Antiphlogistic Health Dictionary

Sweet.

Synonym: A. nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj.

Family: Convolvulaceae.

Habitat: Found all over India, ascending to 300 m.

English: Elephant Creeper.

Ayurvedic: Vriddhadaaruka, Vriddhadaaru, Vriddhadaaraka, Bastaantri, Sthavira, Sthaviradaaru, Atarunadaaru, Samudrashosha. (Seeds of Salvia plebeia R. Br. are also known as Samudrashosha.)

Unani: Samunder sokh.

Siddha/Tamil: Ambgar, Samuddira- pacchai

Folk: Bidhaaraa.

Action: Root—aphrodisiac (considered as a rejuvenator), nervine (used in diseases of nervous system, sexual disorders), diuretic (used in strangury), antirheumatic. Seeds—hypotensive, spasmolytic. Leaves—used externally in skin diseases (ringworm, eczema, boils, swellings); rubefacient, topically stimulant.

The seeds contain hallucinogenic ergoline alkaloids, the main ones being ergine and isoergine. EtOH (50%) extract of seeds exhibits hypotensive activity. (Seeds of all species of Argyreia contain ergoline alkaloids and are hypotensive.) Leaves of Argyreia sp. contain sitosterol and are antiphlogistic.

In Indian medicine, A. speciosa is not used as a single drug for sexual disorders in men, but as a supporting drug for exerting its antiphlogistic, spasmolytic and hypotensive actions on the central nervous system. The drug, in itself, did not show anabolic- cum-androgen-like or spermogenetic activity experimentally.

Ipomoea petaloidea Chois and Ipo- moea biloba Forskofthe Convolvulacae family are also used as Vriddhadaaru.

In Western herbal medicine, Hawaiian Baby Woodrose is equated with Argyreia nervosa (synonym Argyreia speciosa; grows in Florida, California and Hawaii). The seed is used for pain relief and as a hallucinogen.

The seeds contain hallucinogens including ergonovine, isoergine (isoly- sergic acid amide) and ergine (lysergic acid amide). Four to eight seeds are equivalent to 10-100 mcg of LSD, a potent serotonin-1A (5-HT1A) agonist. The effects last 6-8 h. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Dosage: Root—3-5 g powder.

(CCRAS.)... argyreia speciosa

Linn.

Family: Oxalidaceae; Averrhoaceae.

Habitat: Native to Malaysia; cultivated throughout the warmer parts of India, especially in Kerala.

English: Carambola, Star Fruit, Chinese Gooseberry.

Ayurvedic: Karmaranga.

Unani: Khamraq, Karmal.

Siddha/Tamil: Tamarattai.

Folk: Kamarakh.

Action: Root—antidote in poisoning. Leaf and shoot—applied externally in ringworm, scabies, chickenpox. Flower—vermicidal. Fruit—laxative, antidysenteric, antiphlogistic, febrifuge, anti- inflammatory, antispasmodic (used in hepatic colic, bleeding piles). Seeds—galactogenic; in large doses act as an emmenagogue and cause abortion.

The fruits are a fairly good source of iron but deficient in calcium. They also contain oxalic acid and potassium oxalate. The presence of fluorine is also reported. A wide variation of vitamin-C content (0.3-23.0 mg/100 g) is recorded from different places in India. Sugar (3.19%) consists mainly of glucose (1.63%).... averrhoa carambola

Willd.

Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.

Synonym: C. incana Roxb.

Family: Verbenaceae.

Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tracts, from Hazara eastwards to Assam, up to 1,500 m.

English: Perfumed Cherry.

Ayurvedic: Priyangu, Priyan- gukaa, Priyaka, Gandhphali, Gandhpriyangu, Phalini, Vanitaa, Kaantaa, Kaantaahvaa, Shyamaa, Anganaapriya.

Unani: Habb-ul-Mihlb (Prunus mahaleb Linn., Rosaceae).

Siddha/Tamil: Gnazhal, Chokkala. (Fruits of Aglaia roxburghiana Miq. are used as Priyangu.)

