treat GOUT in the acute stage. Its use is limited by the development of toxicity at higher doses, but in patients with heart failure it may be preferable to NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS), which tend to cause ?uid retention. Colchicine can be given to patients receiving ANTICOAGULANTS. The drug does have side-effects on the gastrointestinal system.... colchicine
Curcuma spp.ZingiberaceaeThe genus Curcuma belonging to the family Zingiberaceae comprises of a number of species which are medicinally very important. Among them, the most important species are described below.1. C. amada Roxb.English: Mango ginger San: Amrardrakam, Karpuraharida Hin: Ama -haldiMal: MangainchiTam: MankayinciTel: Mamidi AllamMango ginger is cultivated in Gujarat and found wild in parts of West Bengal, U. P, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is a rhizomatous aromatic herb with a leafy tuft and 60-90cm in height. Leaves are long, petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, tapering at both ends, glabrous and green on both sides. Flowers are white or pale yellow, arranged in spikes in the centre of tuft of the leaves. Lip is semi -elliptic, yellow, 3-lobbed with the mid lobe emarginate. The rhizomes are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, bruises, wounds, chronic ulcers, skin diseases, pruritus, fever, constipations, strangury, hiccough, cough, bronchitis, sprains, gout, halitosis, otalgia and inflammations (Warrier et al, 1994). The fresh root possesses the smell of green mango and hence the name mango ginger. The rhizomes are used externally in the form of paste as an application for bruises and skin diseases generally combined with other medicines. Tubers rubbed with the leaf- juice of Caesalpinia bonduc is given for worms (Nadkarni, 1982).The essential oil contains -pinene, -and -curcumene, camphor, cuminyl alcohol, myristic acid and turmerone. Car-3-ene and cis-ocimene contribute the characteristic mango odour of the rhizome. Rhizome is CNS active, hypothermic and it shows potentiation of amphetamine toxicity. Tuber is trypsin inhibitor and is effective against Vibrio cholerae (Husain et al, 1992). The rhizomes are bitter, sweet sour, aromatic, cooling, appetiser, carminative, digestive, stomachic, demulcent, vulnerary, febrifuge, alexertic, aphrodisiac, laxative, diurectic, expectorant, antiinflammatory and antipyretic (Warrier et al, 1994).2. C. aromatica Salisb.Eng: Wild turmeric; San: Aranyaharidra, Vanaharidra;Hin: Ban-haridra, Jangli-haldi;Ben: Ban Haland; Mal,Tam: Kasturimanjal, Kattumanjal;Tel: Adavi-pasupu;Kan: KadarasinaWild turmeric or Cochin turmeric or Yellow zeodoary is found wild throughout India and cultivated in Bengal and Kerala. It is a perennial tuberous herb with annulate, aromatic yellow rhizome which is internally orange-red in colour. Leaves are elliptic or lanceolate- oblong, caudate-acuminate, 30-60cm long, petioles as long or even longer, bracts ovate, recurved, more or less tinged with red or pink. Flowers are pink, lip yellow, obovate, deflexed, sub-entire or obscurely three lobed. Fruits are dehiscent, globose, 3-valved capsules. Rhizomes are used in combination with astringents and aromatics for bruises, sprains, hiccough, bronchitis, cough, leucoderma and skin eruptions (Warrier et al, 1994). The rhizomes have an agreeable fragrant smell and yield a yellow colouring matter like turmeric, and the fresh root has a camphoraceous odour. The dried rhizome is used as a carminative and aromatic adjunctant to other medicines (Nadkarni, 1998).Essential oil contains -and - -curcumene, d-camphene and p-methoxy cinnamic acid. The colouring matter is curcumin. Numerous sesquiterpenoids of germacrone and guaiane skeletons have been identified recently. Rhizome has effect on respiration. It is spasmolytic and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. Rhizome is an anti-dote for snakebite and carminative (Husain et al, 1992).3. C. longa Linn. syn. C. domestica Valeton.Eng: Turmeric; San: Haridra, Varavarnini;Hin: Haldi, halda;Ben: Haldi;Mal: Manjal, Pachamanjal, Varattumanjal;Tam: Mancal;Kan: Haldi, Arasina;Tel: PasapuTurmeric is cultivated all over India, particularly in W. Bengal, T. N and Maharashtra. It is a perennial herb, 60-90cm in height, with a short stem and tufts of erect leaves. Rhizome is cylindric, ovoid, orange coloured and branched. Leaves are simple, very large, petiole as long as the blade, oblong-lanceolate, tapering to the base upto 45cm long. Flowers are pale yellow, arranged in spikes concealed by the sheathing petioles and flowering bracts are pale green (Warrier et al, 1994). Turmeric occupies an important position in the life of Indian people as it forms an integral part of the rituals, ceremonies and cuisine. Due to the strong antiseptic properties, turmeric has been used as a remedy for all kinds of poisonous affections, ulcers and wounds. It gives good complexion to the skin and so it is applied to face as a depilatory and facial tonic. The drug cures diseases due to morbid vata, pitta and kapha, diabetes, eye diseases, ulcers, oedema, anaemia, anorexia, leprosy and scrofula. It purifies blood by destroying the pathogenic organisms. A paste of turmeric alone, or combined with a paste of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves, is used to cure ringworm, obstinate itching, eczema and other parasitic skin diseases and in chicken pox and small pox. The drug is also useful in cold, cough, bronchitis, conjunctivitis and liver affections (Nadkarni, 1954; Kurup et al,1979; Kolammal, 1979). The rhizome is the officinal part and is an important ingredient of formulations like Nalpamaradi taila, Jatyadi taila, Narayana gula, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994).Turmeric paste mixed with a little limejuice and saltpetre and applied hot is a popular application to sprains and bruises. In smallpox and chickenpox, a coating of turmeric is applied to facilitate the process of scabbing. The smoke produced by sprinkling powdered turmeric over burnt charcoal will relieve scorpion sting when the part affected is exposed to the smoke for a few minutes. Turmeric and alum powder in the proportion of 1:20 is blown into the ear in chronic otorrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). “Haridra Khand”, a compound containing powdered turmeric, sugar and many other ingredients is a well-known preparation for cold, cough and flu, and for skin diseases. In Unani system, roasted turmeric is an ingredient of “Hab Narkachur”, used as antidysenteric for children (Thakur et al, 1989).Essential oil contains ar-turmerone, and ar-curcumene as ma jor constituents. Some of the other compounds are -and -pinene, sabinene, myrcene, -terpinene, limonene, p- cymene, perillyl alcohol, turmerone, eugenol, iso-eugenol, eugenol methyl ether and iso- eugenol methyl ether. Curcumin and related compounds have also been reported as major constituents of the rhizomes. Recently a number of sesquiterpenes have been reported from C. longa, viz., the sesquiterpenoids of germacrane, bisabolane and guainane skeletons (Husain et al, 1992). The study of sesquiterpenes has revealed a new compound curlone (Kisoy et al, 1983). The crystalline colouring matter curcumin (0. 6%) is diferuloyl methane (Mathews et al, 1980). Stigmasterol, cholestrol, -sitosterol and fatty acids, mainly straight chain dienoic acids are reported (Moon et al, 1977). Curcumin, the colouring agent and major constituent of C. longa, is said to possess local as well as systemic antiinflammatory property which has been found to compare favourably with phenylbutazone (Srimal and Dhawan, 1973). An extract of the crude drug ‘akon’ containing the rhizomes exhibited intensive preventive activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver injury invivo and invitro. The liver protecting effects of some analogs of ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid, probable metabolites of the curcuminoids have been also evaluated (Kiso et al, 1983). Curcumin is antiinflammatory. Rhizome is antiprotozoal, spasmolytic, CNS active, antiparasitic, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antiarthritic, anthelmintic, carminative, antiperiodic, emo llient, anodyne, laxative, diruretic, expectorant, alterative, alexertive, febrifuge, opthalmic and tonic.4. C. zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc. syn. C. zerumbet Roxb; Amomum zedoariaChristm.vEng: Round zedoary; San: Kachura, Shati;Hin: Kakhur;Ben: Sati;Kan: KachoraMal: Manjakoova, Adavi-kacholam;Tam: Kichilikizhangu, Nirvisham;Tel: KacheramuThe round zedoary or Zerumbet is mostly found in India and S. E. Asia. The plant has 4-6 leaves with 20-60cm long lamina. The leaf lami na is oblong-lanceolate, finely acuminate and glabrous on both the surfaces. Flower stalk is 20-25cm long, emerging before the leaves. Flowers are yellow, while the flowering bract is green tinged with red. Calyx is 8mm long, corolla tube is twice as long as the calyx. Capsule is ovoid, trigonous, thin smooth and bursting irregularly. Tubers are palmately branched and camphoraceous (Thakur et al, 1989). The identity of the plant sources of the drug Karcura is a matter of debate. There is difference of opinion among men of Ayurveda, as to whether Sati and Karcura are the same drug or different. Many authors consider them different and equate Sati with Hedychium spicatum Smith. and Karcura with C. zedoaria, both belonging to Zingiberaceae (Kurup et al,1979; Chunekar 1982; Sharma, 1983). Some others treat them to be the same and equate it with C. zedoaria (Kirtikar and Basu, 1918; Vaidya, 1936; Nadkarni, 1954; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979). However, the source of Karcura in Kerala in the recent times has been Kaempferia galanga of the same family. The rhizome of C. zedoaria is used as appetiser and tonic, particularly prescribed to ladies after childbirth. In case of cold, a decoction of long pepper (Piper longum), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), zedoary and honey is given. In Ayurveda it is an ingredient of “Braticityadi kwatha”, used in high fever (Thakur et al, 1989). Root is useful in flatulence and dyspepsia, and as a corrector of purgatives. Fresh root checks leucorrhoeal and gonorrhoeal discharges. Root powder is a good substitute for many foreign foods for infants. For worms, the juice from the tubers is given to children. Juice of the leaves is given in dropsy (Nadkarni, 1982). It is an odoriferous ingredient of the cosmetics used for the cure of chronic skin diseases caused by impure or deranged blood (Nadkarni, 1998).Essential oil from rhizomes contains -pinene, d-camphene, cineole, d-camphor, sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols (Husain et al, 1992). The novel sesquiterpenoids which have been isolated and characterised are cuzerenone, epi-cuzerenone, iso- furanogermerene, curcumadiol, curcumol, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, procurcumenol, dehydrocurdione (Hikino et al, 1968, 1971, 1972), germacrone-4, 5-epoxide, germacrone, germacrone furanodienone, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, curcumanolides A and B and curcumenone (Shiobara et al, 1985). The starch left after the extraction is purified and sold as a commodity of cottage industry in West-Bengal under the name ‘Shoti’ (Rao et al, 1928). Ethyl-p methoxy-cinnamate has been isolated from the alcoholic extract of the plant (Gupta et al, 1976). Rhizome is stomachic, diuretic, and carminative and gastrointestinal stimulant.Other important species of Curcuma genus areC. angustifolia Roxb. (Vellakoova)C. caesia Roxb. (Black ginger)C. leucorhiza Roxb.C. pseudomontana Grah.C. rubescens Roxb.Agrotechnology: Curcuma species are tropical herbs and can be grown on different types of soils both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Rich loamy soils having good drainage are ideal for the crop. The plant is propagated by whole or split mother rhizomes. Well developed, healthy and disease free rhizomes are to be selected. Rhizomes are to be treated with copper oxychloride fungicides and stored in cool, dry place or earthen pits plastered with mud and cowdung. The best season of planting is during April with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. The land is to be prepared to a fine tilth during February-March. On receipt of pre- monsoon showers in April, beds of size 3x1.2m with a spacing of 40cm between beds are to be prepared. Small pits are to be taken in the beds in rows with a spacing of 25-40cm.Finger rhizomes are to be planted flat with buds facing upwards and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle ma nure. The crop is to be mulched immediately after planting and 50 days after first mulching. Cattle manure or compost is to be applied as basal dose at 20-40t/ha at the time of land preparation or by spreading over the beds after planting. Application of NPK fertilizers is beneficial and found to increase the yield considerably. Weeding is to be done twice at 60 and 120 days after planting, depending upon weed intensity. Earthing up is to be done after 60 days. No major incidence of pest or disease is noticed in this crop. Leaf blotch and leaf spot can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Mancozeb. Shoot borers can be controlled by spraying 0.05% Dimethoate or 0.025% Quinalphos. Time of harvest usually extends from January-March. Harvesting is generally done at about 7-10 months after planting depending upon the species and variety. Harvested rhizomes are to be cleaned of mud and other materials adhering to them. Good fingers separated are to be used for curing (KAU, 1996).... curcuma
One of the NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) with analgesic properties, Ibuprofen is used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and other forms of rheumatism as well as headaches and muscular pains. It can cause gastric irritation and bleeding in susceptible individuals if used regularly.... ibuprofen
Commiphora mukulBurseraceaeSan: Gugulu, Mahisaksah, Koushikaha, DevadhupaHin: Gugal Mal:Gulgulu Tam,Tel: GukkuluKan: GuggulBen: GuggulImportance: Indian bdellium is a small, armed, deciduous tree from the bark of which gets an aromatic gum resin, the ‘Guggul’ of commerce. It is a versatile indigenous drug claimed by ayurvedists to be highly effective in the treatment of rheumatism, obesity, neurological and urinary disorders, tonsillitis, arthritis and a few other diseases. The fumes from burning guggul are recommended in hay- fever, chronic bronchitis and phytises.The price of guggulu gum has increased ten fold in ten years or so, indicating the increase in its use as well as decrease in natural plant stand. It has been listed as a threatened plant by Botanical Survey of India (Dalal, 1995) and is included in the Red Data Book (IUCN) and over exploited species in the country (Billare,1989).Distribution: The center of origin of Commiphora spp. is believed to be Africa and Asia. It is a widely adapted plant well distributed in arid regions of Africa (Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia in north east and Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zaire in south west Africa), Arabian peninsula (Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Oman). Different species of Commiphora are distributed in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka states of India and Sind and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan (Tajuddin et al, 1994). In India, the main commercial source of gum guggul is Rajasthan and Gujarat.Botany: The genus Commiphora of family Burseraceae comprises about 185 species. Most of them occur in Africa, Saudi Arabia and adjoining countries. In India only four species have been reported. They are C. mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. syn. Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks), C. wightii (Arnott) Bhandari, C.stocksiana Engl., C. berryi and C.agallocha Engl.In early studies about the flora of India, the ‘guggul’ plant was known as Commiphora mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. or Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks). It was renamed as C. roxburghii by Santapau in 1962. According to Bhandari the correct Latin name of the species is C. wightii(Arnott) Bhandari, since the specific name ‘wightii’ was published in 1839, prior to ‘roxburghi’ in 1848 (Dalal and Patel, 1995).C. mukul is a small tree upto 3-4m height with spinescent branching. Stem is brownish or pale yellow with ash colored bark peeling off in flakes. Young parts are glandular and pubescent. Leaves are alternate, 1-3 foliate, obovate, leathery and serrate (sometimes only towards the apex). Lateral leaflets when present only less than half the size of the terminal ones. Flowers small, brownish red, with short pedicel seen in fascicles of 2-3. Calyx campanulate, glandular, hairy and 4-5 lobed. Corolla with brownish red, broadly linear petals reflexed at apex. Stamens 8-10, alternatively long and short. Ovary oblong, ovoid and stigma bifid. Fruit is a drupe and red when ripe, ovate in shape with 2-3 celled stones. The chromosome number 2n= 26 (Warrier et al, 1994; Tajuddin et al, 1994).Agrotechnology: Guggal being a plant of arid zone thrives well in arid- subtropical to tropical climate.The rainfall may average between 100mm and 500mm while air temperature may vary between 40 C in summer and 3 C during winter. Maximum relative humidity prevails during rainy season (83% in the morning and 48% in the evening).Wind velocity remains between 20-25 km/hour during the year is good. Though they prefer hard gypseous soil, they are found over sandy to silt loam soils, poor in organic matter but rich in several other minerals in arid tracks of western India (Tajuddin et al, 1994).Plants are propagated both by vegetatively and seeds. Plants are best raised from stem cuttings from the semi woody (old) branch. For this purpose one metre long woody stem of 10mm thickness is selected and the cut end is treated with IBA or NAA and planted in a well manured nursery bed during June-July months; the beds should be given light irrigation periodically. The cuttings initiate sprouting in 10-15 days and grow into good green sprout in 10-12 months. These rooted plants are suitable for planting in the fields during the next rainy season. The cuttings give 80-94% sprouting usually. Air layering has also been successfully attempted and protocol for meristem culture is available in literature. Seed germination is very poor (5%) but seedling produce healthier plants which withstand high velocity winds.The rooted cuttings are planted in a well laid-out fields during rainy season. Pits of size 0.5m cube are dug out at 3-4 m spacing in rows and given FYM and filler soil of the pit is treated with BHC (10%) or aldrin (5%) to protect the new plants from white ants damage. Fertilizer trials have shown little response except due to low level of N fertilization. Removal of side branches and low level of irrigation supports a good growth of these plants. The plantation does not require much weeding and hoeing. But the soil around the bushes be pulverised twice in a year to increase their growth and given urea or ammonium sulphate at 25- 50g per bush at a time and irrigated. Dalal et al (1989) reported that cercospora leaf spot was noticed on all the cultures. Bacterial leaf blight was also noticed to attack the cultures. A leaf eating caterpillar (Euproctis lanata Walker) attack guggal, though not seriously. White fly (Bemisia tabaci) is observed to suck sap of leaves and such leaves become yellowish and eventually drop. These can be effectively controlled by using suitable insecticide.Stem or branch having maximum diameter of about 5cm at place of incision, irrespective of age is tapped. The necrotic patch on the bark is peeled off with a sharp knife and Bordeaux paste is applied to the exposed (peeled off) surface of the stem or branch. A prick chisel of about 3cm width is used to make bark- deep incisions and while incising the bark, the chisel is held at an acute angle so that scooped suspension present on the body of the chisel flows towards the blade of the chisel and a small quantity of suspension flows inside the incised bark. If tapping is successful, gum exudation ensures after about 15-20 days from the date of incision and continues for nearly 30-45 days. The exuded gum slides down the stem or branch, and eventually drops on the ground and gets soiled. A piece of polythene sheet can be pouched around the place of incision to collect gum. Alternatively, a polythene sheet can be spread on the ground to collect exuded gum. A maximum of about 500g of gum has been obtained from a plant (Dalal, 1995).Post harvest technology: The best grade of guggul is collected from thick branches of tree. These lumps of guggul are translucent. Second grade guggul is usually mixed with bark, sand and is dull coloured guggul. Third grade guggul is usually collected from the ground which is mixed with sand, stones and other foreign matter. The final grading is done after getting cleansed material. Inferior grades are improved by sprinkling castor oil over the heaps of the guggul which impart it a shining appearance (Tajuddin et al, 1994).Properties and activity: The gum resin contains guggul sterons Z and E, guggul sterols I-V, two diterpenoids- a terpene hydrocarbon named cembreneA and a diterpene alcohol- mukulol, -camphrone and cembrene, long chain aliphatic tetrols- octadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol, eicosan-1,2,3,4-tetrol and nonadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol. Major components from essential oil of gum resin are myrcene and dimyrcene. Plant without leaves, flowers and fruits contains myricyl alcohol, -sitosterol and fifteen aminoacids. Flowers contain quercetin and its glycosides as major flavonoid components, other constituents being ellagic acid and pelargonidin glucoside (Patil et al, 1972; Purushothaman and Chandrasekharan, 1976).The gum resin is bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, aromatic, expectorant, digestive, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, antiseptic, demulcent, carminative, emmenagogue, haematinic, diuretic, lithontriptic, rejuvenating and general tonic. Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic (Husain et al, 1992; Warrier et al, 1994).... indian bdellium