Action: Leaves—applied hot in rheumatic pains. Smoked to relieve headache. Seed—paste used in stomatitis. Wood—paste used in mouth and tongue sores. Seeds and roots—employed as stomachic. Bark—used in rheumatism and diseases of genitourinary tract. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicated the use of the fruit in emesis and giddiness.

The seeds and leaves contain cal- literpenone and its monoacetate; the former also contain fatty acids, beta- sitosterol and its beta-D-glucoside.

Synonym: C. wightianum T. Anders.

Family: Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.

Habitat: The evergreen forests of Western Ghats up to 330 m.

Siddha/Tamil: Shirupinnai.

Action: Resin—antiphlogistic, anodyne. Seed oil—antileprotic.

The leaves, stem, bark and root contain friedelin. Leaves also contain canophyllol and a triterpene lactone; stem, beta-amyrin; bark, apetalic acid. Heartwood contains a clathrate named wightianone palmitic acid. Wood contains mesoinositol.... calophyllum apetalum

Roxb.

Family: Palmae.

Habitat: Coastal swamps of West Bengal (particularly Sundarbans), Orissa and the Andamans.

Ayurvedic: Hintala.

Folk: Hital (Orissa), Hintalamu (Telugu).

Action: Fruits—antiphlogistic, cooling; used in flatulence.

Triacontanol, beta-sitosterol have been isolated from the plant.... phoenix paludosa

Baker.

Family: Liliaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Chamba. Major supplies of the drug are received from Kashmir.

English: Hermodactyls, Colchicum, Meadow Saffron, Golden Collyrium (Indian substitute). (C. luteum is a good substitute for C. autumnale L. which is official in the B.P.)

Ayurvedic: Hiranyatuttha.

Unani: Suranjaan Talkh.

Action: Non-steroidal antiinflammatory, anti-gout (relieves inflammation and pain of acute gout but does not increase expulsion of uric acid, is used with an alkaline diuretic), emetic, cathartic. Anti-chemotactic, antiphlogistic, inhibitor of mitosis. Highly toxic. Used for external application to lessen inflammation and pain.

Key application: In acute gout attack. (German Commission E.)

The fresh corms and aerial parts of a sample from Jammu yielded 0.94% and 070% of total alkaloids, the major being colchicine 0.40% and 0.20% respectively. Colchicine analogs— decteyl thiocolchicine (DTC), decetyl- methylcolchicine (DMC) and tri- methylcolchicinic acid (TMCA) were effective in the treatment of gout; DTC may elicit agranulocytosis.

Colchicine binds to tubulin, the protein subunit of microtubules. Its most important biological effect is the inhibition of processes that depend upon microtubule function by blocking polymerization. In preventing micro- tubule formation, colchicine has been shown to inhibit catecholamine secretion from adrenal medulla, iodine secretion from thyroid gland and pro- lactin secretion from pituitary tumour cells. It inhibits stimulated insulin secretion from isolated perfused pancreas and islets in vitro.

The use of Colchicum for long periods is not recommended owing to its toxicity in larger doses (even 7 mg of colchicine has caused death) and its depressant action upon central nervous system.

Prolonged use of Colchicum autum- nale may cause agranulocytosis, aplas- tic anaemia and peripheral nerve inflammation. (Sharon M. Herr.)... colchicum luteum

Choisy.

Synonym: C. Microphyllus Sieb. C. Prostratus Forsk

Family: Convolvulaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, Ascending To 2,000 M In The Himalayas.

Ayurvedic: Shankhapushpi, Shankhaahvaa, Kshirapushpi, Maangalya Kusuma (White- Flowered). Blue-Flowered Var., Vishnukraanti, Vishnukraantaa, Vishnugandhi Is Equated With Evolvulus Alsinoides Linn.

Unani: Sankhaahuli (Blue-Flowered)

Siddha/Tamil: Sivakraandi (White- Flowered), Vishnukraandi (Blue- Flowered).

Action: Plant—Brain Tonic, Tranquilizer Used In Nervine Disorders, Mental Aberration, Anxiety Neurosis, Internal Haemorrhages, Spermatorrhoea. Also Astringent, Antidysenteric, Antispasmodic, Antiphlogistic, Febrifuge, Alterative. Flowers—Styptic, Used For Uterine Bleeding. Leaf—Antiasthmatic, Used In Chronic Bronchitis. Root— Used In Gastric And Duodenal Ulcers, Uterine Affections And For Promoting Fertility.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia Of India Recommends The Plant For Epilepsy. The Plant Contains Sankhpushpine Alkaloids.

The Alcoholic (50%) Extract Of The Plant, When Administered To Rats (Through Gastric Intubation At Different Intervals), Has Shown Enhanced Neuropeptide Synthesis Of The Brain. It Induces An Increase In Brain Protein Content And Increases Acquisition Efficiency.

Evolvulus Alsinoides Contains Pen- Tatriacontane, Triacontane And Beta- Sitosterol.

Shankhapushpi Syrup (A Compound Containing C. Pluricaulis, Centella Asiatica, Nardostachys Jatamansi, Nepeta Hindostana, Nepeta Elliptica And Onos- Ma Bracteatum), When Administered With Phenytoin, A Modern Antiepilep- Tic Drug, Reduced Not Only Antiepileptic Activity Of Phenytoin But Also Lowered Plasma Phenytoin Levels.

Dosage: Whole Plant—3-6 G Powder. (Api Vol. III.)... convolvulus pluricaulis

Clarke.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Arunachal Pradesh (Mishmi Hills).

Action: Toxic to CNS.

The extract of the bark and leaves are used as an adulterant of illegal opium and are sold in the black market in certain areas in Indonesia.

The bark contains an iridoid glu- coside, ligstroside, and the phenolic glucosides, syringin and sinapaldehyde glucoside.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: F. excelsior Linn.—Great Britain, Europe and North America. F. hookery—Western Himalaya at 2,700-3,350 m.

English: European Ash, Weeping Ash.

Folk: Kum, Sum, Hum, Sinnun (Punjab, Kashmir).

Action: F. excelsior—laxative, antiinflammatory, febrifuge. The bark and leaves are used for arthritis and rheumatism.

The herb gave coumarin derivatives, including fraxin, fraxetin and fraxinol; flavonoids based on aesculetin, including aescin, also rutin and quercetin. A coumarin derivative is actively diuretic.

A saccharine exudate, manna, consisting principally of mannitol, is obtained by incising the stem barks of some Fraxinus sp. found in India. The manna of commerce is derived from F. ornus. F. hookery (bark)—astringent, febrifuge, bitter tonic. Leaves—cathartic.

Ash Bark is used, in decoction, in the treatment of intermittent fever and ague, as a substitute for Peruvian bark. Also used for treating obstructions of the liver and spleen and in rheumatism and arthritic affections.

Preparations of European Ash Bark showed an analgesic, anti-exudative and antiphlogistic action. (German Commission E.)

Habitat: Indigenous to the coasts of the Mediterranean from Spain to Smyrna.

English: Flake Manna.

Unani: Turanjeen.

Action: A children's laxative. Usually prescribed with other purgatives. (Not to be used in the presence of ileus.)

Key application: In constipation where an easier elimination and a soft stool are desirable; in animents such as anal fissures, haemorrhoids and post-rectal and surgery. (German Commission E.)

The exudation contains 40-90% mannitol, 10-15% stachyose and man- notriose, glucose, fructose.... fraxinus griffithii

Trigonella foenum-graecum

Fabaceae

San: Methika, Methi, Kalanusari;

Hin: Meti, Mutti; Ben, Mar: Methi;

Mal: Uluva;

Tam: Ventayam;

Kan: Mentya, Menlesoppu;