Aegle marmelosRutaceaeSan: Bilva, Sriphal Hin, Ben, Ass: Bael Mal: KoovalamTam: Vilvam Mar,Ben: BaelaTel: Marendu, BilvaponduGuj: BilviphalKan: BilvapatraImportance: Bael or Bengal quince is a deciduous sacred tree, associated with Gods having useful medicinal properties, especially as a cooling agent. This tree is popular in ‘Shiva’ and ‘Vishnu’ temples and it can be grown in every house. Its leaves are trifoliate symbolizing the ‘Thrimurthies’-Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, with spear shaped leaflets resembling “Thrisoolam” the weapon of Lord Shiva. Many legends, stories and myths are associated with this tree. The leaflets are given to devotees as ‘prasadam’ in Shiva temples and as ‘Tulasi’ in Vishnu temples.Every part of the tree is medicinal and useful. The roots are used in many Ayurvedic medicines for curing diabetes and leprosy. It is an ingredient of the ‘dasamoola’. The Bark is used to cure intestinal disorders. Leaves contain an alkaloid rutacin which is hypoglycaemic.‘Two leaves before breakfast’ is said to keep diabetes under control. Leaves and fruits are useful in controlling diarrhoea and dysentery. Fruit pulp is used as ‘shampoo’ and cooling agent. It is also a rich source of carbohydrate, protein, fat, fibre, minerals and vitamin B and C. Fruit pulp is used to cure mouth ulcers as it is the richest natural source of riboflavin (1191 units/ 100 g). ‘Bael sharbat’ is prepared by mixing the fruit pulp with sugar, water and tamarind juice, which is very useful for stomach and intestinal disorders. The rind of the fruit is used for dyeing and tanning. The aromatic wood is used to make pestles in oil and sugar mills and also to make agricultural implements (Rajarajan, 1997).Distribution: Bael tree is native to India and is found growing wild in Sub-Himalayan tracts from Jhelum eastwards to West Bengal, in central and south India. It is grown all over the country, especially in the premises of temples and houses.Botany: Aegle marmelos (Linn.) Corr.ex Roxb. belongs to the citrus family Rutaceae. The golden coloured bael fruit resembles a golden apple and hence the generic name Aegle. The specific name marmelos is derived from marmelosin contained in the fruit (Nair, 1997). Aegle marmelos is a medium sized armed deciduous tree growing upto 8m in height with straight sharp axillary thorns and yellowish brown shallowly furrowed corky bark. Leaves are alternate, trifoliate and aromatic; leaflets ovate or ovate-lanceolate, crenate, pellucid- punctate, the laterals subsessile and the terminal long petioled. Flowers are greenish-white, sweet scented, borne on axillary panicles. Fruit is globose, woody berry with golden yellow rind when ripe. Seeds are numerous oblong, compressed and embedded in the orange brown sweet gummy pulp.Agrotechnology: Bael comes up well in humid tropical and subtropical climate. It grows on a wide range of soils from sandy loam to clay loam. North Indian varieties are preferred to South Indian types for large scale cultivation. Twelve varieties are cultivated in North India for their fruits. Kacha, Ettawa, Seven Large, Mirsapuri and Deo Reo Large are varieties meant specially for ‘Sharbat’. The plant is propagated mainly by seeds and rarely by root cuttings. Seeds are freshly extracted from ripe fruits after removing the pulp and then dried in sun. Seeds are soaked in water for 6 hours and sown on seed beds which are covered with rotten straw and irrigated regularly. Seeds germinate within 15-20 days. One month old seedlings can be transplanted into polybags which can be planted in the field after 2 months. Budded or grafted plants as well as new saplings arising from injured roots can also be used for planting. Grafted plants start yielding from the 4th year while the trees raised from seeds bear fruits after 7-10 years. Planting is done in the main field with onset of monsoon in June-July at a spacing of 6-8m. Pits of size 50cm3 are dug. Pits are filled with a mixture of top soil and 10kg of well decomposed FYM and formed into a heap. Seedlings are transplanted in the middle of the heap and mulched. Chemical fertilisers are not usually applied. The dose of organic manure is increased every year till 50kg/tree of 5 years or more. Regular irrigation and weeding are required during early stages of growth. No serious pests and diseases are noted in the crop. Bael tree flowers during April. The flowers are aromatic with pleasant and heavenly odour. The fruits are set and slowly develop into mature fruits. Fruits are seen from October-March. A single tree bears 200-400 fruits each weighing 1-2 kg. Roots can be collected from mature trees of age 10 years or more. Tree is cut down about 1m from the ground. The underground roots are carefully dug out. Roots with the attached wood is then marketed (Rajarajan,1997).Properties and activity: Bael is reported to contain a number of coumarins, alkaloids, sterols and essential oils. Roots and fruits contain coumarins such as scoparone, scopoletin, umbelliferone, marmesin and skimmin. Fruits, in addition, contain xanthotoxol, imperatorin and alloimperatorin and alkaloids like aegeline and marmeline identified as N-2-hydroxy-2- 4 - (3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide. - sitosterol and its glycoside are also present in the fruits. Roots and stem barks contain a coumarin - aegelinol. Roots also contain psoralen, xanthotoxin, 6,7-dimethoxy coumarin, tembamide, mermin and skimmianine. Leaves contain the alkaloids - O-(3,3-dimethyl allyl)-halfordinol, N-2-ethoxy-2 (4-methoxy phenyl) ethyl cinnamide, N-2-methoxy-2-(4-3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide, N- 2-4-(3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide, N-2-hydroxy-2- 4-(3’,3’-dimethyl allyloxy) phenyl ethyl cinnamide, N-4-methoxy steryl cinnamide and N-2-hydroxy-2-(4- hydroxy phenyl) ethyl cinnamide. Mermesinin, rutin and -sitosterol - -D-glucoside are also present in the leaves (Husain et al, 1992).Root, bark, leaves and fruits are hypoglycaemic, astringent and febrifuge. Root, stem and bark are antidiarrhoeal and antivenin. Leaf is antiinflammatory, expectorant, anticatarrhal, antiasthamatic, antiulcerous and ophthalmic. Flower is emetic. Unripe fruit is stomachic and demulcent. Ripe fruit is antigonorrhoeal, cardiotonic, restorative, laxative, antitubercular, antidysenteric and antiscorbutic. Seed is anthelmintic and antimicrobial (Warrier et al, 1993).... bael
An autoimmune (rheumatoid factor) inflammation of the iris. This is a face of rheumatoid arthritis seldom diagnosed, along with rheumatoid otitis. Although antiinflammatory drugs may be necessary, I would recommend starting off with simple things like Arctium, Rumex crispus and Taraxacum, along with alkalizing teas such as Nettles, Red Clover and Alfalfa (oops...I mean Urtica, Trifolium and Medicago). If they don’t help enough you can STILL take the drugs.... iritis, rheumatoid
Bacopa monnieriScrophulariaceaeSan: Brahmi, Sarasvati;Hin: Barami, Jalnim;Ben: Boihim-sak;Mal: Brahmi , Nirbrahmi;Tam: Nirpirami, Piramiyapundu; Kan, Mar: NirbrahmiImportance: Brahmi or Thyme leaved gratiola is an important drug in Ayurveda for the improvement of intelligence and memory and revitalisation of sense organs. It clears voice and improves digestion. It is suggested against dermatosis, anaemia, diabetes, cough, dropsy, fever, arthritis, anorexia, dyspepsia, emaciation, and insanity. It dispels poisonous affections, splenic disorders and impurity of blood. It is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, biliousness, neuralgia, ascites, flatulence, leprosy, leucoderma, syphilis, sterility and general debility. The whole plant is used in a variety of preparations like Brahmighrtam, Sarasvataristam., Brahmitailam, Misrakasneham, etc. In unani Majun Brahmi is considered as a brain tonic.Distribution: The plant grows wild on damp places and marshy lands in the major part of the plains of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and other tropical countries.Botany: Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell. syn. Monniera cuneifolia Michx., Herpestis monniera (Linn.) H.B. & K. belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae. It is a prostrate, juicy, succulent, glabrous annual herb rooting at the nodes with numerous ascending branches. Leaves are simple, opposite, decussate, sessile, obovate-oblong or spatulate, entire, fleshy, obscurely veined and punctate. Flowers are pale blue or whitish, axillary, solitary, arranged on long slender pedicels. Fruits are ovoid, acute, 2-celled, 2-valved capsules and tipped with style base. Seeds are minute and numerous (Warrier et al, 1993).Agrotechnology: The plant grows throughout the warm humid tropics upto 1200m elevation. Brahmi gets established well in water logged fields. The plant is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings. Land is prepared by ploughing 2 or 3 times. Two to three tonnes/ha of cowdung or compost is applied and the field is again ploughed and levelled. Stem cuttings, 10cm long are spread at a spacing of 20cm. Waterlogging to height of 30cm is always required. Rooting may start within 15-20 days. It will spread over the field within 6 months. Regular application of organic manure will take care of the manurial requirement. Weeding once in a month is required. Care should be taken to maintain water level at a height of 30cm during the growth period. No serious pests or diseases are noted in this crop. Harvesting commences from sixth months onwards. Brahmi leaves can be collected once a month. After 3 years, the whole crop is harvested and removed. Fresh cultivation can be carried out in the same field.Properties and activity: Earlier workers have reported the isolation of the alkaloids brahmine and hespestine and a mixture of 3 alkaloids from the leaves. Mannitol and saponins were reported later. Subsequent work described isolation of some C27, C29, and C31 hydrocarbons and betulic acid from this plant material. A systematic examination has resulted in the isolation and identification of two saponins designated as bacosides A and B. Bacoside A has chemical structure represented as 3-(-L-arabinopyranosyl)-O- - D-glucopyranoside-10, 20-dihydroxy-16-ketodammar-24-ene. The mixture of bacosides A and B on hydrolysis give four sapogenins, glucose and arabinose. The constitution of bacogenin A, has been established as 3 -30-dihydroxy-20(5)-25-epoxy-22-methyl-24-nor-dammar-22-en-16-one. Bacogenin A2 has been shown to be an isomer of bacogenin A, differing in configuration at C-20. Bacogenin A4 has been identified as ebelin lactone.The plant is reported to have shown barbiturate hypnosis potentiation effect. The plant is anticancerous and improves learning ability. It is used as a tranquilliser. The plant is astringent, bitter, sweet, cooling, laxative, intellect promoting, anodyne, carminative, digestive, antiinflammatory, anticonvulsant, depurative, cardiotonic, bronchodialator, diuretic, emmenagogue, sudorfic, febrifuge and tonic (Basu et al, 1947; Rastogi et al 1960).... brahmi
Also known as jumper’s knee. In?ammation of the tendon of the extensor muscle of the thigh, in which the PATELLA or knee-cap is secured. Usually the result of injury or excessive use or stress – for example, in athletic training – symptoms include pain, tenderness and sometimes restricted movement of the parent muscle. Treatment may include NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS), ULTRASOUND treatment and PHYSIOTHERAPY, and, if persistent, injection of a corticosteroid drug (see CORTICOSTEROIDS) around the tendon.... patellar tendinitis
Acacia catechuMimosaceaeSan:Khadirah;Hin:Khair, Khaira;Ben: Kuth;Mal: Karingali;Tam: Karunkali;Tel: Sandra, Khandiramu;Kan: KaggaliImportance: Catechu is a medium deciduous tree commonly used as a blood purifier and for leoprosy and leucoderma. Catechu or Cutch tree bark is useful in melancholia, conjunctivitis and haemoptysis. It is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, catarrh, cough, pruritus, leprosy, leucoderma, skin diseases, helminthiasis, anorexia, diarrhoea, dysentery, foul ulcers and wounds, haemoptysis, haematemesis, haemorrhages, intermittent fever, inflammations, odontopathy, anaemia, diabetes, splenomegaly and pharyngodyna. The gummy extract of the wood (kath) is useful in laryngopathy, flatulence, anorexia, ulcers, wounds, helminthiasis, leucoderma, leoprosy, skin diseases, urorrhea, colporrhagia, erysipelas and odontopathy. For leprosy, root, leaf, flower, bark and fruits are made into a decoction which is given orally as well as for external dressing. In Unani system it is used in “Marham Kharish Jadid” for skin diseases. “Khadirarisht” is an oral medicine, while “Marham” is for external application.Distribution:It is widely distributed in tropical countries. In India, it is observed from the Indus eastwards to Assam and throughout Peninsular India.Botany: The genus Acacia belonging to the family Mimosaceae consists of a number of species. The important ones are listed as below:A. catechu Willd. A. caesia Willd. A. arabica Willd. A. concinna DC.A. farnesiana Willd.A. ferruginea DC.A. instia W. & A. syn. A. caesia Willd.A. jacquemontii Benth. A. leucophloea Willd. A. modesta Wall.A. pinnata (Linn.) Willd.A. pycnantha Benth.A. senegal Willd.A. suma Buch-Ham. syn. A. suma Kurz.A. catechu is a moderate sized deciduous tree, 9-12m in height with dark greyish or brown rough bark and hooked short spines. Leaves are bipinnately compound, leaflets 30-50 pairs, main rachis pubescent with a large conspicuous gland near the middle of the rachis. Flowers are pale yellow, sessile in peduncled axiallary spikes. Fruits are flat brown pods, shiny and with a triangular beak at the apex and narrowed at the base. Seeds are 3-10 per pod.The gummy extract of the wood is commercially known as ‘ Kath’ or ‘Cutch’. The cutch available in the market is brittle, of different shapes and dark brown in colour. On breaking, it is found to be shiny and form crystal like pieces (Warrier et al, 1993).Agrotechnology: Catechu is suited to hilly areas and rocky places. The plant is propagated by seeds.Seeds are soaked in water for 6 hours and sown in seedbeds. Seeds germinate within a month. At four-leaf stage, seedlings are planted in polybags. Two months old seedlings from the polybags are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are taken at a distance of 4-5m between plants and filled with topsoil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio. Seedlings are planted in these pits. Application of organic manure every year during the rainy season is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be carried out. Pruning of branches and tender shoots developing from the base of the plant can be done from second year onwards. Tree is to be grown as single stemmed one. Flowering and fruiting commences from fourth year onwards. At the end of tenth year, the tree can be cut and heartwood collected (Prasad et al, 1997).Properties and Activity: Heartwood contains kaempferol, dihydro kaempferol, taxifolin, iso rhamnetin(+)- afzelchin, a dimeric procyanidin, quercetin, (-)epi-catechin, (-)catechin, fisetin, quercetagetin and (+)-cyanidanol. The main constituent of heartwood is catechin and catechu tannic acid. Catechin is a mixture of at least four isomers and L(-)epicatechin has been isolated and characterised (Rao et al,1948; Husain et al,1992).The bark is anthelmintic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory and antileprotic. The flowers are antigonorrhoeic. The cutch from wood is anthelmintic, tonic and aphrodisiac. Bark and cutch are antidiarrhoeal, astringent and stomachic. Cyanidanol is hepatoprotective. The wood is hypoglycaemic, antiinflammatory and hypotensive. The stem is spasmolytic and antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).... catechu
Cinchona spp.RubiaceaeSan: Cinchona, KunayanahHin: Kunain Mal: Cinchona, QuoinaTam: CinchonaImportance: Cinchona, known as Quinine, Peruvian or Crown bark tree is famous for the antimalarial drug ‘quinine’ obtained from the bark of the plant. The term cinchona is believed to be derived from the countess of cinchon who was cured of malaria by treating with the bark of the plant in 1638. Cinchona bark has been valued as a febrifuge by the Indians of south and central America for a long time. Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from the plant; the most important among them being quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. These alkaloids exist mainly as salts of quinic, quinovic and cinchotannic acids. The cultivated bark contains 7-10% total alkaloids of which about 70% is quinine. Similarly 60% of the total alkaloids of root bark is quinine. Quinine is isolated from the total alkaloids of the bark as quinine sulphate. Commercial preparations contain cinchonidine and dihydroquinine. They are useful for the treatment of malarial fever, pneumonia, influenza, cold, whooping couphs, septicaemia, typhoid, amoebic dysentery, pin worms, lumbago, sciatica, intercostal neuralgia, bronchial neuritis and internal hemorrhoids. They are also used as anesthetic and contraceptive. Besides, they are used in insecticide compositions for the preservation of fur, feathers, wool, felts and textiles. Over doses of these alkaloids may lead to deafness, blindness, weakness, paralysis and finally collapse, either comatose or deleterious. Quinidine sulphate is cardiac depressant and is used for curing arterial fibrillation.Distribution: Cinchona is native to tropical South America. It is grown in Bolivia, Peru, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Columbia, Indonesia, Tanzania, Kenya, Zaire and Sri Lanka. It was introduced in 1808 in Guatemala,1860 in India, 1918 in Uganda, 1927 in Philippines and in 1942 in Costa Rica. Roy Markham introduced the plant to India. The first plantation was raised in Nilgiris and later on in Darjeeling of West Bengal. The value of the tree was learnt by Jessuit priests who introduced the bark to Europe. It first appeared in London pharmacopoeia in 1677 (Husain, 1993).Botany: The quinine plant belongs to the family Rubiaceae and genus Cinchona which comprises over 40 species. Among these a dozen are medicinally important. The commonly cultivated species are C. calisaya Wedd., C. ledgeriana Moens, C. officinalis Linn., C. succirubra Pav. ex Kl., C. lancifolia and C. pubescens. Cinchona species have the chromosome number 2n=68. C. officinalis Linn. is most common in India. It is an evergreen tree reaching a height of 10-15m. Leaves are opposite, elliptical, ovate- lanceolate, entire and glabrous. Flowers are reddish-brown in short cymbiform, compound cymes, terminal and axillary; calyx tubular, 5-toothed, obconical, subtomentose, sub-campanulate, acute, triangular, dentate, hairy; corolla tube 5 lobed, densely silky with white depressed hairs, slightly pentagonal; stamens 5; style round, stigma submersed. Fruit is capsule ovoid-oblong; seeds elliptic, winged margin octraceous, crinulate-dentate (Biswas and Chopra, 1982).Agrotechnology: The plant widely grows in tropical regions having an average minimum temperature of 14 C. Mountain slopes in the humid tropical areas with well distributed annual rainfall of 1500-1950mm are ideal for its cultivation. Well drained virgin and fertile forest soils with pH 4.5-6.5 are best suited for its growth. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Cinchona is propagated through seeds and vegetative means. Most of the commercial plantations are raised by seeds. Vegetative techniques such as grafting, budding and softwood cuttings are employed in countries like India, Sri Lanka, Java and Guatemala. Cinchona succirubra is commonly used as root stock in the case of grafting and budding. Hormonal treatment induces better rooting. Seedlings are first raised in nursery under shade. Raised seedbeds of convenient size are prepared, well decomposed compost or manure is applied , seeds are broadcasted uniformly at 2g/m2, covered with a thin layer of sand and irrigated. Seeds germinate in 10-20 days. Seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags after 3 months. These can be transplanted into the field after 1 year at 1-2m spacing. Trees are thinned after third year for extracting bark , leaving 50% of the trees at the end of the fifth year. The crop is damaged by a number of fungal diseases like damping of caused by Rhizoctoria solani, tip blight by Phytophthora parasatica, collar rot by Sclerotiun rolfsii, root rot by Phytophthora cinnamomi, Armillaria mellea and Pythium vexans. Field sanitation, seed treatment with organo mercurial fungicide, burning of infected plant parts and spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture are recommended for the control of the diseases (Crandall, 1954). Harvesting can be done in one or two phases. In one case, the complete tree is uprooted, after 8-10 years when the alkaloid yield is maximum. In another case, the tree is cut about 30cm from the ground for bark after 6-7 years so that fresh sprouts come up from the stem to yield a second crop which is harvested with the under ground roots after 6-7 years. Both the stem and root are cut into convenient pieces, bark is separated, dried in shade, graded, packed and traded. Bark yield is 9000-16000kg/ha (Husain, 1993).Properties and activity: Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from Cinchona bark, the most important among them are quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, cinchophyllamine and idocinchophyllamine. There is considerable variation in alkaloid content ranging from 4% to 20%. However, 6-8% yield is obtained from commercial plantations. The non alkaloidal constituents present in the bark are bitter glycosides, -quinovin, cinchofulvic, cinchotannic and quinic acids, a bitter essential oil possessing the odour of the bark and a red coloring matter. The seed contains 6.13% fixed oil. Quinine and its derivatives are bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, febrifuge, oxytocic, anodyne, anti-bacterial, anthelmintic, digestive, depurative, constipating, anti pyretic, cardiotonic, antiinflammatory, expectorant and calcifacient (Warrier et al, 1994; Bhakuni and Jain, 1995).... cinchona
A condition probably caused by an immunological response to a virus (see IMMUNITY), in which the patient has URETHRITIS, ARTHRITIS and conjunctivitis (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF). The skin may also be affected by horny areas which develop in it. The disorder was ?rst described by a German physician, H. Reiter (1881–1969); it is more common in men than in women, and is the most common cause of arthritis in young men. It usually develops in people who have a genetic predisposition for it: around 80 per cent of sufferers have the HLA B27 tissue type. Treatment is symptomatic with ANALGESICS and NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS). (See also REACTIVE ARTHRITIS.)... reiter’s syndrome
Solanum spp.SolanaceaeSolanums comprise a very important group of medicinal plants having multifarious uses.These plants belong to the family Solanaceae and genus Solanum. A number of species are reported to be medicinal which are briefly described below.1. S. anguivi Lam. syn. S. indicum auct. non Linn.Eng: Poison berry; San: Brhati, Simhi;Hin: Barhauta, Birhatta;Mal: Puthirichunda, Cheruchunda;Tam: Karimulli, Puthirichundai;Kan: Ramagulla;Tel: Cittimulaga, Tellamulaka It is found throughout the tropics, in plains and at low elevations. It is much branched, very prickly undershrub, 0.3-1.5m in height. Leaves are simple, large, ovate, subentire, sinuate or lobed. Flowers are blue in extra-axillary cymes having stellately hairy and prickly peduncles. Fruits are globose berries, reddish or dark yellow with smooth or minutely pitted seeds. Its roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, odontalgia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, verminosis, diarrhoea, pruritus, leprosy, skin diseases, strangury, cough, asthma, bronchitis, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, fever, cardiac disorders and vomiting. Roots bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, anodyne, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, stomachic, constipating, resolvent, demulcent, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, febrifuge and cardiotonic.2. S. dulcamara Linn.Eng: Bittersweet, Bitter night shade; San: Kakmachi; Pun: Rubabarik It is found in tropical situations in India and Sikkim. The plant is rich in alkaloidal glycosides like solamarine, tomatidenol, solasodine and soladulcine. The berry and twig are alterative, antisyphilitic, diaphoretic, resolvent, narcotic, diuretic, antirheumatic and used in liver disorders and psoriasis.3. S. erianthum D. Don, syn. S. verbascifolium auct. non Linn.San: Vidari;Hin: Asheta;Mal: Malachunda;Tam: Malaichundai, AnaisundaikkaiPun: Kalamena;Tel: RasagadiThe plant is distributed over the tropical and subtropical zones of India. The plant contains alkaloids and steroidal sapogenins. Leaves and fruits contain solasodine, solasodiene, solafloridine, diosgenin, vespertilin and pregnenolone. The plant is CNS depressant, antiinflammatory and useful in burns.4. S. melongena Linn.Eng: Brinjal, Egg plant; San: Varttaki;Hin: Bengan, Badanjan;Mal: VazhuthinaTam: Kattirikkai;Kan: Badanekaya, Doddabadane;Tel: Vankaya, NiruvangaIt is mainly cultivated as a vegetable throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is an erect or suffrutescent, herbaceous, armed or unarmed perennial shrub. Leaves are simple, large, entire and lobed. Flowers are blue, in clusters of 2-5. Fruits are large, white, yellow or dark purple berries of different shapes capped with thick persistent calyx. Seeds are many, yellow or cream and discoid. The roots, leaves and unripe fruits are useful in cholera, bronchitis, asthma, odontalgia and fever. The roots are laxative, analgesic and cardiotonic. Leaves are sialagogue, narcotic and antiherpetic. The unripe fruits are bitter, acrid, sweet, aphrodisiac, cardiotonic and haematinic.5. S. melongena var. incanum (Linn.) Prain syn. S. incanum Linn., S. coagulens Forsk.San: Brihati;Hin: Baigan;Mal: CheruvazhuthinaIt is a herbaceous prickly plant found in warm humid tropics. It is grown almost throughout the year in the plains and during summer on the hills. It grows 0.6-2m in height. Leaves are simple, alternate lobed. Flowers are blue or white, 5 lobed, calyx with spines. Fruits are ellipsoid berries. The plant is a constituent of the dasamoola which helps to overcome vitiated tridoshas and cures dyspepsia, fever, respiratory and cardiac disorders, skin ailments, vomiting, ulcers and poisonous affections. In Ayurveda the formulations like Brihatyadi Kashaya, dashamoolarishta, Indukantaghritam, Dasamoolaharithaki, etc are the important preparations with the roots. It is also used in the treatment of toothache and sore throat. The fruit is reported to stimulate the intrahepatic metabolism of cholesterol. Roots are antiasthmatic and stimulant. Leaves are used in cholera, bronchitis and asthma. Fruits are useful in liver complaints.6. S. nigrum Linn. syn. S. rubrum Mill.Eng: Black night shade; San: Kakamachi;Hin: Makoy, Gurkkamai;Mal: Karimthakkali;Tam: Manathakkali, Milagutakkali;Kan: Kakarndi;Tel: Kamachi, KachiIt is seen wild throughout India. It is an erect, divaricately branched, unarmed, suffrutescent annual herb. Leaves are ovate or oblong, sinuate-toothed or lobed and glabrous. Flowers are 3-8 in extra-axillary drooping subumbellate cymes. Fruits are purplish black or reddish berries. Seeds are many, discoid, yellow, minutely pitted. The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of tridosha, rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, strangury, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting, cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, haemarrhoids, nephropathy, dropsy and general debility. The plant is bitter, acrid, emollient, antiseptic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.7. S. spirale Roxb.
Hin: Munguskajur
It is seen wild in Assam and Khasi hills in India. Its root is diuretic and narcotic.8. S. stramoniifolium Jacq., syn. S. ferox auct. non Linn.San: Garbhada;Hin: Rambaigan;Mal: Anachunda;Tam: Anaichundai;Tel: MulakaIt is observed in India in the states of Assam, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Its berries contain glycoalkaloids such as solasonine and solasodine. Its roots and berries are bechic, antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, antiviral, anticancerous and spermicidal.9. S. surattense Burm. F. syn. S. xanthocarpum schrad. & Wendl., S. jacquinii Willd.Eng: Yellow-berried nightshade; San: Kantakari, Nidigdhika;Hin: Remgani,Kateli;Mal: Kantakarichunda;Tam: Kantankattiri;Kan: Nelagulli;Tel: CallamulagaIt is found throughout India and Pakistan in dry situations as weed on roadsides and wastelands. It is prickly, diffuse, bright green, suffrutescent, perennial undershrub, with zigzag branches. Leaves are ovate-oblong, hairy on both sides and armed on the midrib and the nerves. Flowers are bluish purple, in extra-axillary cymes. Fruits are glabrous, globular drooping berry, yellow or white with green veins, surrounded by the calyx. Seeds are many, small, reniform, smooth and yellowish brown.The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, helminthiasis, dental caries, inflammations, flatulence, constipation, dyspepsia, anorexia, leprosy, skin diseases, hypertension, fever, cough, asthma, bronchitis, hiccough, lumbago, haemorrhoids and epilepsy. The plant is bitter, acrid, thermogenic, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, carminative, appetiser, stomachic, depurative, sudorific, febrifuge, expectorant, laxative, stimulant, diuretic, rejuvenating, emmenagogue and aphrodisac. Fruits contain solasonine, solamargine and solasodine.10. S. torvum Sw.Eng: West Indian Turkey Berry;Hin,Ben: Titbaigan;Mal: Kattuchunda;Kan: Kadu Sunde;Tam: Sundaikai, Amarakai;Tel: Kundavustic, Kotuvestu; Ass: HathibhekuriIt is seen throughout tropical India, particularly in Orissa, Bihar and Manipur. The plant is CVS active and used in splenomegaly. Fruits and leaves contain solasonine, solasodine, jurubine, jurubidine, torvonin, torvogenin, chlorogenin, paniculogenin, sisalogenone, neosolaspigenin and solaspigenin.11. S. trilobatum Linn.Eng: Climbing Brinjal; San: Alarka;Mal: Tutavalam;Tam: Tuduvalai;Kan: Mullumusta;Tel: TelavusteIt is mostly seen in South and Western India. The plant contains alkamine and solamarine. The berry and flowers are bechic and used in bronchitis. The alkaloid solamarine is antibiotic and possesses antitumour activity.12. S. viarum Dunal, syn. S. Khasianum C. B. Clarke
Hin: Kantakari
It is widely distributed in Khasi, Jaintia and Naga hills of Assam and Manipur upto 2000m and in Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa and in the Niligiris. The plant and berries contain solasonine (which on hydrolysis yields solasodine), solamargine, khasianine, nantigenin, solasodine, diosgenin and saponin-solakhasianin. The plant is spasmolytic and CNS active. The berry is a source of solasodine used in the synthesis of corticosteroidal hormones.Agrotechnology: The agrotechnology for the solanaceous group of plants are almost similar. They come up very well in tropical and subtropical climate upto 2000m altitude. They can be raised on a variety of soils good in organic matter. Propagation is by seeds. The seedlings are first raised in the nursery and transplanted to the main field 30-45 days after sowing when the plants attain 8-10cm height. During rainy season, planting is done on ridges while during summer in furrows, at a spacing ranging from 30-90cm depending upon the stature and spreading habit of the plant. The transplanted seedlings should be given temporary shade for 2-4 days during summer. FYM or compost at 20-25t/ha is applied at the time of land preparation. A moderate fertiliser dose of 75:40:40 N, P2O5, K2O/ha may be given. P is given as basal dose, N and K are applied in 2-3 split doses. One or two intercultural operations are needed to control weeds. The plants need earthing up after weeding and topdressing. Irrigation is needed at 3-4 days interval during summer and on alternate days during fruiting period. Plants need staking to avoid lodging due to heavy bearing. Shoot borers, mealy bugs, leaf webbers and miners are noted on the crop, which can be controlled by spraying mild insecticides. Root knot nematode, wilting and mosaic diseases are also noted on the crop. Field sanitation, crop rotation and burning of crop residues are recommended.... solanums
Indigofera tinctoriaPapilionaceaeSan:Nilini, Ranjani, Nilika, Neelam, Aklika, Asita, Bhadra; Ben, Guj:Nil;Hin:Gouli;Mal: Neelamari;Tam: Averi;Tel: Aviri, Nili;Kan: Nili; Mar: Nali; Ori: NeliImportance: Common indigo or Indian indigo is a branching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Nili is a reputed drug produced from this plant which is used in ayurveda for the promotion of hair growth and it forms a major ingredient of preparations like nilibhringadi oil. This is the original source of natural indigo. Due to antitoxic property it is also a good remedy for poisons. According to Bhavaprakasa, nili is purgative in action, bitter, hot, cures giddiness, abdominal enlargement, vatarakta, gout and intestinal obstruction. The decoction or powder of the plant is used in whooping cough, bronchitis, palpitation of the heart, enlargement of the liver and spleen, dropsy, diseases of lungs and kidney, epilepsy and nervous disorders. A poultice of the leaves is recommended in skin diseases, piles, ulcer and haemorrhoids. A wine glass full juice of the leaves is administered in the morning with or without milk for three days to those who have been bitten by mad dogs. Root decoction is given in calculous diseases and used as an antidote to arsenic poisoning. The seed of the plant is powered and steeped in arrack or rum, yield a tincture, which is used to distroy lice. Indigo, the dye extracted from the leaves, is a soothing balm for burns and scalds, insect stings and animal bites. The synonyms visaghni and sodhani indicate the antitoxic and laxative properties of the drug nili, respectively (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1960).Distribution: This plant is distributed in South and South East Asia, tropical Africa and is introduced in tropical America. In India, it is found almost throughout and cultivated in many parts.Botany: Indigofera tinctoria Linn. syn. I. summatrana Gaertn, Pigmentum indicum belongs to Papilionaceae family. This is a branching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Stems and branches are green; branchlets silvery pubescent. Leaves are alternate, stipulate, imparipinnate and got 7-13 leaflets which are elliptic-oblong, membraneous,1.7x0.9cm, shortly mucronate, pale green or bluish. Flowers are small, rose-coloured in axillary racemes. Calyx 5-cleft, gamosepalous; corolla papilionaceous; stamens diadelphous; ovary sessile with a short incurved style ending in a capitate stigma. Pods are linear, cylindrical, 2-5cm long, deflexed having 8-12 seeds.Agrotechnology: The Indian indigo requires good sunlight and grows well in hilly areas. This is usually propagated by seeds. Seeds are very small and the seed rate is 3kg/ha. Seeds require pretreatment for good germination as the seed coat is hard. Seeds are mixed with sand and ground gently to break the seed coat. An alternate method for enhancing germination is dipping the seeds in boiling water for a second. After pretreatment seeds are broadcasted. Broadcast the seeds preferably mixed with sand 2 or 3 times its volume to ensure uniform coverage. The seedbeds should be covered with straw and irrigated. Seeds germinate within 15 days. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month. For the land preparation, the soil is brought to fine tilth by ploughing 2 or 3 time s. Cattle manure should be applied at the rate of 10t/ha as basal dressing and incorporated into soil along with last ploughing. The best time for sowing is September-October. Weeding has to be done two times; 3 weeks after sowing and 6 weeks after sowing. Plants start flowering 2-3 months after sowing. Harvesting is done by cutting the plants at this time, at a height of about 10cm from ground level. Irrigate plants after harvest. Subsequent harvests can be made at 1.5-2 months interval. Four to five cuttings can be taken in an year depending on the growth. A few plants per plot are left without cutting to set seeds. Ripe pods are to be harvested in the early morning to prevent loss of seeds by shattering during harvest.Properties and activity: A blue dyestuff is obtained from the indigofera which does not exist ready formed, but is produced during fermentation from another agent existing in the plant, known as indocan. Indocan is yellow amorphous of a nauseous bitter taste with an acid reaction, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. An artificial product indigotine is manufactured chemically and used as a substitute. Indirubin is another component of the plant.The plant is deobstruent, alterative, antitoxic, antiasthmatic and antiepileptic. Aerial part is hypoglycaemic, CNS depressant and antitoxic. The leaves, flowers and tender shoots are considered to be cooling, demulcent and alterative. Leaf is antiinflammatory. Root and stem is laxative, expectorant, antitumourous, febrifuge, anticephalalgic, antidote for snake bite, anthelmintic and promotes growth of hair. Root is divertic. Indirubin is antineoplastic and has toxicity. Nili is antitoxic, purgative and laxative. Indigo is said to produce nausea and vomiting.... common indigo
In?ammation of the membrane lining a joint (see JOINTS). It is usually painful and accompanied by e?usion of ?uid within the synovial sac of the joint. It is found in RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS, various injuries and in?ammations of joints, and in the chronic form in TUBERCULOSIS. Treatment of synovitis is with rest, splinting, ANALGESICS and NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS). Infection should be treated with ANTIBIOTICS. If the joint fails to respond, surgery (SYNOVECTOMY) may be needed. (See also JOINTS, DISEASES OF.)... synovitis