Tel: Mentulu, Mentikura; Arab: Hulabaha

Importance: Fenugreek or Greek Hayes is cultivated as a leafy vegetable, condiment and as medicinal plant. The leaves are refrigerant and aperient and are given internally for vitiated conditions of pitta. A poultice of the leaves is applied for swellings and burns. Seeds are used for fever, vomiting, anorexia, cough, bronchitis and colonitis. In the famous Malayalam treatises like ‘Padhyam’ ‘Kairali’ and ‘Arunodhayam’, uluva is recommended for use as kalanusari in Dhanvantaram formulations of ‘Astaghradayam’. An infusion of the seeds is a good cool drink for small pox patients. Powdered seeds find application in veterinary medicine. An aqueous extract of the seeds possesses antibacterial property (Kumar et al, 1997; Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution: Fenugreek is a native of South Eastern Europe and West Asia. In India fenugreek is grown in about 0.30 lakh ha producing annually about 30,000 tonnes of seeds. The major states growing fenugreek are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Karnataka. It is grown wild in Kashmir and Punjab.

Botany: Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. belongs to family, Fabaceae. It is an annual herb, 30-60cm in height, leaves are light green, pinnately trifoliate, leaflets toothed, flowers are white or yellowish white, papilionaceous and axillary. Fruits are legumes, 5-7.5cm long, narrow, curved, tapering with a slender point and containing 10-20 deeply furrowed seeds per pod. There are two species of the genus Trigonella which are of economic importance viz. T. foenum graecum, the common methi and T. corniculata, the Kasuri methi. These two differ in their growth habit and yield. The latter one is a slow growing type and remains in rosette condition during most of the vegetative growth period (Kumar et al, 1997; Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology: Fenugreek has a wide adaptability and is successfully cultivated both in the tropics as well as temperate regions. It is tolerant to frost and freezing weather. It does well in places receiving moderate or low rainfall areas but not in heavy rainfall area. It can be grown on a wide variety of soils but clayey loam is relatively better. The optimum soil pH should be 6-7 for its better growth and development. Some of the improved cultivars available for cultivation are CO1 (TNAU), Rajendra Kanti (RAU), RMt-1(RAU) and Lam Selection-1 (APAU). Land is prepared by ploughing thrice and beds of uniform size are prepared. Broadcasting the seed on the bed and raking the surface to cover the seeds is normally followed. But to facilitate intercultural operations, line sowing is also advocated in rows at 20-25cm apart. Sowing in the plains is generally in September-November while in the hills it is from March. The seed rate is 20-25kg/ha and the seeds germinate within 6-8 days. Besides 15t of FYM, a fertiliser dose of 25:25:50kg NPK/ha is recommended. Entire P,K and half N are to be applied basally and the remaining half N 30 days after sowing. First irrigation is to be given immediately after sowing and subsequent irrigations at 7-10 days interval. Hoeing and weeding are to be done during the early stages of plant growth and thinning at 25-30 days to have a spacing of 10-15cm between plants and to retain 1-2 plants per hill. Root rot (caused by Rhizoctonia solani) is a serious disease and can be controlled by drenching carbendazim 0.05% first at the onset of the disease and another after one monthof first application. In about 25-30 days, young shoots are nipped off 5cm above ground level and subsequent cuttings of leaves may be taken after 15 days. It is advisable to take 1-2 cuttings before the crop is allowed for flowering and fruiting when pods are dried, the plants are pulled out, dried in the sun and seeds are threshed by beating with stick or by rubbing with hands. Seeds are winnowed, cleaned and dried in the sun. They may be stored in gunny bags lined with paper. An yield of 1200-1500kg of seeds and about 800-1000kg of leaves may be obtained per hectare in crops grown for both the purposes (Kumar et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Seeds contain sapogenins-diosgenin, its 25-epimer(yamogenin), tigogenin, gitogenin, yuccagenin, 25-2-spirosta-3-5-diene and its -epimer. Seeds also contain a C27-steroidal sapogenin-peptide ester-fenugreekine. Seeds, in addition, contain 4-hydroxyleucine and saponins-fenugrins A-E:two furostanol glycoxides-trigonelloxide C and (255)-22-O-methyl-52-firostan-3 ,22,26,triol-3-O- -rhamnopyrans syl(1-2) C- -D-glucopyranosyl (1-3)- -D- glucopyranoxide-26-O- -D-glucopyranoxide.