Terminalia spp.CombretaceaeThe genus Terminalia includes a large group of medicinally valuable trees. They belong to the family Combretaceae.The most important medicinal species of the genus Terminalia are the following.1) T. arjuna (Roxb.ex DC) Wight & Arn.San: Arjunah, Kakubhah;Hin: Arjun, Kahu, Kahua;Mal: Marutu, Nirmarutu, Venmarutu, Attumarutu, Pulamatti;Tam: Attumarutu, Nirmarutu, Vellaimarutu, Marutu;Kan: Maddi.It is a large evergreen tree commonly found in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Peninsular and India. It has buttressed trunk and spreading crown with drooping branches. Bark is smooth, grey outside and flesh coloured inside, flaking off in large flat pieces. Leaves are simple, sub-opposite, oblong or elliptic, coriaceous, crenulate, pale dull green above, pale brown beneath, often unequal sided, nerves 10-15 pairs and reticulate. Flowers are white, arranged in panicles of spikes with linear bracteoles. Fruits are ovoid or oblong with 5-7 short, hard angles or wings, the lines on the wings oblique and curving upward (Warrier et al 1996).The bark is useful in fractures, ulcers, urethrorrhoea, leucorrhoea, diabetes, vitiated conditions of pitta, anaemia, cardiopathy, fatigue, asthma, bronchitis, tumours, internal and external haemorrhages, cirrhosis of the lever and hypertension. It is used in fractures and the powdered bark is taken with milk. The bark powder is diuretic and has a general tonic effect in cases of cirrhosis of liver. The bark has been considered by the ayurvedic physicians as well as by modern practitioners as a cardiac tonic. It is given as a decoction with milk (NRF, 1998). In Ayurveda, “Arjunaghrita” and “Arjunarishta” are two important cardiotonic preparations of this drug.Fruits contain flavanones - arjunone and 5,7,2’, 4’ - tetramethoxy flavone and a chalcone - cerasidin. Other constituents are -sitosterol, friedelin, methyloleanolate, gallic acid, ellagic acid and arjunic acid. Bark gave a triterpene arjungenin, triterpene glucosides I, II and III. Stem bark gave flavones - baicalein and arjunolone characterised as 6,4’ - dihydraxy - 7-methoxy flavone. Stem bark yields oxalic acid and tannins besides complex glycosides (Bhatra et al, 1980). Bark is alexertic, styptic, antidysenteric, astringent, antiasthmatic, febrifuge, expectorant, cardiotonic aphrodisiac and diuretic. Fruit is deobstruent. Stem-bark is CVS and CNS active, diuretic and abortifacient. Aerial part is CNS depressant and semen coagulant.2) T. alata Heyne ex Roth. Syn. T. tomentosa (Roxb. Ex. Dc.) W & A.San: Dharaphala, Saradru, Sajada;Hin. Ain;Ben: Asan, Paishal;Mal: Tehmbara;Tam: Karramarda, Karu Murutha, Marudam, Pudavam.This tree is distributed in Himalaya from Kangra eastwords to Goalpara in Assam and southwards throughout the Peninsular India, upto 1200 m. The bark of the tree is widely used in ulcers, fractures, bronchitis and diarrhoea. Hydrolysis of the gum gives oligosaccharides, disaccharides and monosaccharides. Leaves and fruits give -sitosterol. Bark is diuretic, antihaemorrhagic, styptic, cardiotonic and semen coagulant.3) T. bellirica (Craertn.) Roxb.San: Aksha, Anilaghanaka, Baheduka, Harya, Kalinda;Hin: Bulla, Sagona;Ben: Bahera, Baheri;Tam: Akkam, Kalanduri, Tani;Tel: Bhutavasamu Tadi, Tandra, Vibhutakamu.Belliric Myrobalan is distributed throughout India, upto 900 m. Its bark is used in anaemia and leucoderma. The fruit is used in bronchitis, strangury, sore throat, diseases of eye, nose, heart and bladder, hoarseness and piles. It forms an important constituent of the ayurvedic drug ‘triphala’. Furits contain -sitosterol, gallic and ellagic acids, ethyl gallate, galloyl glucose, chebulagic acid and a cardiac glucoside bellaricanin. Alcoholic extract of the fruit possesses bile-stimulating activity. Alcoholic extract, 30 mg/kg does not affect blood pressure and respiration, but a higher dose of 60 mg/kg produces a fall in blood pressure. Furit has anticancerous and flower has spermicidal activity. Bark is mild diuretic. Fruit is astringent, antidropsical, antileprotic, antiinflammatory, antidiarrhoeal, antibilious, stomachic, antiasthmatic, tonic, anticephalgic, bechic, anthelmintic and attenuant. Kernel is narcotic. Semi -ripe fruit is purgative. Gum is demulcent (Husain et al, 1992)4) T. bialata steud.White Chugalam or silver grey wood is a common tree of Andaman Islands. Its bark is used as a cardiac stimulant.5) T. Catappa Linn.San: Grahadruma;Hin: Badam;Ben: Bangla Badam:Tam: Natuvdom, Vadhamkottai;Tel: Vedam, Voda Movettilla; Mar: Jangli Badama, Nat Badam.Indian Almond or Tropical Almond is a popular tree cultivated throughout the warmer parts of India including Andaman Islands and other adjacent island. Oil from the kernel is a substitute for almond oil. The leaf is used in scabies and colic. Husk and endocarp contain tannins and pentosans. Oil from kernel contains oleic, linoleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Heart wood and stem bark contains -sitosterol and its palmitate. Heartwood in addition contains terminolic acid and triterpenic methyl esters. The aerial part of the plant is diuretic. The bark is astringent, mild diuretic, cardiotonic and antidysenteric. Leaf is sudorific, antirheumatic, antileprotic and anticephalalgic.6) T. Coriacea (Roxb.) syn. T. tomentosa (Roxb. ex. DC.) W. & A. var. coriacea (Roxb.) C. B. ClarkeTam: Anaimikkuvam, Sadagam;Kan: Banapu;Tel: Tani.Leathery Murdah is a tree commonly used as a cardiac stimulant. It is widely distributed in the drier and warmer parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu upto 1350 m and in Central India. Its bark is mainly used as a cardiac stimulant and in atonic diarrhoea and callous ulcer. It is also CVS active.7) T. myriocarpa Heurck. & Muell. Arg.Ben: Panisaj; Ass: Hollock, Jhalna.Hollock is a tree of the Himalayas widely distributed from Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh and in Assam at 1000 m. The bark is cardiac stimulant and mild diuretic. Bark give -sitosterol, fructose and 4,4’,5,5’,6,6’ - hexadydroxy diphenic acid dilactone. Bark also contains tannis - ellagic, gallic, chebulinic and chebulagic acids.8) T. Pallida Brandis.Tam: Vellai Kadukkay;Tel: Tella Karaka, Velama Karka.The plant is distributed throughout south India, upto 600m. Its bark is a mild diuretic.9) T. Paniculata Roth.Mal: Marutu, Pe Marutu, Ven Marutu;Tam: Pei Kadukai, Ven Maruthu, Ilai Kadukkay, Marudu, Pullatti;Tel: Nimiri, Pulamaddi, Putamanu, Pulanallamanu;Kan: Maruva, Matti.Flowering Murdah is a tree which is widely used in opium poisoning. It is distributed in the Western and Eastern Ghats, upto 1200m. The bark is used in parotitis and flowers in opium poisioning. Heart wood give 3, 3’-0-di-methylellagic acid and 3,4,3’0-trimethyl flavellagic acid, -sitosterol, an uncharacterized triterpene carboxylic acid; a glycoside -3,3’ di-0 - methyl ellagic acid - 4 - monoglucoside and 0 - penta methyl flavellogic acid. The stem bark is anticancerous, diuretic, cardiotonic CVS active and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. Flower is anticholerin (Husain et al, 1992)10) Terminalia chebula Retz. Syn. Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) GaertnerEng: Chebulic myrobalan;San,Ben: Haritaki;Hindi:Harara, Harir,Har; Mal:Kadukka; Ass:Hilikha; Kan:Alale;Mar:Habra,Hirada;Ori:Harida;Guj: Hirdo;Pun:Helela;Tam:Amagola;Tel: KarakaChebulic myrobalan is a medium deciduous tree, the fruit of which is a common constituent of “Triphala” capable of imparting youthful vitality and receptivity of mind and sense. It is a major constituent in the ayurvedic preparations like Abhayarishta, Abhaya modak, Haritaki khand, Triphaladi churnam and Agastya rasayanam. In allopathy it is used in astringent ointments. In unani system, it is used as a blood purifier. The pulp of the fruit is given in piles, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, costiveness, flatulence, asthma, urinary disorders, vomiting, hiccup, intestinal worms, ascites and enlarged spleen and liver. Powder of the fruit is used in chronic ulcers and wounds, carious teeth and bleeding ulceration of the gums. The bark is a good cardiac tonic. The fruit is valuable for its tannins and dyes. The wood is used for building purposes, agricultural implements, plywood and match box industries. It is also grown as a shade tree.The plant is found throughout India chiefly in deciduous forests, on dry slopes upto 900m especially in Bengal, Tamil Nadu, West coast and Western Ghats. The plant is also reported in Sri Lanka, Nepal and Burma.Terminalia chebula Retz. syn. Myrobalanus chebula (Retz.) Gaertner comes under family Combretaceae. It is a medium sized deciduous tree with a cylindrical bole, rounded crown, spreading branches with dark brown bark and brownish gray heartwood. Leaves are simple, alternate or subopposite, ovate or elliptic ovate with short petioles bearing 2 glands below the blades. Flowers pale yellow or white in 4-10cm long axillary spikes. Calyx tube hairy pale yellow and 5 lobed; no petals. Stamens consist of 10 filaments subulate, anthers small; ovary inferior, 1-celled with 2-3 pendulous ovule. Fruit is a drupe, ovoid glossy, glabrous, faintly angled and yellow to orange brown in colour. Seeds are hard and pale yellow.Kernel oil of Chebulic myrobalan contains 6 fatty acids viz. Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, arachidic and behenic acid. The fruits contain chebulinic acid, tannic acid, gallic acid, chebulin and tannin. Leaves contain terpenes and saponins and -sitosterol is present in the bark (Beri, 1970; Khalique and Nizamuddin, 1972; Miglani and Chawla, 1974). Fruits are astringent, purgative, tonic, carminative, alternative and antispasmodic. Flowers and fruits are antiviral and hypoglycaemic. Wood is oxytocic and hypothermic (Husain et al, 1992).Agrotechnology: Terminalia species are, in general, subtropical trees. Young plants prefer shade while the matured plants tolerate light frost and drought. It grows well in hilly areas. This is propagated by seeds. Natural multiplication happens rarely due to the poor seeds germination. Seeds soaked in water for 48 hours before sowing in seedbeds which should be covered with straw after sowing. It is watered immediately. Usually it takes 3-5 months to germinate. It can be transferred to polybags at two-leaf stage. One-year-old seedlings are ready for transplanting. For transplanting, pits are made of 50cm cube at a spacing of 4m. Organic manure, added regularly, promotes growth. Irrigation is required during first year. Weeds should be removed regularly. This plant grows slowly. It fruits within 6-7 years. This is continued for many years. It is coppiced well. Fruits are collected immediately after falling down or covered with soil to protect it from pests. Fruits dried well in sun and used or stored. The hard seed coat is removed before sowing.... terminalia
Drugs that reduce inflammation. The main groups of these drugs are nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and corticosteroid drugs. (See also analgesic drugs.)... anti-inflammatory drugs
Infection at the site of a recent tooth extraction, causing pain, bad breath, and an unpleasant taste. Dry socket occurs when a blood clot fails to form in the tooth socket after a difficult extraction, such as removal of a wisdom tooth (see impaction, dental). Sometimes, the clot itself becomes infected, or infection may already have been present before extraction. The inflamed socket appears dry, and exposed bone is often visible. The socket is irrigated to remove debris and may then be coated with an antiinflammatory paste. The infection usually begins to clear up within a few days.... dry socket
A type of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) prescribed as an analgesic drug for injuries to soft tissues, such as muscles and ligaments. Ketoprofen also reduces joint pain and stiffness in arthritic conditions. It may cause abdominal pain, nausea, indigestion, and increased risk of peptic ulcer.... ketoprofen
Costus speciosusZingiberaceaeSan: Pushkara, Kashmeera, Kemuka;Hin: Kebu, Keyu, Kust;Ben: Keu, KuraMal: Channakkizhangu, Channakoova;Tam: Kostam; Mar: Penva;Tel: KashmeeramuImportance: Costus is one of the plants which contains diosgenin in its rhizome. It is widely used as starting material in the commercial production of steroidal hormones. The rhizomes are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, burning sensation, flatulence, constipation, helminthiases, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, hiccough, asthma, bronchitis, inflammation and aneamia. It is used to make sexual hormones and contraceptives (Warrier et al,1994).Distribution: The plant is widely distributed in Asia and other tropical countries like India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and China. In India, it occurs mostly in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Tripura and Kerala.Botany: Costus speciosus (Koenig.) Sm. belonging to the family Zingiberaceae consists of two varieties viz., var. nepalensis Rose., found only in Nepal and Arunachal Pradesh and var. argycophyllus Wall., having a wide distribution in India.The plant is a succulent herb with long leafy spirally twisted stems, 2-3m in height and horizontal rhizomes. Leaves are simple, spirally arranged, oblanceolate or oblong, glabrous above, silky pubescent beneath with broad leaf sheaths. Flowers are white, large, fragrant, arranged in dense terminal spikes. Bracts are bright red. The single stamen present is perfect, lip large with incurved margins. Fruits are globose or ovoid capsules with obovoid or sub- globose seeds (Warrier et al,1994).Agrotechnology: Costus can be raised under a wide range of agroclimatic conditions. It prefers sandy loam soil for good growth. Propagation is by rhizomes. The best season for planting is April- May. The seed rate recommended is 2-2.4t/ha. The spacing adopted is 50x50cm. After an initial ploughing FYM or poultry manure should be applied at the rate of 30t/ha and the field is to be ploughed again irrigated and prepared to obtain a fine seed bed. Furrows are opened and the rhizome pieces are placed horizontally at a depth of 8-10cm and covered with soil. Care is taken to place the eye buds facing upwards. After 70-75 days about 90-95% sprouting is obtained. Desiccation of the young sprouts have been observed in the hot summer months, necessitating liberal water supply during the period. As September-November is the period of maximum tuberization at least two irrigations should be given at that time. One during the sprouting period of the crop followed by two more keeps the crop fairly free of weeds. Application of 37t/ha of poultry manure and fertilizers, 60kg P2O5 and 40kg K2O /ha as a basal doze, along with 80kg N/ha applied in 3 equal split dozes will take care. Crop is harvested at the end of seven months. Harvesting includes 2 operations, cutting the aerial shoots and digging out the rhizomes. Cost of production of diosgenin ranges from Rs. 271-300/kg (Atal, et al,1982).Properties and activity: Tubers and roots contain diosgenin, 5 -stigmast-9(11)-en-3 ol, sitosterol- -D- glucoside, dioscin, prosapogenins A and B of dioscin, gracillin and quinones. Various saponins, many new aliphatic esters and acids are reported from its rhizomes, seeds and roots. Seeds, in addition, contain - tocopherol. Saponins from seeds are hypotensive and spasmolytic. Rhizomes possess antifertility, anticholinestrase, antiinflammatory, stimulant, depurative and anthelmintic activities (Hussain et al, 1992).... costus
Labill.
Family: Myrtaceae.
Habitat: Native to Australia; now cultivated mainly at the hill-stations of India.
English: Blue-Gum tree, Australian Gum tree.
Ayurvedic: Tilaparna, Tailaparna, Sugandhapatra, Haritaparna Neela- niryaasa, Tribhandi, Triputaa, Sar- alaa, Suvahaa, Rechani, Nishotraa.
Unani: Neelgiri oil.
Siddha/Tamil: Karpooramaram.
Action: Essential oil from leaves— antiseptic, antibiotic, antiviral, antifungal, antispasmodic, decon- gestant, antiasthmatic, expectorant, antirheumatic, diaphoretic. Used in chronic, bronchitis, migraine, congestive headache, neuralgia and ague, as an inhalant or internal medicine. Root—purgative.
Key application: Leaf tea for catarrhs of the respiratory tract. Oil used externally for rheumatic complaints, contraindicated internally in inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, bile ducts, and in severe liver diseases. (German Commission E.) Oil—internally as adjuvant treatment of chronic obstructive respiratory complaints, including bronchitis and bronchial asthma, also for symptomatic relief of colds and catarrh of the upper respiratory tract; externally for symptomatic treatment of colds and rheumatic complaints. (ESCOP.) Leaf—antiseptic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)E. globulus is the main commercial source of Eucalyptus leaf oil; yield is 2.12%; 1,8-cineole exceeds 70% (pharmaceutical grade oil requires a minimum cineole content of 70%).Several potent euglobals, having closely related acyl-phloroglucinol- monoterpene (or sesquiterpene) structures, are isolated from the leaves and flower buds. These compounds showed strong granulation-inhibiting activity and inhibition of TPA induced EBV (Epstein-Barr Virus) activation.Phloroglucin derivatives, isolated from leaves, showed better antiinflammatory activity than indomethacin.Natural antioxidants have also been isolated from the plant.
Dosage: Leaf—50-100 ml infusion. (CCRAS.)... eucalyptus globules
A nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis. Phenylbutazone may cause nausea, fluid retention, rash, and peptic ulcer. It may also increase the risk of blood disorders. It is prescribed only under hospital supervision, when other drugs are ineffective.... phenylbutazone
Inflammation of a sacroiliac joint. Causes include ankylosing spondylitis, rheumatoid arthritis, Reiter’s syndrome or arthritis associated with psoriasis. The main symptom is pain in the lower back, buttocks, groin, and back of the thigh. Treatment is with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs.... sacroiliitis
Linn.
Synonym: C. domestica Valeton.
Family: Zingiberaceae.
Habitat: Cultivated all over India, particularly in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
English: Turmeric.
Ayurvedic: Haridraa, Priyaka, Haridruma, Kshanda, Gauri, Kaanchani, Krimighna, Varavarni- ni, Yoshitapriyaa, Hattavilaasini, Naktaahvaa, Sharvari.
Unani: Zard Chob.
Action: Anti-inflammatory, cholagogue, hepatoprotective, blood-purifier, antioxidant, detoxi- fier and regenerator of liver tissue, antiasthmatic, anti-tumour, anticu- taneous, antiprotozoal, stomachic, carminative. Reduces high plasma cholesterol. Antiplatelet activity offers protection to heart and vessels. Also protects against DNA damage in lymphocytes.
Key application: In dyspeptic conditions. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.) As antiinflammatory, stomachic. (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The rhizomes gave curcuminoids, the mixture known as curcumin, consisting of atleast four phenolic diaryl- heptanoids, including curcumin and monodesmethoxycurcumin; volatile oil (3-5%), containing about 60% of turmerones which are sesquiterpene ketones, and bitter principles, sugars, starch, resin.Curcumin related phenolics possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective and hepatoprotective activities. The antioxidant activity of curcumin is comparable to standard antioxidants—vitamin C and E, BHA and BHT.The volatile oil, also curcumin, exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in a variety of experimental models (the effects were comparable to those of cortisone and phenylbutazone). Used orally, curcumin prevents the release of inflammatory mediators. It depletes nerve endings of substance P, the neu- rotransmitter of pain receptors.Curcumin's cholesterol-lowering actions include interfering with intestinal cholesterol uptake, increasing the conversion of cholesterol into bile acids and increasing the excretion of bile acids via its choleretic effects.Curcuminoids prevent the increases in liver enzymes, SGOT and SGPT; this validates the use of turmeric as a he- patoprotective drug in liver disorders. Curlone, obtained from the dried rhizome, is used against hepatitis.Turmeric and curcumin increase the mucin content of the stomach and exert gastroprotective effects against stress, alcohol, drug-induced ulcer formation. (Curcumin at doses of 100 mg/kg weight exhibited ulcerogenic activity in rats.)The ethanolic extract of the rhizome exhibited blood sugar lowering activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats.Piperine (a constituent of black and long pepper) enhances absorption and bioavailability of curcumin.
Dosage: Cured rhizome—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... curcuma longa
Clarke.
Family: Oleaceae.
Habitat: Arunachal Pradesh (Mishmi Hills).
Action: Toxic to CNS.
The extract of the bark and leaves are used as an adulterant of illegal opium and are sold in the black market in certain areas in Indonesia.The bark contains an iridoid glu- coside, ligstroside, and the phenolic glucosides, syringin and sinapaldehyde glucoside.
Family: Oleaceae.
Habitat: F. excelsior Linn.—Great Britain, Europe and North America. F. hookery—Western Himalaya at 2,700-3,350 m.
English: European Ash, Weeping Ash.
Folk: Kum, Sum, Hum, Sinnun (Punjab, Kashmir).
Action: F. excelsior—laxative, antiinflammatory, febrifuge. The bark and leaves are used for arthritis and rheumatism.
The herb gave coumarin derivatives, including fraxin, fraxetin and fraxinol; flavonoids based on aesculetin, including aescin, also rutin and quercetin. A coumarin derivative is actively diuretic.A saccharine exudate, manna, consisting principally of mannitol, is obtained by incising the stem barks of some Fraxinus sp. found in India. The manna of commerce is derived from F. ornus. F. hookery (bark)—astringent, febrifuge, bitter tonic. Leaves—cathartic.Ash Bark is used, in decoction, in the treatment of intermittent fever and ague, as a substitute for Peruvian bark. Also used for treating obstructions of the liver and spleen and in rheumatism and arthritic affections.Preparations of European Ash Bark showed an analgesic, anti-exudative and antiphlogistic action. (German Commission E.)
Habitat: Indigenous to the coasts of the Mediterranean from Spain to Smyrna.
English: Flake Manna.
Unani: Turanjeen.
Action: A children's laxative. Usually prescribed with other purgatives. (Not to be used in the presence of ileus.)
Key application: In constipation where an easier elimination and a soft stool are desirable; in animents such as anal fissures, haemorrhoids and post-rectal and surgery. (German Commission E.)The exudation contains 40-90% mannitol, 10-15% stachyose and man- notriose, glucose, fructose.... fraxinus griffithii
Inflammation of a tendon, usually caused by injury or overuse. Symptoms of tendinitis include pain, tenderness, and restricted movement. Treatment is with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), ultrasound treatment, or injection of a corticosteroid drug around the tendon.... tendinitis
Murraya KoenigiiRutaceaeSan: Kalasakh, KaidaryahHin: Mithinim, KatnimBen: BarsungaMal: Kariveppu, KaruveppuTam: Kariveppilai, KaruveppuKan: Kari BaevaTel: KarivepakuAss: Narasingha, BishahariImportance: Curry leaf, a plant of homestead gardens has gained importance as a commercial crop and is cultivated for its culinary and medicinal value. The plant is highly esteemed for its leaves which promote appetite and digestion and destroy pathogenic organisms. It is reported to be useful in emaciation, skin diseases, hemopathy, worm troubles, neurosis and poisons. They are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, hyperdipna, colic, flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting, inflammations and foul ulcers. “Kaidaryah” drug is prepared using this plant which improves voice, stimulates digestion and destroys concocted poisons in the system. The important preparations using the drug are Kalasadi kasayam, Pamantaka tailam, Jatyadi tailam, Jatyadi ghrtam, etc (Sivarajan et al,1994).Distribution: Curry leaf is seen in the foot of the Himalaya and Bashahi eastwards to Sikkim and Peninsular India, upto 1700m. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Burma, Indo-China, South China and Hainan. Commercial cultivation in India is limited to Tamil Nadu and Karnataka states.Botany: The genus Murraya of the family Rutaceae includes the following species:M. Koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. syn. Bergera koenigii Linn.M. Exotica Linn. syn. M. paniculata (Linn.) Jack.Murraya koenigii is a small aromatic tree with dark grey bark and closely crowded spreading dark green foliage. Leaves are imparipinnate and alternate. Leaflets are alternate, obliquely ovate or somewhat rhomboid, gland dotted and strongly aromatic. Flowers are white, arranged in much branched terminal corymbose cymes and fragrant. Fruits are subglobose or ellipsoid berries, purplish black when ripe and 2-seeded (Warrier et al, 1995).Agrotechnology: Curry leaf tree does not choose a specific climate and can come up even in dry climate too. In places where minimum temperature goes below 13 C, the growth of the shoot will be slightly affected. It comes up well in light textured red soils. DWD-1 and DWD-2 are two improved varieties released from UAS, Dharwad. Curry leaf is propagated by seed. Main field is to be ploughed repeatedly. A spacing of 90-120cm is followed on either side. Pits of size 30cm3 are dug out one month before planting and filled with top soil mixed with well decomposed FYM at the time of planting. Healthy seedlings are planted in the centre of the pits. Then long furrows are formed connecting all the pits to facilitate easy irrigation. The seedlings are irrigated once in 5-7 days upto 3 years and once in 15 days afterwards. The field should be kept free from weeds. Plants may be trained and pruned to maintain a bush of 1m in height. For better growth and yield, each plant is fertilised with 20kg of FYM besides 150:25:50g of N, P2O5, K2O/ year. Attack of aphids in the vegetative stage can be controlled by spraying of dimethoate at 2ml/l of water. Leaves from such sprayed plants should be harvested only after 10 days. Spraying carbendazim at 1g/l can take care of leaf spot diseases. The crop comes to first harvest at the end of first year. The yield of leaves account to 400kg/ha at the end of first year, 2000 to 2200kg/ha in the second and third year harvested at an interval of four months and 2500kg/ha in the fourth year harvested at three months interval. From fifth year onwards it is harvested at 2.5-3 months interval giving an yield of 3500-5000kg/ha (Kumar et al, 1997).Properties and activity: All parts of the plant, especially the leaves are rich in carbazole alkaloids. These include members with (i) C13 - skeleton -murrayanin, mukoeic acid, mukonine and mukonidine; (ii) C18 - skeleton including gerinimbine, koenimbine, murrayacine, koenigine and koenigicine (koenidine); and (iii) C23- skeleton containing mahanimbine, mahanimbicine, iso- mahanimbicine, mahanine, mahanimbinine, murrayayazoline, murrayazolinine, murrayazolidine, cyclomahanimbine and bicyclomahanimbicine. Other carbazole bases include mukoline, mukolidine (C13 group, from roots), mukonicine (C18 from leaves), the biogenetically significant mukonal (C13, stem-bark), mahanimboline (C23, root-bark), iso- murrayazoline (C23, stem-bark). The leaves gave a coumarin glucoside, scopolin also. Essential oil from leaves contained -caryophylline, -gurjunene, -elemene, - phellandrene, -thujene as major constituents.The roots, bark and leaves are bitter, acrid, astringent, cooling, aromatic, demulcent, depurative, anthelmintic, febrifuge, stomachic, appetising, carminative, antiinflammatory and antiseptic. Aerial part is spasmolytic and antiprotozoal. Root is antiprotozoal, CVS active and has effect on nictitating membrane. Leaf is hypoglycaemic (Hussain et al,1992).... curry leaf
Desmodium gangeticumFabaceaeSan: Anshumati, Salaparni;Hin,Ben: Salpani;Mal: Orila;Tam:Pulladi;Tel: GitanaramKan: Murelehonne; Mar: Darh;Guj: Salwan; Ori: Salaparni Pun: ShalpurhiImportance: Desmodium is a small shrub which is the chief of the ten ingredients in the Dasamula kwatha of Hindu medicine. Roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata, anorexia, dyspepsia, haemorrhoids, dysentery, strangury, fever, gout, inflammations, cough, asthma, bronchitis, cardiopathy and debility. The unani preparation “Arq dashmul” contains these roots. It is considered a curative for leucorrhoea and for pains due to cold (Warrier et al, 1995).Distribution: The plant is widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics. It grows wild in the forests of India up to 1500m. It is also cultivated in the plains and in the lower Himalayas.Botany: Desmodium gangeticum (Linn.) DC. syn. Hedysarum gangeticum Linn., Desmodium gangeticum var. maculatum (Linn.) Baker., belongs to the family Fabaceae (Papilionaceae). It is an erect diffusely branched undershrub, 90-120cm in height with a short woody stem and numerous prostrate branches provided with soft grey hairs. Leaves are unifoliate, ovate- lanceolate, membranceous and mottled with grey patches. Flowers are white, purple or lilac in elongate lax, terminal or axillary racemes. Fruits are moniliform, 6-8 jointed, glabrescent pods, joints of pods separately pubescent with hooked hairs, joint separating when ripe into indehiscent one seeded segments. Seeds are compressed and reniform.Agrotechnology: Desmodium can grow in a variety of climate and soils. However, it prefers tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. Although it can grow on all types of soils, waterlogged and highly alkaline soils are not suitable. Light sandy loam is preferred for commercial cultivation.It is propagated through seeds. Seeds can be planted directly in the field or seedlings raised on the nursery beds and transplanted. Transplanting always gives better results in commercial cultivation, as it gives assured crop stand. Planting is done at a spacing of 40x20cm on flat beds or ridges. Organic manures are applied at the time of land preparation and thoroughly mixed with the soil. A little quantity of phosphatic and nitrogenous fertilizers are also applied for better crop growth. The inter-row spaces between plants, both in the field and nursery should be kept free from weeds by frequent weeding and hoeing as the plant suffers from weed competition, especially during early stages of growth. Manual hand weeding is usually done. Irrigation of seedlings just after planting is good for crop establishment. Although it can be cultivated as a rainfed crop under humid tropical conditions, irrigation every month is beneficial during summer. The root is the economic part and harvesting can be commenced after 8-9 months. About 500- 700kg roots can be harvested from a hectare of land per year.Properties and activity: The root contains gangetin, gangetinin, desmodin, N,N-dimethyl tryptamine, hypaphorine, hordenine, candicine, N-methyl tyramine and -phenyl ethyl amine. The total alkaloid fraction showed hypotensive activity. The root is bitter, antiinflammatory, analgesic, aphrodisiac, constipating, diuretic, cardiotonic, expectorant, astringent, antidiarrhoeal, carminative, antiemetic, febrifuge and anti-catarrhal (Thakur et al, 1989).... desmodium
Haematemesis means the vomiting of blood. Blood brought up from the stomach is generally dark in colour and may have been so far digested as to form small brown granules resembling co?ee grounds. Vomiting of blood is one of the main symptoms of PEPTIC ULCER, but it may occur in GASTRITIS, from VARICOCOELES in the OESOPHAGUS, or, rarely, in cancer of the stomach. Gastritis caused by an irritant poison, sustained intake of ALCOHOL, or the regular use of certain drugs such as ASPIRIN and NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) may cause bleeding. Blood may also originate from the nose and throat, be swallowed and then vomited. Persistent haematemesis or a sudden severe bleed is a potentially serious medical emergency and the patient should be referred urgently to hospital (see HAEMORRHAGE).... haematemesis
Previously called juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile chronic arthritis, this is a set of related conditions of unknown cause affecting children. Characteristically, the synovial membrane of a joint or joints becomes in?amed and swollen for at leat six weeks (and often very much longer – even years). About 1 in 10,000 children develop it each year, many of whom have certain HLA genetic markers, thought to be important in determining who gets the illness. In?ammatory CYTOKINES play a big part.
Clinical features There are various types. The oligoarthritic type involves 1–4 joints (usually knee or ankle) which become hot, swollen and painful. One complication is an in?ammation of the eyes – UVEITIS. The condition often ‘burns out’, but may reappear at any time, even years later.
The polyarthritic type is more like RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS in adults, and the child may have persistent symptoms leading to major joint deformity and crippling.
The systemic type, previously called Still’s disease, presents with a high fever and rash, enlarged liver, spleen and lymph nodes, and arthritis – although the latter may be mild. In some children the illness becomes recurrent; in others it dies down only to return as polyarthritis.
Complications These include uveitis, which can lead to loss of vision; a failure to thrive; osteoporosis (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF); joint deformity; and psychosocial diffculties.
Treatment This includes ANTIPYRETICS and ANALGESICS, including NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS), intra-articular steroid injections, anti-tumour necrosis factor drugs and steroids.
Physiotherapy is vital, and children may need to wear splints or other orthotic devices to alleviate deformity and pain. Orthopaedic operative procedures may be necessary.... juvenile idiopathic arthritis (jia)
Gloriosa superbaLiliaceaeSan: Langali, Visalya, Agnishika,Shakrapushpi, GarbhaghatiniHin: KalihariMal: MenthonniTam: AkkinichilamPan: KariariGuj: Dudhiya vachnagKan: Nangulika Mar: NagakariaBen: Bishalanguli Ori: DangogahanaTel: AdavinabhiImportance: Glory lily is a glabrous herbaceous climber which yields different types of troplone alkaloids of medicinal importance. The major alkaloids are colchicine , 3-demethyl colchicine and colchicoside. There is another alkaloid gloriosine which promises to be even more effective than colchicine in plant breeding for inducing polyploidy. The genus has importance in the ornamental horticulture due to its bright flowers and wiry climbing stem.The roots and rhizomes are used in traditional system of medicine. Its abortifacient and antipyretic properties have been mentioned in ancient classics “Charaka”. The name Garbhaghatini is due to this abortifacient activity. They are useful in the treatment of inflammations, ulcers, scrofula, hemorrhoids, pruritus, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, flatulence, intermittent fevers and debility. The root is given internally as an effective antidote against cobra poison. A paste of the root is also used as an anodyne; applications in bites of poisonous insects, snake bites, scorpion sting, parasitic skin diseases and leprosy (Nadkarni,1954; Chaudhuri and Thakur; 1994).Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout tropical India upto an altitude of 2500m and in Andaman islands. It is also cultivated in tropical and South Africa, Madagaskar, Indonesia and Malasia. It is reported to be cultivated in some parts of Europe. In India it was cultivated in RRL, Jammu in 1960s. Recently it was taken up by Indian Council of Agricultural Research(ICAR). Cultivation of the plant is mostly confined to the Southern states of India besides its collection from wild sources.Botany: Gloriosa superba Linn. belongs to Liliaceae family. It is a glabrous climbing herb with tuberous root stock grows over hedges and small trees. Stem is 6m long which grows to a height of 1.2-1.5m before the stem branches. Leaves are simple, alternate or whorled, sessile, ovate-lanceolate, 17x4.5cm, tip elongating into a spirally coiled tendril, base cordate and margin entire. Flowers are large in terminal racemes; perianth segments 6, linear, flexuosus and deflexed, basal half bright yellow, upper half red; stamens 6; ovary glabrous, 3-celled. Fruits are capsules, linear-oblong, upto 6.8cm long, 3 equal lobes, one or two lobes shorter in malformed fruits; green dried to pale and then black colour, dehisced into three sections. Seeds are oval in shape, testa spongy, embryo cylindric, 30-150 seeds per capsule, pale orange attached to the sutures. Tubers are cylindric, large, simple, ‘V’ shaped with the two limps equal or unequal in lenth pointed towards end brownish externally and yellowish internally. (Narain, 1977)Agrotechnology: This is a rainy season plant and sprouts well in warm, humid and tropical conditions. It should be grown in sun as the plants in shade become weedy and thin and move towards light. G. superba is a shallow rooted plant and grows well in a variety of soils either clay or sand through out India. It grows well in a light porous soil with good drainage. For vigorous growth, greater blooms and strong tuber, a mixture of soil, sand and compost manure is recommended. The propagation is mainly by tubers, by division of rhizomes. Seeds remain dormant for 6-9 months and due to hard seed coat, about 20-30 days are required for germination and seeds may take 3-4 years before it matures to flower. Treatment of seeds by gibberellin(1-3 ppm) resulted in higher yield of colchicine in the plant and higher production of tubers. In tissue culture, young sprouts are cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s medium (Msb) supplemented with kinetin (1-4 mg/l). Direct regeneration of the explants are obtained.The seeds and rhizomes are sown usually in the last week of June to mid July. The rhizomes are planted by splitting carefully into two from their ‘V’ shaped joints (two buds being at the extreme end of each rhizome) in lines 20cm apart at a distance of 20cm (while seeds are sown in lines at a distance of 4-6cm apart). They are watered regularly when the plants are growing. After green shoots appear 2-3 showers are weekly. The irradiation of the plant at 42% natural sunlight intensity increased the production of tuber and colchicine. They usually takes 6-10 weeks to flower after sprouting and then set on fruits. The fruits ripen at the end of October and after that aerial shoot eventually dies, leaving the fleshy tubers underground. The tubers are dug out with great care. An individual plant produces 50g tubers on an average. The average yield is approximately 4000-5000kg of rhizomes and 1000 kg of seed per hectare. The content of colchicine is usually 0.358% and 1.013% in tubers and seeds, respectively.Post harvest technology: Lixivation of the material is done with 70% ethyl alcohol. Concentrated under vacuum to one third of its volume and extracted with chloroform for colchicine and related substances-concentration of the aqueous phase to syrup which is extracted 6-8 times with a mixture of CHCl3 - alcohol (4:1) to yield colchicoside.Properties and activity: The flowers, leaves and tubers contain colchicine, superbin, N-formyl deacetyl colchicine, demethyl colochicine and lumicolchicine. Tubers also contain gloriosine. Leaves in addition, contain chelidonic acid, 2-hydroxy 6-methoxy benzoic acid and -sitosterol glucoside. Colchicine, demethyl colchicine and colchicoside have been reported from seeds. Rhizome is oxytocic, anticancerous, antimalarial, stomachic, purgative, cholagogue, anthelmintic, alterative, febrifuge and antileprotic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and antiinflammatory. Root shows antigonorrhoeic and antibiotic activity. This plant has poisonous effect to enviroment and livestock. The toxic properties are due to presence of alkaloids chiefly colchicine (Clewer et al, 1915).... glory lily
Alpinia galangaZingiberaceaeSan:Sugandhamula, Rasna;Hin:Kulainjan; Mal:Aratta, Chittaratha;Tam:Arattai;Guj: Kolinjan;Kan: Dumba-rasmi; Mar: Kosht-Kulinjan;Tel: Pedda-dumparash-tramImportance: The greater galangal, Java galangal or Siamese ginger is a perennial aromatic rhizomatous herb. This plant is cultivated for its rhizome in tropical areas of south and East India. Because of the presence of essential oil, the rhizomes are used in bronchial troubles and as a carminative. They are also useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammations, stomatopathy, pharyngopathy, cough, asthma, hiccough, dyspepsia, stomachalgia, obesity, diabetes, cephalagia, tubercular glands and intermittent fevers. It is one of the ingredients of medicated “Pan” used for removing the foul smell of the mouth and getting relief in throat inflammation. In Ayurveda, “Rasna-saptak-kwath” and “Rasna-adikamath” are used as antiinflammatory decoctions. In Unani, it is an ingredient of aphrodisiac preparations, “Majun Mugawivi ma Mumsik”, “Majun Samagh”, and antispasmodic nervine tonic “Majun Chobchine” and “Lubab Motadil”. It is also used in “Arq Pan” as a cardiac stimulant and carminative.Distribution: The Java galangal is mainly distributed in Eastern Himalayas and South-West India. This is very common in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Kerala, Karnataka and throughout the Western Ghats. It is cultivated also in these places. They are also found in countries like Sri Lanka and Malaya.Botany: Alpinia galanga (Linn.) Willd. belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial herb, about 2m high with lower portion covered with smooth leaf sheaths. The leaves are broadly lanceolate, 30-60cm long and 10-15cm broad. The flowers are arranged in erect, terminal panicles. composed of numerous spreading dichotomous branches each with two to six, pale greenish-white faintly fragrant flowers. Fruits 1.25 cm long, oblong, constricted in the middle or even pear shaped, three sided and deep orange red in colour. Seeds are ash coloured, three angled, finely striated towards the hilum. Both the seeds and rhizomes have pungent aroma.Apinia calcarata (Linn.) Willd is another species of the genus with much medicinal importance. It is shorter in stature but stronger in aroma than Alpinia galanga.Agrotechnology: Siamese Ginger comes up well in tropical climate. It grows on a wide range of climates and soils. Well drained hilly areas and places of 1400m high altitude are good for its cultivation. This is commercially propagated vegetatively by rhizomes. The field should be ploughed to a good tilth. All the stones and pebbles should be removed. Organic manures at 10t/ha are applied during land preparation. Seedbeds are prepared with 1m breadth, 2m length and 15cm height. Small pits are made at 25cm spacing above the seedbeds and 5cm long rhizomes are planted. Seedbeds are covered with dried leaves. It is irrigated immediately after planting. Regular weeding is needed during the initial stages of crop growth. This is cultivated also as an intercrop in coconut or rubber plantations. Rhizomes are dug out after cutting the top portions when the crop reaches 1.5-2 years of maturity. The average yield is 10-15 tonnes of fresh rhizomes/ha and the driage is 25-30%. The collected rhizomes are washed and cut into pieces of 5cm long and dried in sun for 4 days before sale.Properties and activity: The rhizome contains tannins and flavonoids, some of which have been identified as kaempferide, galangin and alpinin. Seeds contain 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate and 1’-acetoxy eugenol acetate, antiulcer principles caryophyllenols I and II, n-pentadecane, 7-heptadecane and fatty acid methyl esters. Rhizomes yield essential oil containing methyl cinnamate, cineole and d-pinene and sesquiterpenoids. Fresh rhizome yielded 18 monoterpenoids of which -pinene, -pinene and limonene as major compounds and 17 oxygen containing monoterpenoids with cineol, terpinen-4-o1, and -terpineol as minor compounds.The rhizomes are bitter, acrid, thermogenic, aromatic, nervine tonic, stimulant, revulsive, carminative, stomachic, disinfectant, aphrodisiac, expectorant, broncho-dilator, antifungal, febrifuge, antiinflammatory and tonic. Rhizome is CVS and CNS active, diuretic, hypothermic. Seed is antiulcerative. Rhizome spray in ether, over a space showed high knock down values against houseflies. Alcohol (50%) extract of rhizome is anti-amphetaminic. Unani physicians consider it good for impotence.... greater galangal