Other chemical constituents are sterols- -sitosterol and cholesterol, flavone C- glycosides-vitexin, iso-vitexin, vitexin-2”-O-P-coumarate and vicenin-2. Flavonoids- quercetin and luteolin, flavonoid glycoside-vicenin-I. Invitro seedling callus culture gave flavonoids-luteolin and vitexin-1-glycoside. An essential oil is also reported from seeds. Leaves gave saponins-gracecunins A-G, flavonoids- kaempferol and quercetin; sterols- - sitosterol, sapogenins-diosgenin, gitogenin coumarin-scopoletin is also reported from the plant.

Seeds are bitter, mucilaginous, aromatic, carminative, tonic, diuretic, thermogenic, galactagogue, astringent, emollient, amophrodisiac, antirheumatic, CNS depressant and antiimplantation. Fenugreekine is hypoglycaemic, diuretic, hypotensive, cardiotonic, antiphlogistic. It showed 80% inhibition of vaccina virus.... fenugreek

Linn.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the plains of India, cultivated in gardens.

Ayurvedic: Sugandha-vachaa, Chandramuula, Chandramuulikaa. (In Kerala, used as Karchura and Shathi.) (Kapurakachari is a different drug, equated with Hedychium spicatum.)

Siddha/Tamil: Kachoram.

Action: Tuber—stimulant, carminative, expectorant, diuretic used for respiratory ailments like cough, bronchitis and asthma.

The essential oil from rhizomes contain n-pentadecane, ethyl-p-methoxy cinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, carene, camphene, borneol, p-methoxysty- rene, p-methoxy cinnamate, p-meth- oxy-trans-cinnamic acid and cin namaldehyde. Insecticidal activity of the oil is attributed to ethyl cinna- mates. Ethyl-p-methoxy-cinnamate shows monoamine oxidase inhibitor activity and a cytotoxic principle (the rhizomes exhibit cytotoxic activity).

Leaves and flowers exhibit antiphlogistic and vitamin P activity. Ethyl-p- methoxy-trans cinnamate is the main compound in the root.... kaempferia galanga

Linn. f.

Family: Bignoniaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India.

English: Indian Cork tree.

Siddha/Tamil: Maramalli.

Folk: Aakaasha Neem, Neem- Chameli.

Action: Bark—antipyretic. Flowers—used for asthma and sinusitis.

The butanol soluble fraction from aqueous extract of flowers showed bronchial smooth muscle relaxant property. Hispidulin, isolated from the flowers, is reported to exhibit bron- chodilatory and antiphlogistic activities. Hispidulin is found to be more potent than aminophyllin and less toxic than the crude extract. gallic acid. The aerial parts of the plant contain C-glycosylflavones, 2"- O-rhamnosylorientin and 2"-O- rhamnosylisoorientin.

Dosage: Whole plant, root—10- 20 ml juice; 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.) Whole plant—10-20 g for decoction. (API, Vol. II.)... millingtonia hortensis

Linn.

Solanum aviculare Forst. f.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Introduced to Kashmir for experimental cultivation.

Ayurvedic: Kantakaari (related species).

Action: An important source of solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenin and one of the starting materials for the synthesis of corticosteroids and other steroidal hormones.

See S. xanthocarpum. The leaves, stems, flowers and green fruits contain the glycoalkaloid, solaso- nine, of which solasodine is the agly- cone. Besides solasonine, the plant

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 1,200-2,400 m.

English: Woody Night Shade, Bittersweet, Bitter Nightshade, Felonwort.

Ayurvedic: Kaakamaachi-vishesha, Valli-kantakaarikaa.

Unani: Mako (red var.).

Action: Twigs and root bark— stimulating, expectorant, hepatic, astringent, antirheumatic, alterative, antifungal. Dried branches— sedative and analgesic. Used for chronic bronchitis, chronic eczema and rheumatism.

Key application: As a supportive therapy for chronic eczema. (German Commission E.)

The plant is rich in alkaloidal glyco- sides. Alpha-, beta-, gamma-solamari- ne were isolated from the fruits. Toma- tidenol I existed in the plant as alpha- and beta-solamarine. Solasodine was obtained in traces as secondary alkaloid; it existed as solasonine and sola- margine. Aerial parts gave alpha-and beta-soladulcine, the glycoalkaloids. The sterols were present in free form and as esters, glucosides and palmitic esters of glucosides.

Beta-solamarine shows significant tumour-inhibiting activity. Steroidal saponins are antifungal; alkaloids are anticholinergic; solasodine exhibit antiphlogistic activity.... solanum dulcamara

Matricaria recutica

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: M. chamomilla, camomile, blue chamomile, matricaria, Hungarian chamomile, sweet false chamomile, single chamomile, chamomile blue (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual, strongly aromatic herb, up to 60 cms tall with a hairless, erect, branching stem. It has delicate feathery leaves and simple daisy-like white flowers on single stems. In appearance it is very similar to the corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis) but can be distinguished from it because the latter is scentless.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and north and west Asia; naturalized in North America and Australia. It is cultivated extensively, especially in Hungary and eastern Europe, where the oil is produced. It is no longer grown in Germany, despite the herbal name.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of chamomile, such as the pineapple weed (Chamaemelium suaveolens) and the Roman chamomile (C. nobile), both of which are used to produce an essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has a long-standing medicinal tradition, especially in Europe for ‘all states of tension and the visceral symptoms that can arise therefrom, such as nervous dyspepsia and nervous bowel, tension headaches, and sleeplessness; especially useful for all children’s conditions, calming without depressing …’.

An excellent skin care remedy, it has many of the same qualities as Roman chamomile, except that its anti-inflammatory properties are greater due to the higher percentage of azulene.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, anti inflammatory, antiphlogistic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carlminative, cicatrisant, cholagogue, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, hepatic, nerve sedative, stimulant of leucocyte production, stomachic, sudorific, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flower heads (up to 1.9 per cent yield). An absolute is also produced in small quantities, which is a deeper blue colour and has greater tenacity and fixative properties.

CHARACTERISTICS: An inky-blue viscous liquid with a strong, sweetish warm-herbaceous odour. It blends well with geranium, lavender, patchouli, rose, benzoin, neroli, bergamot, marjoram, lemon, ylang ylang, jasmine, clary sage and labdanum.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Chamazulene, farnesene, bisabolol oxide, en-yndicycloether, among others. (NB The chamazulene is not present in the fresh flower but is only produced during the process of distillation.)

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; causes dermatitis in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, allergies, boils, burns, cuts, chilblains, dermatitis, earache, eczema, hair care, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, sensitive skin, teething pain, toothache, wounds.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, inflamed joints, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprains.

Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, indigestion, nausea.

Genito-Urinary System: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.

Nervous System: Headache, insomnia, nervous tension, migraine and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and in carminative, antispasmodic and tonic preparations. Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps, detergents, high-class perfumes and hair and bath products. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... chamomile, german

Chamaemelum nobile

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Anthemis nobilis, camomile, English chamomile, garden chamomile, sweet chamomile, true chamomile.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, stocky, perennial herb, up to 25 cms high, with a much branched hairy stem, half spreading or creeping. It has feathery pinnate leaves, daisy-like white flowers which are larger than those of the German chamomile. The whole plant has an applelike scent.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern and western Europe; naturalized in North America. Cultivated in England, Belgium, Hungary, United States, Italy and France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are a great many varieties of chamomile found throughout the world, four of which are native to the British Isles, but the only one of these used therapeutically is the Roman chamomile (C. nobile).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has had a medical reputation in Europe and especially in the Mediterranean region for over 2000 years, and it is still in widespread use. It was employed by the ancient Egyptians and the Moors, and it was one of the Saxons’ nine sacred herbs, which they called ‘maythen’. It was also held to be the ‘plant’s physician’, since it promoted the health of plants nearby.

It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for the treatment of dyspepsia, nausea, anorexia, vomiting in pregnancy, dysmenorrhoea and specifically flatulent dyspepsia associated with mental stress.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-anaemic, antineuralgic, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, cholagogue, cicatrisant, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hepatic, hypnotic, nerve sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the flower heads.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale blue liquid (turning yellow on keeping) with a warm, sweet, fruity-herbaceous scent. It blends well with bergamot, clary sage, oakmoss, jasmine, labdanum, neroli, rose, geranium and lavender.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly esters of angelic and tiglic acids (approx. 85 per cent), with pinene, farnesol, nerolidol, chamazulene, pinocarvone, cineol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; can cause dermatitis in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See German chamomile.