Gymnema sylvestreAsclepiadaceaeSan: Mesasrngi, Madhunasini;Hin: Gudmar, Merasimgi;Ben: Merasingi;Mal: Chakkarakolli, Madhunasini;Tam: Sirukurumkay, Sakkaraikkolli;Kan: Kadhasige;Tel: Podapatra; Mar: KavaliImportance: Gymnema, Australian Cowplant, Small Indian Ipecacuanha or Periploca of the woods is a woody climber. It is reported to cure cough, dyspnoea, ulcers, pitta, kapha and pain in the eyes. The plant is useful in inflammations, hepatosplenomegaly, dyspepsia, constipation, jaundice, haemorrhoids, strangury, renal and vesical calculi, helminthiasis, cardiopathy, cough, asthma, bronchitis, intermittent fever, amenorrhoea, conjuctivitis and leucoderma. The fresh leaves when chewed have the remarkable property of paralysing the sense of taste for sweet and bitter substance for some time (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug is described as a destroyer of madhumeha (glycosuria) and other urinary disorders. Root has long been reputed as a remedy for snakebite. Leaves triturated and mixed with castor oil are applied to swollen glands and enlargement of internal viscera as the liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954). The drug is used to strengthen the function of heart, cure jaundice, piles, urinary calculi, difficult micturition and intermittent fevers (Sharma,1983). The drug enters into the composition of preparations like Ayaskrti, Varunadi kasaya, Varunadighrtam, Mahakalyanakaghrtam, etc. They suppress the activity of taste of tongue for sweet taste and for this reason it was considered that it destroys sugar, hence the name Madhunashini or Gurmar and has been prescribed as an anti-diabetic. The crude drug as well as its dried aqueous extract is mainly used in bronchial troubles.Distribution: It is a tropical climber. It mainly grows in Western Ghats, Konkan, Tamil Nadu and some parts of Bihar. The plant is cultivated in plains of India but the drug is mainly important from Afghanistan and Iran.Botany: Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.)R. Br. syn. Asclepias germinata Roxb. belonging to the family Asclepiadaceae is a large, woody much branched climber with pubescent young parts. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptic or ovate, more or less pubescent on both sides, base rounded or cordate. Flowers are small, yellow and arranged in umbellate cymes. Fruits are slender and follicles are upto 7.5cm long (Warrier et al, 1995).Two allied species, G. hirsutum found in Bundelkh and Bihar and Western Ghats and G. montanum growing wild in Eastern Ghats and Konkan are also used for the same purpose and are also called “Gurmar” (Thakur et al, 1989).Agrotechnology: The plant can be propagated both by seeds and stem cuttings. Seedlings are to be raised in polybags. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken, filled with 10kg dried cowdung or FYM and covered with topsoil. On these pits about 3-4 months old seedlings are to be transplanted from polybags. Trailing can be facilitated by erecting poles and tying the plants to the poles. The plant will attain good spread within one year. Regular weeding, irrigation and organic manure application are beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Leaves can be collected from the first year onwards at an internal of one week. This can be continued for 10-12 years. Fresh or dried leaves can be marketed (Prasad et al, 1997).Properties and activity: Nonacosane and hentriacontane were isolated from the hexane extract of leaves. An attempt to isolate nitrogenous compounds led to the isolation of amino acids such as leucine, iso-leucine, valine, allanine and - amynobutyric acid. Isolation of trimethyl amine oxide was of particular interest. An alkaloid gynamine which is a trace constituent was isolated and identified (Sinsheimer et al, 1967). Antisweet constituent of the leaves has been found to be a mixture of triterpene saponins. These have been designated as gymnemic acids A,B,C and D which have the gymnemagenin and gymnestrogenins as the aglycones of gymnemic acid A and B and gymnemic acid C and D respectively. These are hexahydroxy triterpenes the latter being partially acylated. The sugar residues are glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid while ferulic and angelic acids have been attached as the carboxylic acid.Chewing of leaves reduces sensitivity to sweet substances. Effects of gymnema extracts had been variable. While verifying the effect of G. sylvestre leaves on detoxification of snake venom, it has been reported that a toxic component of venom ATP and gymnemate bind at the same site inhibiting venom ATP-ase. The active principles which have been identified as glycosides (7 gymnemic acids) suggest that the topical and selective anaesthetic effect of the plant might result from the competition of the receptor sites between glycosides and the sweet substances (Warren et al, 1969). The leaves are antidiabetic and insulinotropic. Gymnemic acid is antiviral. The plant is bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, liver tonic, emetic, diuretic, stomachic, stimulant, anthelmintic, alexipharmic, laxative, cardiotonic, expectorant, antipyretic and uterine tonic.... gymnema
Means high BLOOD PRESSURE (raised pressure of the circulating blood), but since there is a wide range of ‘normal’ blood pressure in the population, a precise level of pressure above which an individual is deemed hypertensive is arbitrary. (A healthy young adult would be expected to have a systolic pressure of around 120 mm Hg and a diastolic of 80 mm Hg, recorded as 120/80.) Hypertension is not a disease as such but a quantitative deviation from the norm. A person with a pressure higher than the average for his or her age group is usually symptomless – although sometimes such people may develop headaches. The identi?cation of people with hypertension is important because it is a signal that they will be more likely to have a STROKE or myocardial infarct (coronary thrombosis or heart attack) than someone whose pressure is in the ‘normal’ range. Preventive steps can then be taken to lessen the likelihood of their developing these potentially life-threatening conditions.
Blood pressure is measured using two values. The systolic pressure – the greater of the two – represents the pressure when blood is pumped from the left VENTRICLE of the heart into the AORTA. The diastolic pressure is the measurement when both ventricles relax between beats. The pressures are measured in millimetres (mm) of mercury (Hg). Despite the grey area between normal and raised blood pressure, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has de?ned hypertension as a blood pressure consistently greater than 160 mm Hg (systolic) and 95 mm Hg (diastolic). Young children have readings well below these, but blood pressure rises with age and a healthy person may well live symptom free with a systolic pressure above the WHO ?gure. A useful working de?nition of hypertension is the ?gure at which the bene?ts of treating the condition outweigh the risks and costs of the treatment.
Between 10 and 20 per cent of the adult population in the UK has hypertension, with more men than women affected. Incidence is highest in the middle-aged and elderly. Because most people with hypertension are symptomless, the condition is often ?rst identi?ed during a routine medical examination, otherwise a diagnosis is usually made when complications occur. Many people’s blood pressure rises when they are anxious or after exercise, so if someone’s pressure is above normal at the ?rst testing, it should be taken again after, say, 10 minutes’ rest, by which time the reading should have settled to the person’s regular level. BP measurements should then be taken on two subsequent occasions. If the pressure is still high, the cause needs to be determined: this is done using a combination of personal and family histories (hypertension can run in families), a physical examination and investigations, including an ECG and blood tests for renal disease.
Over 90 per cent of hypertensive people have no immediately identi?able cause for their condition. They are described as having essential hypertension. In those patients with an identi?able cause, the hypertension is described as secondary. Among the causes of secondary hypertension are:
Lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol, stress, excessive dietary salt and obesity.
Diseases of the KIDNEYS.
Pregnancy (ECLAMPSIA).
Various ENDOCRINE disorders – for example, PHAEOCHROMOCYTOMA, CUSHING’S DISEASE, ACROMEGALY, thyrotoxicosis (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF).
COARCTATION OF THE AORTA.
Drugs – for example, oestrogen-containing oral contraceptives (see under CONTRACEPTION), ANABOLIC STEROIDS, CORTICOSTEROIDS, NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS).
Treatment People with severe hypertension may need prompt admission to hospital for urgent investigation and treatment. Those with a mild to moderate rise in blood pressure for which no cause is identi?able should be advised to change their lifestyle: smokers should stop the habit, and those with high alcohol consumption should greatly reduce or stop their drinking. Obese people should reduce their food consumption, especially of animal fats, and take more exercise. Everyone with hypertension should follow a low-salt diet and take regular exercise. Patients should also be taught how to relax, which helps to reduce blood pressure and, if they have a stressful life, working patterns should be modi?ed if possible. If these lifestyle changes do not reduce a person’s blood pressure su?ciently, drugs to achieve this will be needed. A wide range of anti-hypertensive drugs are available on prescription.
A ?rst-line treatment is one of the THIAZIDES, e?ective at a low dosage and especially useful in the elderly. Beta blockers (see BETAADRENOCEPTOR-BLOCKING DRUGS), such as oxprenolol, acebutol or atenolol, are also ?rst-line treatments. ACE inhibitors (see ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME (ACE) INHIBITORS) and CALCIUM-CHANNEL BLOCKERS can be used if the ?rst-line choices are not e?ective. The drug treatment of hypertension is complex, and sometimes various drugs or combinations of drugs have to be tried to ?nd what regimen is e?ective and suits the patient. Mild to moderate hypertension can usually be treated in general practice, but patients who do not respond or have complications will normally require specialist advice. Patients on anti-hypertensive treatments require regular monitoring, and, as treatment may be necessary for several years, particular attention should be paid to identifying sideeffects. Nevertheless, e?ective treatment of hypertension does enable affected individuals to live longer and more comfortable lives than would otherwise be the case. Older people with moderately raised blood pressure are often able to live with the condition, and treatment with anti-hypertensive drugs may produce symptoms of HYPOTENSION.
In summary, hypertension is a complex disorder, with di?erent patients responding di?erently to treatment. So the condition sometimes requires careful assessment before the most e?ective therapy for a particular individual is identi?ed, and continued monitoring of patients with the disorder is advisable.
Complications Untreated hypertension may eventually result in serious complications. People with high blood pressure have blood vessels with thickened, less ?exible walls, a narrowed LUMEN and convoluted shape. Sometimes arteries become rigid. ANEURYSM may develop and widespread ATHEROMA (fat deposits) is apparent in the arterial linings. Such changes adversely affect the blood supply to body tissues and organs and so damage their functioning. Patients suffer STROKE (haemorrhage from or thrombosis in the arteries of the BRAIN) and heart attacks (coronary thrombosis
– see HEART, DISEASES OF). Those with hypertension may suffer damage to the retina of the EYE and to the OPTIC DISC. Indeed, the diagnosis of hypertension is sometimes made during a routine eye test, when the doctor or optician notices changes in the retinal arteries or optic disc. Kidney function is often affected, with patients excreting protein and excessive salt in their urine. Occasionally someone with persistent hypertension may suffer an acceleration of damage to the blood vessels – a condition described as ‘malignant’ hypertension, and one requiring urgent hospital treatment.
Hypertension is a potentially dangerous disease because it develops into a cycle of self-perpetuating damage. Faulty blood vessels lead to high blood pressure which in turn aggravates the damage in the vessels and thus in the tissues and organs they supply with blood; this further raises the affected individual’s blood pressure and the pathological cycle continues.... hypertension
Kaempferia rotundaZingiberaceaeSan: Bhumicampaka, Bhucampaka, HallakahHin: AbhuyicampaMal: Chengazhuneerkizhengu, ChengazhuneerkuvaTam: NerppicinKan: NelasampigaTel: Bhucampakamu, Kondakaluva Mar: BhuichampaImportance: The tubers of Indian crocus are widely used as a local application for tumours, swellings and wounds. They are also given in gastric complaints. They help to remove blood clots and other purulent matter in the body. The juice of the tubers is given in dropsical affections of hands and feet, and of effusions in joints. The juice causes salivation and vomiting. In Ayurveda, the improvement formulations using the herb are Chyavanaprasam, Asokarishtam, Baladthatryaditailam, Kalyanakaghritham, etc. The drug “HALLAKAM” prepared from this is in popular use in the form of powder or as an ointment application to wounds and bruises to reduce swellings. It also improves complexion and cures burning sensation, mental disorders and insomnia (NRF, 1998; Sivarajan et al, 1994).Distribution: The plant is distributed in the tropics and sub-tropics of Asia and Africa. The plant grows wild in shaded areas which are wet or humid, especially in forests in South India. It grows in gardens and is known for their beautiful flowers and foliage. It is also cultivated as an intercrop with other commercial crops.Botany: Kaempferia rotunda Linn. belonging to the family Zingiberaceae is an aromatic herb with tuberous root-stalk and very short stem. Leaves are simple, few, erect, oblong or ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, 30cm long, 10cm wide, variegated green above and tinged with purple below. Flowers are fragrant, white, tip purple or lilac arranged in crowded spikes opening successively. The plant produces a subglobose tuberous rhizome from which many roots bearing small oblong or rounded tubers arise (Warrier et al, 1995).Agrotechnology: The plant is a tropical one adapted for tropical climate. Rich loamy soil having good drainage is ideal for the plant. Laterite soil with heavy organic manure application is also well suited. Planting is done in May-June with the receipt of 4 or 5 pre-monsoon showers. The seed rate recommended is 1500-2000kg rhizomes/ha. Whole or split rhizome with one healthy sprout is the planting material. Well developed healthy and disease free rhizomes with the attached root tubers are selected for planting. Rhizomes can be stored in cool dry place or pits dug under shade plastered with mud or cowdung. The field is ploughed to a fine tilth, mixed with organic manure at 10-15t/ha. Seed beds are prepared at a size of 1m breadth and convenient length. Pits are made at 20cm spacing in which 5cm long pieces of rhizomes are planted. Pits are covered with organic manure. They are then covered with rotten straw or leaves. Apply FYM or compost as basal dose at 20 t/ha either by broadcasting and ploughing or by covering the seed in pits after planting. Apply fertilisers at the rate of 50:50:50 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha at the time of first and second weeding. After planting, mulch the beds with dry or green leaves at 15 t/ha. During heavy rainy months, leaf rot disease occurs which can be controlled by drenching 1% Bordeaux mixture. The crop can be harvested after 7 months maturity. Drying up of the leaves is the indication of maturity. Harvest the crop carefully without cutting the rhizome, remove dried leaves and roots. Wash the rhizome in water. They are stored in moisture-proof sheds. Prolonged storage may cause insect and fungus attack (Prasad et al, 1997).Properties and activity: The tubers contain crotepoxide and -sitosterol. Tuber contains essential oil which give a compound with melting point 149oC which yielded benzoic acid on hydrolysis.The tubers are acrid, thermogenic aromatic, stomachic, antiinflammatory, sialagogue, emetic, antitumour and vulnerary.... indian crocus