OTHER USES: See German chamomile.... chamomile, roman

Mentha piperita

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Brandy mint, balm mint.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb up to 1 metre high with underground runners by which it is easily propagated. The ‘white’ peppermint has green stems and leaves; the ‘black’ peppermint has dark green serrated leaves, purplish stems and reddish-violet flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Originally a cultivated hybrid between M. viridis and M. aquatica, known to have been propagated from before the seventeenth century in England. Naturalized throughout Europe and America, it is cultivated worldwide. The oil is produced mainly in France, England, America, Russia, Bulgaria, Italy, Hungary, Morocco and China.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several different strains or chemotypes of peppermint. In addition there are numerous other species of mint, such as spearmint, apple mint, pennyroyal, water mint and pineapple mint – some of which are used to produce essential oils (see Botanical Classification section). Peppermints grown in northern regions, including the Mitcham peppermint, are considered of superior quality.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Mints have been cultivated since ancient times in China and Japan. In Egypt evidence of a type of peppermint has been found in tombs dating from 1000 BC. It has been used extensively in Eastern and Western medicine for a variety of complaints, including indigestion, nausea, sore throat, diarrhoea, headaches, toothaches and cramp.

It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for intestinal colic, flatulence, common cold, vomiting in pregnancy and dysmenorrhoea.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antipruritic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, cordial, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stomachic, sudorific, vasoconstrictor, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb (approx. 3–4 per cent yield).

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or greenish liquid with a highly penetrating, grassy-minty camphoraceous odour. It blends well with benzoin, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, lemon, eucalyptus and other mints.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Menthol (29–48 per cent), menthane (20–31 per cent), menthyl acetate, menthofuran, limonene, pulegone, cineol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization due to menthol. Use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, ringworm, scabies, toothache.

Circulation muscles and joints: Neuralgia, muscular pain, palpitations.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, halitosis, sinusitis, spasmodic cough – ‘When inhaled (in steam) it checks catarrh temporarily, and will provide relief from head colds and bronchitis: its antispasmodic action combines well with this to make it a most useful inhalation in asthma.’.

Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, fevers.

Nervous system: Fainting, headache, mental fatigue, migraine, nervous stress, vertigo.

OTHER USES: Flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals, and ingredient in cough, cold and digestive remedies. Flavouring agent in many foods, especially chewing gum and sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks; also widely used to flavour tobacco. Fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics, colognes and perfumes.... mint, peppermint

Pogostemon cablin

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: P. patchouly, patchouly, puchaput.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial bushy herb up to 1 metre high with a sturdy, hairy stem, large, fragrant, furry leaves and white flowers tinged with purple.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially Indonesia and the Philippines. It is extensively cultivated for its oil in its native regions as well as India, China, Malaysia and South America. The oil is also distilled in Europe and America from the dried leaves.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the Java patchouli (P. heyneanus), also known as false patchouli, which is also occasionally used to produce an essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil is used in the East generally to scent linen and clothes, and is believed to help prevent the spread of disease (prophylactic). In China, Japan and Malaysia the herb is used to treat colds, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and halitosis. In Japan and Malaysia it is used as an antidote to poisonous snakebites.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antitoxic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, nervine, prophylactic, stimulant (nervous), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried leaves (usually subjected to fermentation previously). A resinoid is also produced, mainly as a fixative.

CHARACTERISTICS: An amber or dark orange viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, herbaceous earthy odour – it improves with age. It blends well with labdanum, vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, oakmoss, geranium, clove, lavender, rose, neroli, bergamot, cassia, myrrh, opopanax, clary sage and oriental-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Patchouli alcohol (40 per cent approx.), pogostol, bulnesol, nor patchoulenol, bulnese, patchoulene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, athlete’s foot, cracked and chapped skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema (weeping), fungal infections, hair care, impetigo, insect repellent, sores, oily hair and skin, open pores, wounds, wrinkles.