Withania somniferaSolanceaeSan: Aswagandha, VarahakarniHin: Asgandh, Punir Mal: AmukkuramTam: AmukkiraTel: VajigandhaMar: AskandhaGuj: GhodaKan: ViremaddinagaddiImportance: Indian ginseng or Winter cherry is an erect branching perennial undershrub which is considered to be one of the best rejuvenating agents in Ayurveda. Its roots, leaves and seeds are used in Ayurvedic and Unani medicines, to combat diseases ranging from tuberculosis to arthritis. The pharmacological activity of the plant is attributed to the presence of several alkaloids and withaniols. Roots are prescribed in medicines for hiccup, several female disorders, bronchitis, rheumatism, dropsy, stomach and lung inflammations and skin diseases. Its roots and paste of green leaves are used to relieve joint pains and inflammation. It is also an ingredient of medicaments prescribed for curing disability and sexual weakness in male. Leaves are used in eye diseases. Seeds are diuretic. It is a constituent of the herbal drug ‘Lactare’ which is a galactagogue.Aswagandha was observed to increase cell-mediated immunity, prevent stress induced changes in adrenal function and enhance protein synthesis. Milk fortified with it increases total proteins and body weight. It is a well known rejuvenating agent capable of imparting long life, youthful vigour and intellectual power. It improves physical strength and is prescribed in all cases of general debility. Aswagandha powder (6-12g) twice a day along with honey and ghee is advised for tuberculosis in Sushruta Samhita. It also provides sound sleep (Prakash, 1997).Distribution: Aswagandha is believed to have oriental origin. It is found wild in the forests of Mandsaur and Bastar in Mandhya Pradesh, the foot hills of Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and western Himalayas in India. It is also found wild in the Mediterranean region in North America. In India it is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Rajastan and other drier parts of the country.Botany: Aswagandha belongs to the genus Withania and family Solanaceae. Two species, viz, W. coagulans Dunal and W. somnifera Dunal are found in India. W. coagulans is a rigid grey under shrub of 60-120cm high. W. somnifera is erect, evergreen, tomentose shrub, 30-75cm in height. Roots are stout, fleshy, cylindrical, 1-2cm in diameter and whitish brown in colour. Leaves are simple, ovate, glabrous and opposite. Flowers are bisexual, inconspicuous, greenish or dull yellow in colour born on axillary umbellate cymes, comprising 5 sepals, petals and stamens each; the two celled ovary has a single style and a bilobed stigma. The petals are united and tubular. The stamens are attached to the corolla tube and bear erect anthers which form a close column or cone around the style. Pollen production is poor. The fruit is a small berry, globose, orange red when mature and is enclosed in persistent calyx. The seeds are small, flat, yellow and reniform in shape and very light in weight. The chromosome number 2n = 48.The cultivated plants have sizable differences from the wild forms not only in their morphological characters but also in the therapeutical action, though the alkaloids present are the same in both (Kaul, 1957). Some botanists, therefore, described the cultivated plant distinct from wild taxa and have coined a new name W. aswagandha (Kaul, 1957) which is contested by Atal and Schwarting (1961).Agrotechnology: Asgandh is a tropical crop growing well under dry climate. The areas receiving 600 to 750mm rainfall is best suited to this crop. Rainy season crop requires relatively dry season and the roots are fully developed when 1-2 late winter rains are received. Sandy loam or light red soils having a pH of 7.5- 8.0 with good drainage are suitable for its cultivation. It is usually cultivated on poor and marginal soils. Withania is propagated through seeds. It is a late kharif crop and planting is done in August. Seeds are either broadcast-sown or seedlings are raised in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 10-12 kg/ha for broadcasting and 5kg/ha for transplanting. In direct sown crop plants are thinned and gap filling is done 25-30 days after sowing. Seeds should be treated with Dithane M-45 at 3g/kg of seeds before sowing. Seeds are sown in the nursery just before the onset of rainy season and covered with light soil. Seeds germinate in 6-7 days. When seedlings are six weeks old they are transplanted at 60cm in furrows taken 60cm apart. The crop is mainly grown as a rainfed crop on residual fertility and no manure or fertilizers are applied to this crop generally. However, application of organic manure is beneficial for realizing better yields. It is not a fertilizer responsive crop. One hand weeding 25-30 days after sowing helps to control weeds effectively. No serious pest is reported in this crop. Diseases like seedling rot and blight are observed. Seedling mortality becomes serious under high temperature and humid conditions. The disease can be minimized by use of disease free seeds and treatment with thiram or deltan at 3-4g/kg seed before sowing. Further, use of crop rotation, timely sowing and keeping field well drained also protect the crop. Spraying with 0.3% fytolan, dithane Z-78 or dithane M-45 will help controlling the disease incidence. Spraying is repeated at 15 days interval if the disease persists. Aswagandha is a crop of 150-170 days duration. The maturity of the crop is judged by the drying of the leaves and reddening of berries. Harvesting usually starts from January and continues till March. Roots, leaves and seeds are the economical parts. The entire plant is uprooted for roots, which are separated from the aerial parts. The berries are plucked from dried plants and are threshed to obtain the seeds. The yield is 400-500kg of dry roots and 50-75kg seeds per hectare.Post harvest technology: The roots are separated from the plant by cutting the stem 1-2cm above the crown.Roots are then cut into small pieces of 7-10cm to facilitate drying. Occasionally, the roots are dried as a whole. The dried roots are cleaned, trimmed, graded, packed and marketed. Roots are carefully hand sorted into the following four grades.Grade A: Root pieces 7cm long, 1-1.5cm diameter, brittle, solid, and pure white from outside.Grade B: Root pieces 5cm long, 1cm diameter, brittle, solid and white from outside.Grade C: Root pieces 3-4cm long, less than 1cm diameter and solid. Lower grade: Root pieces smaller, hollow and yellowish from outside.Properties and activity: Aswagandha roots contain alkaloids, starch, reducing sugar, hentriacontane, glycosides, dulcital, withaniol acid and a neutral compound. Wide variation (0.13-0.31%) is observed in alkaloid content. Majumdar (1955) isolated 8 amorphous bases such as withanine, somniferine, somniferinine, somnine, withananine, withananinine, pseudowithanine and withasomnine. Other alkaloids reported are nicotine, tropine, pseudotropine, 3, -tigloyloxytropane, choline, cuscudohygrine, anaferine, anahygrine and others. Free aminoacids in the roots include aspartic acid, glycine, tyrosine, alanine, proline, tryptophan, glutamic acid and cystine. Leaves contain 12 withanolides, alkaloids, glycosides, glucose and free amino acids. Berries contain a milk coagulating enzyme, two esterases, free amino acids, fatty oil, essential oil and alkaloids. Methods for alkaloid’s analysis in Asgandh roots have also been reported (Majumdar, 1955; Mishra, 1989; Maheshwari, 1989). Withania roots are astringent, bitter, acrid, somniferous, thermogenic, stimulant, aphrodisiac, diuretic and tonic. Leaf is antibiotic, antitumourous, antihepatotoxic and antiinflammatory. Seed is milk coagulating, hypnotic and diuretic.... indian ginseng
Glycyrrhiza glabraPapilionaceaeSan: Yashtimadhu Hin: Jathimadh Mal: Irattimadhuram Tam:AthimadhuramTel: YashtimadhukamBen: Yashtomadhu Pun:MuletiImportance: Liquorice or Muleti is a perennial herb or undershrub about 1m high. Its dried peeled or unpeeled underground stems and roots constitute the drug which is an important constituent of all cough and catarrh syrups, throat lozenges and pastilles. This has been used in medicine for more than 4000 years. Hippocrates (400 BC) mentioned its use as a remedy for ulcers and quenching of thirst. Dioscorides, the father of Greek medicine described this drug in detail and considered it useful for maintaining shape of arteries and in burning stomach, trouble of liver and kidney, scabies, healing of wounds and as a remedy for eye diseases. It has been used in Arab system of medicine for more than 600 years from where it has been adopted to modern medicine (Gibson, 1978).The commercial name of the dried rhizome and root of the plant is liquorice which is used as flavouring agent and the taste coorigent in pharmaceutical and confectionery industries and its products are widely reported to be useful in ulcer therapy. Glycyrrhizin, a triterpene glucoside, is the principal constituent of G. glabra which is 50 times sweeter than sugar.Distribution: Liquorice is native to Mediterranean region, South Europe and Middle East. It is widely distributed in Spain, Italy, Greece, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, parts of USSR and China. However its cultivation is limited to small areas in USSR, UK, and USA. In India, it grows in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. Semi arid areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarath states are suitable for the cultivation of Liquorice. However, its commercial cultivation has not yet been possible and the domestic requirement is largely met through imports.Botany: Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. belongs to the family Papilionaceae. The word Glycyrrhiza is of Greek origin meaning ‘sweet’ and glabra means ‘smooth’ which refers to smooth fruit of the species. This is a tall perennial, self pollinated herb or undershrub about 1m high with long cylindrical burrowing rootstock and horizontal creeping stolons which reach 1.5-1.8m in length. Leaves are alternate, pinnate with 9-17 leaflets. Leaflets are yellowish-green, 2.5-5cm long, ovate and obtuse. Flowers are pale blue arranged in a raceme and 1.25cm long. Calyx is glandular and pubescent. The pods are glabrous, red to brown having 3-4 seeds. Rhizome is soft, flexible and fibrous with light yellow colour and a characteristic sweet taste.Agrotechnology: This plant thrives well in subtropical areas with very warm summers and cool winters with a rainfall not exceeding 500mm. Semi -arid and arid areas in subtropical zones are not suitable for the cultivation of this crop. It does not tolerate high humidity and waterlogged conditions. Well drained light loam soils which are rich in calcium and magnesium with slightly alkaline pH and free from stones are ideal for this crop. There are a number of varieties of this crop among which Spanish, Russian and Persian liquorice are quite common. Commercial varieties are Typica, Regel and Herd. This is propagated by seed, but usually multiplied vegetatively either through crown cuttings or stolon pieces. In the case of crown cuttings, 10-15cm long crown pieces with 2-3 buds are planted vertically at a distance of 0.6-0.7m in rows 1-1.5m apart. However, most of the liquorice is propagated through stolon pieces of the above size planted horizontally, preferably on ridges during spring at the same distance as above. Rapid clonal propagation is also possible by tissue culture technique. Murashige and Skoog’s medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine and indole-3-acetic acid favoured multiple shoot production without any intervening callus phase. These regenerated plantlets can be transferred to earthen pots in the glass house and after a brief hardening phase, these are transplanted in the field with a high rate (90-95%) of survival. This plant normally does not require much fertilizers but in deficient soils, it is better to apply 10-15 tonnes FYM per hectare before planting. The field should be immediately irrigated after planting in spring and after the crop has sprouted, it requires very little irrigation. Space between the rows should be kept free from weeds. Short term vegetables like carrot or cabbage can be planted between the rows for additional income. In order to produce good rhizome, flowering shoots are clipped. No serious disease except leaf spot caused by Cercospora cavarae has been reported in this crop. Roots are ready for harvesting after 3-4 years. The root is dug when the top has dried during autumn (November- December). A trench 60cm deep is dug along the ridges and the entire root is lifted. Broken parts of the root left in the soil, sprout again and give another crop after 2-3 years. Thus liquorice once planted properly can be harvested for 10-15 years.Postharvest technology: Harvested roots are cut into pieces of 15-20cm long and 1-2cm in diameter. They are washed and dried upto 6-8% moisture in the sun and shade alternately which reduces the weight by 50%. The average yield of dried roots varies from 1-3 tonnes per hectare depending on the variety, soil and climatic conditions.Properties and activity: Roots gave a number of compounds the most important bieng a glucoside, glycyrrhizin which gave glycyrrhetinic acid on enzyme hydrolysis. Root also contains flavans, flavones, iso-flavanoes and coumarins including a 4-methyl coumarin, liqcoumarin, glabridin, glabrene, 4’-0-methyl and 3’-methoxyglabridin, formononetin, salicylic acid, 0-acetyl salicylic acid which has been isolated first time from nature, hispaglabridins A and B and 4’0- methylglabridin.On hydrolysis it also gave two molecules of d-glucuronic acid, each linked with 1-2 linkage to 3-hydroxyl of the sapogenin (Elgamal et al, 1969) Glycyrrhizin is antidiuretic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, antiulcerous, antihistamine. Glycyrrhizic acid is antiviral. The roots are emetic, tonic, diuretic, demulcent, mild laxative, aphrodisiac, trichogenous, expectorant, emmenagogue, alexipharmic, alterant and intellect promoting.... liquorice
Mesua nagassariumClusiaceaeSan: Nagapuspah, Nagakesarah;Hin: Nagakesar;Ben: Nagkesar, Nagesar;Mal: Nagappuvu,Nagachempakam, Nanku, Vayanavu, Churuli, Eliponku;Tam: Nagappu, Nanku;Kan: Nagasampige;Tel: Nagakesaramu, Gajapuspam; Mar,Guj: NagchampaImportance: Mesua or Ironwood tree, commonly known as Nagapushpam is an important medicinal plant which finds varied uses in Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani. Leaves are used in the form of poultice which is applied to head in severe colds. Bark and roots in decoction or infusion or tincture is a better tonic and are useful in gastritis and bronchitis. Fixed oil expressed from seeds is used as an application for cutaneous affections, sores, scabies, wounds, etc. and as an embrocation in rheumatism. Dried flowers powdered and mixed with ghee, or a paste made of flowers with addition of butter and sugar, are given in bleeding piles as well as dysentery with mucus. They are also useful in thirst, irritability of the stomach, excessive perspiration, cough with much expectoration, dyspepsia, etc. Leaves and flowers are used in scorpion stings. Syrup of the flower buds is given for the cure of dysentery (Nadkarni et al, 1976). In Ayurveda, it is an ingredient of “Nagakeshara-adi-Churna”, used for bacillary dysentery and in “Naga Keshara Yoga”, for piles. In Unani system, the drug is an ingredient of large number of recipes like, “Jawarish Shehryaran” a stomach and liver tonic, “Hab Pachaluna”, an appetiser, “Halwa-i-supari pack” a general tonic, etc. (Thakur et al, 1989).Distribution: The plant occurs in sub-tropical to tropical areas of East India, Andaman Islands and Western Ghats, upto an altitude of 1500m.Botany: Mesua nagassarium (Burm.f.) Kosterm. syn. M. ferrea auct. non Linn. belongs to the family Clusiaceae. It is a medium sized to large evergreen tree, 18-30m in height and with reddish brown bark which peels off in thin flakes. Leaves are simple, opposite, thick, lanceolate, coriaceous, covered with waxy bloom underneath, and red when young, acute or acuminate and with inconspicuous nerves. Flowers are white, very fragrant, axillary or terminal, solitary or in pairs. Stamens are numerous, golden yellow, much shorter than the petals. Fruits are ovoid with a conical point surrounded by the enlarged sepals. Seeds are 1-4 in number, angular, dark brown and smooth (Warrier et al, 1995).The flowers of Ochrocarpus longifolius are also sometimes referred to as Nagakesara. This tree is found in the West Coast of India (Thakur et al, 1989).Agrotechnology: The plant prefers plains, riverbanks or places which do not experiences moisture stress for its luxuriant growth. Silty loam soil is suitable for its cultivation. The plant is propagated by seeds. Seed formation occurs in November-March. Seeds are to be collected and sown in seedbeds or polybags. 3-4 months old seedlings are used for transplanting. Pits of size 45cm cube are to be taken at a distance of 3-3.5m and filled with a mixture of 10kg FYM, sand and top soil and made into a mound. Seedlings are to be transplanted into small handpits taken on these mounds. FYM is to be applied twice a year. Regular irrigation and weeding are to be done. The tree flowers in the fourth year. Flowers can be collected, dried in the sun and marketed (Prasad et al,1997).Properties and activity: Seed oil gives 4-phenyl coumarin analogues-mesuol, mammeigin, mesuagin, mammeisin and mesuone. Bark gives ferruols A and B. Heartwood gives xanthones- euxanthone, mesuaxanthones A and B and a tetroxygenated xanthone named ferraxanthone. Stamens give and -amyrin, -sitosterol, biflavonoids- mesuaferrones A and B, and mesuanic acid. Bark yields a lupeol-type triterpenoid also named guttiferol. Seed oil is rich in oleic, stearic and palmitic acids. Linoleic, arachidic and linolenic acids are also present.Mesuaxanthones A and B and euxanthone are antiinflammatory, CNS depressant and antimicrobial. The essential oil from the stamens is antibacterial, antifungal, anthelmintic and that from fruit is antifungal. Oral administration of a compound preparation containing Mesua ferrea (flowers), Foeniculum vulgare (seeds), Curcuma zeodaria (tubers), Nigella sativa (seeds), Terminalia chebula (seeds) and T. arjuna (stem-bark) exhibited antiimplantation activity in rats. An Ayurvedic preparations containing M. ferrea has haemostatic and astringent properties and is particularly useful in uterine bleeding. Aerial part is CVS active, spasmolytic and diuretic. Phenol containing fraction of seed oil is antiasthmatic and antianaphylaxis. Bark is used as tonic after childbirth. Bark and unripe fruit is sudorific. Leaf and flower is an antidote for snakebite and scorpion sting. Flower bud is antidysenteric. Flower is stomachic and expectorant. Seed oil is antirheumatic. Unripe fruit and flower is astringent (Husain et al,1992).... mesua
The management of MALIGNANT disease – a major health problem since successful management requires close liaison between the patient, surgeons, physicians, oncologists, haematologists, paediatricians and other specialists. Diagnosis may involve various investigations and often requires a BIOPSY. Once a diagnosis has been established, treatment may involve surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapy (or various combinations as required) – see below, and main dictionary entries.
Surgery may be most common, and is often the only treatment, for some gastrointestinal tumours, soft-tissue tumours, gynaecological tumours and advanced cancers of the head and neck.
Radiotherapy uses ionising radiation to kill tumour cells. Radiation is by naturally occurring isotopes (see ISOTOPE) or arti?cially produced X-RAYS. Germ-cell tumours (see SEMINOMA; TERATOMA) and malignant lymphomas (see LYMPHOMA) appear to be particularly sensitive to irradiation, and many head and neck tumours, gynaecological cancers, and localised cancers of the PROSTATE GLAND and URINARY BLADDER are curable with radiotherapy. It is also a valuable means of reducing pain from bone metastases (see METASTASIS). Unpleasant side-effects are common: chie?y lethargy, loss of appetite and dry, itchy skin symptoms.
Chemotherapy is also an important treatment in germ-cell tumours (see above); in some forms of LEUKAEMIA and lymphoma; in ovarian cancer (following surgery – see OVARIES, DISEASES OF); and in small-cell lung cancer (although most patients die within 18 months – see LUNGS, DISEASES OF). It is also used in some breast cancers (see BREASTS, DISEASES OF); advanced myeloma (see MYELOMATOSIS); sarcomas (see under CANCER); and some childhood cancers (such as WILMS’ TUMOUR).
More than 20 substances are in common use, the major classes being ALKYLATING AGENTS (e.g. cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, busul fan); ANTIMETABOLITES (e.g. methotrexate); VINCA ALKALOIDS (e.g. vincristine, vinblastine); and antitumour ANTIBIOTICS (e.g. actinomycin D). Choice of agent and the appropriate regimen requires expert guidance. Common side-effects include nausea and vomiting, bone-marrow suppression and ALOPECIA, with each substance having its own spectrum of unwanted effects.
Good doctor-patient communication, with the sharing of information and bringing the patient into the decision-making process, is vital even if time-consuming and exhausting.
Equally imortant treatment is PALLIATIVE, for example to ensure e?ective pain or nausea control. Common sources of pain in cancer may involve bone, nerve compression, soft tissue, visceral, myofascial, constipation, muscle spasm, low-back pain, joint pain (e.g. capsulitis) and chronic post-operative pain. Patients may be suffering from more than one pain, all of which should be identi?ed. The aim should be to eliminate pain.
There are three rungs of the analgesic ladder; if one rung fails, the next one should be tried:
(1) non-opioid drugs – for example, aspirin, PARACETAMOL, NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS); (2) weak opioids – for example, CODEINE, DIHYDROCODEINE, dextropropoxyphene; (3) strong opioids
– for example, MORPHINE, DIAMORPHINE, buprenorphine. Oral treatment is always preferable, unless prevented by severe vomiting. (See also CANCER; ONCOLOGIST; PAIN; PALLIATIVE CARE.)... oncology
(Linn.) Karst.
Synonym: O. esculentum R. Br. Sarcostemma secamone (Linn.) Bennet.
Family: Asclepiadaceae.
Habitat: Throughout the plains and lower hills of India, including paddy fields and hedges rear semi-marshy places.
Ayurvedic: Dugdhikaa, Duudhila- taa, Duudhialataa .
Folk: Usipallai (Tamil Nadu); Dugdhani (Maharashtra); Jala- dudhi (Gujarat).
Action: Herb—antiseptic, depura- tive, galactogogue; decoction used as a gargle in stomatitis and sore throat. Latex—vulnerary. Fresh root—prescribed in jaundice.
A pregnane ester oligoglycoside (oxysine), a pregnane triglycoside (es- culentin), a cardenolide (oxyline), two more cardenolides, oxystelmoside and oxystelmine, have been isolated from the roots.
Dosage: Plant—10-20 ml juice; 50100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)
Family: Rubiaceae.
Habitat: Central and Eastern Himlayas extending to Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa.
Ayurvedic: Talanili, Gand- haprasaarini. (Prasaarini is also equated with Raaja-balaa, Sida veronicaefolia.).
Siddha/Tamil: Talanili, Mudiyar Kundal.
Folk: Gandhabhaaduli (Bengali).
Action: Leaf—carminative, antiinflammatory, astringent, spasmolytic, antidiarrhoeal, diuretic, an- tilithic. Root— anti-inflammatory. Used for rheumatic affections, piles, inflammations of the liver, spleen and chest.
Aerial parts contain epi-friedelanol, embelin and beta-sitosterol. Leaves and stems gave iridoid glycosides, si- tosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, ur- solic acid, hentriacontane, hentriacon- tanol, ceryl alcohol, palmitic acid and methyl mercaptan. The foetid smell is due to methyl mercaptan.All parts of the plant have been employed for rheumatic affections.A related species, Paederia scandens (Lour.) Merill, synonym P. tomentosa Blume, is known as Gandha Prasaarini. The iridoid glucosides, paedero- side, paederosidic acid and scandosides have been isolated from the plant.... oxystelma secamone
An acute febrile illness, usually seen in children, which may include ARTHRALGIA, ARTHRITIS, CHOREA, carditis (see below) and rash (see ERUPTION). The illness has been shown to follow a beta-haemolytic streptococcal infection (see STREPTOCOCCUS).
Rheumatic fever is now extremely uncommon in developed countries, but remains common in developing areas. Diagnosis is based on the presence of two or more major manifestations – endocarditis (see under HEART, DISEASES OF), POLYARTHRITIS, chorea, ERYTHEMA marginatum, subcutaneous nodules – or one major and two or more minor ones – fever, arthralgia, previous attacks, raised ESR, raised white blood cell count, and ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG) changes. Evidence of previous infection with streptococcus is also a criterion.
Clinical features Fever is high, with attacks of shivering or rigor. Joint pain and swelling (arthralgia) may affect the knee, ankle, wrist or shoulder and may migrate from one joint to another. TACHYCARDIA may indicate cardiac involvement. Subcutaneous nodules may occur, particularly over the back of the wrist or over the elbow or knee. Erythema marginatum is a red rash, looking like the outline of a map, characteristic of the condition.
Cardiac involvement includes PERICARDITIS, ENDOCARDITIS, and MYOCARDITIS. The main long-term complication is damage to the mitral and aortic valves (see HEART).
The chief neurological problem is chorea (St Vitus’s dance) which may develop after the acute symptoms have subsided.
Chronic rheumatic heart disease occurs subsequently in at least half of those who have had rheumatic fever with carditis. The heart valve usually involved is the mitral; less commonly the aortic, tricuspid and pulmonary. The lesions may take 10–20 years to develop in developed countries but sooner elsewhere. The heart valves progressively ?brose and ?brosis may also develop in the myocardium and pericardium. The outcome is either mitral stenosis or mitral regurgitation and the subsequent malfunction of this or other heart valves affected is chronic failure in the functioning of the heart. (see HEART, DISEASES OF).
Treatment Eradication of streptococcal infection is essential. Other features are treated symptomatically. PARACETAMOL may be preferred to ASPIRIN as an antipyretic in young children. One of the NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS) may bene?t the joint symptoms. CORTICOSTEROIDS may be indicated for more serious complications.
Patients who have developed cardiac-valve abnormalities require antibiotic prophylaxis during dental treatment and other procedures where bacteria may enter the bloodstream. Secondary cardiac problems may occur several decades later and require replacement of affected heart valves.... rheumatic fever
Strobilanthes ciliatusAcanthaceaeSan: Sahacarah, Sairyakah;Hin: Karvi, Kara;Mal: Karimkurunji, Kurunji;Tam: Kurunji, SinnakurunjiImportance: Strobilanthes is an important shrub used in the treatment of rheumatism. The roots are useful in rheumatalgia, lumbago, siatica, limping, chest congestion, strangury, fever, leucoderma, skin diseases, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, odontalgia and general debility. The leaves and bark are useful in whooping cough, fever, bronchitis, dropsy, leucoderma, leprosy, pouritus, inflammations, scrofula and fever (Warrier et al, 1995).Distribution: It is distributed in tropical countries, such as India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and in a few subtropical countries. It is observed in India, throughout the evergreen forests of Western Ghats upto 1200m. It is also cultivated.Botany: The genus Strobilanthes belonging to the family Acanthaceae consists of 3 species namely,S. ciliatus Nees.,syn. Nilgirianthus ciliatus (Nees) BremekS. auriculatus Nees. andS. callisus Nees.S. ciliatus is a slender shrub with subquandrangular white dotted dark green or purple stems and branches. Leaves are dark green, elliptic, accuminate at both ends, serrate, glabrous with 6-7 pairs of main nerves. Flowers are white to lilac, arranged in axillary slender glabrous spikes. Fruits are very rarely formed. Adventitious roots arise from a few basal nodes also. The main roots as well as the nodal roots are used as raw drugs (Warrier et al, 1995).Agrotechnology: Strobilanthes prefers silty loam soil, mixed with sand, for good growth. It grows abundantly in river banks, lowlands and plains. The best season of planting is May-June. The field is to be ploughed to a fine tilth and mixed with 5-7t/ha of FYM/compost/dried cowdung. Seed beds of size 3m length, 0.5m width and 15cm height are to be made in which 10cm long stem cuttings are to be planted at a spacing of 30cm between plants. Rooting occurs within 20 days. Two weedings should be carried out at 2 months and 4 months after planting, followed by organic manure application. Irrigation is not a must but during summer months it is beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Harvesting can be done at the end of the second year. For this the plants are to be cut, roots dug out and collected. Roots are to be washed well, dried in sun and marketed. Roots, leaves and bark constitute the economic parts (Prasad et al, 1997).Properties and activity: The leaves and stem yield essential oil which is of good medicinal value. The roots are bitter, sweet, thermogenic, emollient, diuretic, febrifuge, diaphoretic, depurative, antiinflammatory and tonic. Leaves and bark are diaphoretic, expectorant, depurative and febrifuge.... strobilanthes
Acorus calamusAraceaeSan: Vaca, Ugragandha, Bhadra;Hin: Bacc, Gorbacc;Ben: Bach; Mal:Vayampu;Tam: Vasampu;Kan: Bajai;Tel: Vasa VadajaImportance: The sweet flag is an important medhya drug, capable of improving memory power and intellect. It is used in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, stomatopathy, hoarseness, colic, flatulence, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, amenorrhoea, dismenorrhoea, nephropathy, calculi, strangury, cough, bronchitis, odontalgia, pectoralgia, hepatodynia, otalgia, inflammations, gout, epilepsy, delirium, amentia, convulsions, depression and other mental disorders, tumours, dysentery, hyperdipsia, haemorrhoids, intermittent fevers, skin diseases, numbness and general debility. It is reportedly useful in improving digestion, clearing speech and curing diarrhoea, dysentery, abdominal obstruction and colic. It is also useful in infantile fever, cough bronchitis and asthma. The drug is reported to cure hysteria, insanity and chronic rheumatic complaints. The rhizome is an ingredient of preparations like Vacaditaila, Ayaskrti, Kompancadi gulika, Valiya rasnadi kashaya, etc.Distribution: The plant is a native of Europe. It is distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics, especially in India and Sri Lanka. It is found in marshes, wild or cultivated, ascending the Himalayas upto 1800m in Sikkim. It is plentiful in marshy tracts of Kashmir and Sirmoor, in Manipur and Naga Hills.Botany: Acorus calamus Linn. belonging to the family Araceae is a semi -aquatic rhizomatous perennial herb. Rhizome is creeping, much branched, cylindrical or slightly compressed, light brown or pinkish brown externally, white and spongy within. Leaves are bright green, distichous, ensiform, base equitant, thickened in the middle and with wavy margins. Flowers are light brown and densely packed in sessile cylindric spadix. Fruits are oblong, turbinate berries with a pyramidal top. Seeds are few and pendant from the apex of the cells (Warrier et al, 1993).Another species belonging to the genus Acorus is A. gramineus Soland, the roots of which are used in tonic, antiseptics and insecticidal preparations (Chopra et al, 1956).Agrotechnology: Acorus is a hardy plant found growing from tropical to subtropical climates. It needs a good and well distributed rainfall throughout the year. It needs ample sunlight during the growth period as well as after harvest for drying the rhizomes. It may be cultivated in any good but fairly moist soil. It is usually grown in areas where paddy can be grown. It comes up well in clayey soils and light alluvial soils of river bank. The field is laid out and prepared exactly as for rice, irrigated sufficiently and after ploughing twice, watered heavily and again ploughed in the puddle. Sprouted rhizome pieces are used for planting and pressed into the mud at a depth of about 5cm at a spacing of 30x30cm. The rhizomes are planted in such a way that the plants in the second row comes in between the plants of the first row and not opposite to them. FYM is to be applied at 25t/ha. Fertilisers are applied at 25:50:60 kg N:P2O5:K2O/ha/yr. Whole of FYM and 1/3 of N, P2O5 and K2O are to be added in the field during March - April as a basal dose. The remaining 2/3 of nutrients is to be given in two equal split doses at 4 months and 8 months after planting. The field is to be regularly irrigated. About 5 cm of standing water is to be maintained in the field in the beginning. Later, it is to be increased to 10 cm as the plant grows. The field is to be regularly weeded. About 8 weedings are to be carried out in all. At each weeding the plants are pressed into the soil. The plant is attacked by mealy bugs. Both shoot and root mealy bugs can be controlled by spraying the shoot and drenching the roots of grown up plants with 10 ml Methyl parathion or 15ml Oxydemeton methyl or 20ml Quinalphos in 10 litres of water. The crop is ready for harvest at the end of first year. The field is to be dried partially so that sufficient moisture is left in the soil to facilitate deep digging. The leaves start turning yellow and dry, indicating maturity. The rhizome will be at a depth of 60cm and having about 30-60cm spread. Therefore, harvesting is to be done carefully. The rhizomes are to be cut into 5-7.5cm long pieces and all the fibrous roots are to be removed. Yield of rhizome is about 10t/ha (Farooqi et al, 1991).Properties and Activity:Rhizomes, roots and leaves yield essential oil. The important constituents of the Indian oil are asarone and its -isomer. Other constituents are and -pinene, myrcene, camphene, p-cymene, camphor and linalool, sesquiterpenic ketones like asarone, calamone, calacone, acolamone, iso-acolamone, acoragermacrone, epishyobunone, shyobunone and iso- shyobunone. Alcohol present is preisocalamendiol. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons like elemene, elemane and calarene are also present. Tricyclic sesquiterpenes present are caryophyllene, humulene, guaiene, S-guaizulene, arcurcumene, -cadinene, cadinane, calamenene, calacorene, dihydrocalacorene(calamenene), cadalene and selinene. Roots yield acoric acid as a main constituent in addition to choline. Plant also yields a flavone diglycoside- luteolin 6,8-C-diglucoside.-asarone is the ma jor constituent of essential oil from rhizome (Dandiya et al, 1958,1959; Raquibuddoula, 1967).Rhizome is insecticidal, pisicidal, spasmolytic, hypothermic, CNS active and analgesic. Essential oil is anticonvulsant. Rhizome is acrid, bitter, thermogenic, aromatic, intellect promoting, emetic, laxative, carminative, stomachic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, diuretic, alexeteric, expectorant, anodyne, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, antiinflammatory, sudorific, antipyretic, sialagogue, insecticidal, tranquillizer, sedative, analgesic, antithermic, antiasthmatic, hypotensive, respiratory depressant, aperitive and tonic.... sweet flag
(Roxb. ex Flem.) Karst.
Synonym: S. chirata (Wall.) C. B. Clarke.S. tongluensis Burkill. Gentiana chirayita Roxb. ex Flem. G. chirata Wall. Ophelia chirata Griseb.
Family: Gentianaceae.
Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan and in Khasi Hills.
English: Chiretta.
Ayurvedic: Kiraata, Kairaata, Kiraataka, Kandatikta, Kiraatatikta, Kiraatatiktaka, Katutikta, Trin- nimba, Bhuunimba, Aranyatikta, Raamasenaka. Bhuunimba (also equated with Andrographis paniculata).
Unani: Chiraitaa.
Siddha: Nilavembu.
Action: Blood purifier and bitter tonic (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India); used in skin diseases. Other properties: antiinflammatory (experimentally, the benzene extract was comparable with phenylbutazone and betamethasone in induced arthritis); hypoglycaemic (xanthone, swerchirin, lowers blood sugar), astringent, stomachic (in dyspepsia and diarrhoea); antimalarial (before the discovery of Peruvian bark), anthelmintic; antiasthmatic, bechic; and as a liver tonic (several active principles are hepatoprotective).
The herb contains oxygenated xan- thone derivatives, including decus- satin, mangiferin, swerchirin, swer- tianin, isobellidifolin; iridoids including chiratin, alkaloids including gen- tianine, gentiocrucine, enicoflavine and glycosyl flavones.Antitubercular activity has been claimed in xanthones. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Green chiretta is equated with Andrographis paniculata Nees, Acantha- ceae.
Dosage: Whole plant—1-3 g powder; 20-30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)... swertia chirayita
Tinospora cordifoliaMenispermaceaeSan: Amrita, Guduchi;Hin,Ben: Giloe;Mal: Amritu, Chittamritu;Tam: AmridavalliKan: Amritaballi;Tel: Tivantika, Tippatige; Pun: Batindu Ori: GulochiImportance: Tinospora is a common climbing shrub which is used in medicine, usually in the fresh state, though it is commercially available in the dried state. It is probably the most useful preparation acting as a tonic and aphrodisiac. As a tonic it is best given in infusion with or without milk. It is a popular remedy for snake-bite and leprosy. It is generally prescribed in general debility, diabetes, fever, jaundice, skin diseases, rheumatism, urinary diseases, dyspepsia, gout, gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea. It is a constituent of several preparations like guduchayado churna, gududyadi kwath, guduchilouha, amritarista, sanjivanivati, guduchi taila, amiritastak kwath, etc. The juice mixed with the pulp of long pepper and honey is a house hold remedy for gonorrhoea. Several oils for external applications are prepared with amrita and applied to skin diseases, rheumatic affections and other nervous complaints. A small quantity of bruised stem soaked for three hours in half a litre of water and strained combined with ammonium acetate is administered in intermittent and milder forms of fevers. It is rendered more agreeable with cinnamon, cloves and other aromatics. (Viswanathan, 1997).Distribution: The plant is widely seen in tropical countries like India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and in Andaman Islands. It is mostly found trailing on forest trees, fences and hedges along the boundaries.Botany: Tinospora cordifolia (Willd) Miers ex Hk. f & Thoms. syn. Menispermum cordifolium Willd, Cocculus cordifolius (Willd) DC. belongs to the family Menispermaceae. It is a climbing shrub with rough corky bark. Leaves are glabrous, cordate 5-10cm broad, acute or accuminate. The plant is dioecious. Male flowers are in fascicles; sepals oval; petals half the length of sepals. Female flowers are usually solitary, having ovary on the fleshy receptacle. Fruits are red when ripe.Agrotechnology: Giloe requires a warm humid tropical climate. It thrives well in deep fertile soils which are rich in organic matter. It is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings. About 10-15cm long stem cuttings having at least 2 nodes are planted in the field or polybags. Treatment of cut ends with hormones gives better results. The usual planting time is with the onset of monsoon in May-June. Usually it is planted along boundaries or nearby tall trees and allowed to trail on the trees or hedges and hence regular spacing is not followed. While planting, adequate amounts of organic manure are applied. Once the plant is established no much management is needed. The stem is the most economic part. Harvesting can be commenced after one year and usually partial harvesting is followed depending on the necessity. The stem and root should be collected in hot season when the concentration of the bitter principle is the highest. A full grown well ramified plant may give 2-3kg vines, which are cut into smaller pieces and traded either fresh or after drying.Properties and activity: The plant contains cordifol, tinosporidine, tinosporide, perberilin, heptacosanol, - sitosterol, cordifolone, tinosporon, tinosporic acid, tinosporol, cordifolide, tinosporine, magnoflorine and tembetarine (Husain et al,1992).The plant is antigonorrhoric, stomachic, antispasmodic, antiinflammatory, stimulant, diuretic, emetic, antidiabetic, aphrodisiac, antiperiodic, antileprotic antirheumantic and tonic. The root is an emetic in large doses. The tincture and extract are alterative and tonic and in a less degree antiperiodic and diuretic. (Dey,1980).... tinospora
Kaul (cultivated var.)W somnífera (Linn.) Dunal (Chemo- type I, II, III: Israele.)
Family: Solanaceae.
Habitat: Throughout the drier and subtropical parts of India.
English: Winter Cherry. (Physalis alkekengi is also known as Winter Cherry.)
Ayurvedic: Ashwagandhaa, Haya- gandhaa, Ashwakanda, Gandharva- gandhaa, Turaga, Turagagandhaa, Turangagandhaa, Vaajigandhaa, Gokarnaa, Vrishaa, Varaahakarni, Varadaa, Balyaa, Vaajikari. (A substitute for Kaakoli and Kshira- kaakoli.) Cultivated var.: Asgandh Naagori. (Indian botanists consider the cultivated plants distinct from the wild ones.)
Unani: Asgandh.
Siddha: Amukkuramkizhangu.
Action: Root—used as an antiinflammatory drug for swellings, tumours, scrofula and rheumatism; and as a sedative and hypnotic in anxiety neurosis. Leaf— anti-inflammatory, hepatopro- tective, antibacterial. Fruits and seeds—diuretic. Withanine— sedative, hypnotic. Withaferin A—major component of biologically active steroids; as effective as hydrocortisone dose for dose. Antibacterial, antitumour, an- tiarthritic, significantly protective against hepatotoxicity in rats.
The root contains several alkaloids, including withanine, withananine, withananinine, pseudo-withanine, somnine, somniferine, somniferinine. The leaves of Indian chemotype contain 12 withanolides, including withaferin A. Steroidal lactones ofwithano- lide series have been isolated.Withanine is sedative and hypnotic. Withaferin A is antitumour, an- tiarthritic and antibacterial. Anti-inflammatory activity has been attributed to biologically active steroids, of which withaferin A is a major component. The activity is comparable to that of hydrocortisone sodium succinate.Withaferin A also showed significantly protective effect against CCl4- induced hepatotoxicity in rats. It was as effective as hydrocortisone dose for dose.The root extract contains an ingredient which has GABA mimetic activityThe free amino acids present in the root include aspartic acid, glycine, tyrosine, alanine, proline, tryptophan, glutamic acid and cystine.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends Ashwagandha in im- potency. This claim could not be sustained in a recent experiment and raises a doubt about the equation of classical Ashwagandha with Withania somnifera. A methanolic extract of With- ania somnifera root induced a marked impairment in libido, sexual performance, sexual vigour and penile dysfunction in male rats. (Llayperuma et al, Asian J Androl, 2002, 295-298.)The total alkaloids of the root exhibited prolonged hypotensive, brady- cardiac and depressant action of the higher cerebral centres in several experimental animals.A withanolide-free aqueous fraction isolated from the roots of Withania somnifera exhibited antistress activity in a dose-dependent manner in mice. (Phytother Res 2003, 531-6.)(See also Simon Mills; American Herbal Pharmacopoeia, 2000; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)
Dosage: Root—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... withania ashwagandha
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