Nervous system: Frigidity, nervous exhaustion and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in cosmetic preparations, and as a fixative in soaps and perfumes, especially oriental types. Extensively used in the food industry, in alcoholic and soft drinks. It makes a good masking agent for unpleasant tastes and smells.... patchouli

Commiphora myrrha

FAMILY: Burseraceae

SYNONYMS: Balsamodendron myrrha, gum myrrh, common myrrh, hirabol myrrh, myrrha.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The Commiphora species which yield myrrh are shrubs or small trees up to 10 metres high. They have sturdy knotted branches, trifoliate aromatic leaves and small white flowers. The trunk exudes a natural oleoresin, a pale yellow liquid which hardens into reddish-brown tears, known as myrrh. The native collectors make incisions in the bark of the tree to increase the yield.

DISTRIBUTION: The Commiphora species are native to north east Africa and south west Asia, especially the Red Sea region (Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia).

OTHER SPECIES: There are several C. species which yield myrrh oleoresin: African or Somali myrrh (C. molmol) and Arabian or Yemen myrrh (C. abyssinica). Bisabol myrrh or opopanax (C. erthraea) also belongs to the same family.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Myrrh has been employed since the earliest times in Eastern and Western medicine; its use is mentioned some 3700 years ago. The ancient Egyptians used it for embalming purposes and in their perfumes and cosmetics. In China it is used for arthritis, menstrual problems, sores and haemorrhoids. In the West it is considered to have an ‘opening, heating, drying nature’ (Joseph Miller), good for asthma, coughs, common cold, catarrh, sore throat, weak gums and teeth, ulcers and sores. It has also been used to treat leprosy.

Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for mouth ulcers, gingivitis and pharyngitis.

ACTIONS: Anticatarrhal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, astringent, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, revitalizing, sedative, stimulant (digestive, pulmonary), stomachic, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: 1. Resinoid (and resin absolute) by solvent extraction of the crude myrrh. 2. Essential oil by steam distillation of the crude myrrh.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The resinoid is a dark reddish-brown viscous mass, with a warm, rich, spicy-balsamic odour. It is not pourable at room temperature so a solvent, such as diethyl phthalate, is sometimes added. 2. The essential oil is a pale yellow to amber oily liquid with a warm, sweet-balsamic, slightly spicy-medicinal odour. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, benzoin, oakmoss, cypress, juniper, mandarin, geranium, patchouli, thyme, mints, lavender, pine and spices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude contains resins, gum and about 8 per cent essential oil composed mainly of heerabolene, limonene, dipentene, pinene, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, cadinene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing, possibly toxic in high concentration. Not to be used during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Athlete’s foot, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, mature complexions, ringworm, wounds, wrinkles.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, gum infections, gingivitis, mouth ulcers, sore throat, voice loss.

Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, haemorrhoids, loss of appetite.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, pruritis, thrush.

Immune system: Colds.

OTHER USES: The oil, resinoid and tincture are used in pharmaceutical products, including mouthwashes, gargles and toothpaste; also used in dentistry. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types and heavy florals. Used as flavour ingredients in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... myrrh

Rosa centifolia

FAMILY: Rosaceae

SYNONYMS: Rose maroc, French rose, Provence rose, hundred-leaved rose, Moroccan otto of rose (oil), French otto of rose (oil), rose de mai (absolute or concrete).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The rose which is generally used for oil production is strictly a hybrid between R. centifolia, a pink rose, and R. gallica, a dark red rose. This variety, known as rose de mai, grows to a height of 2.5 metres and produces an abundance of flowers with large pink or rosy-purple petals. There are two subspecies – one is more spiny than the other.

DISTRIBUTION: The birthplace of the cultivated rose is believed to be ancient Persia; now cultivated mainly in Morocco, Tunisia, Italy, France, Yugoslavia and China. The concrete, absolute and oil are mainly produced in Morocco; the absolute in France, Italy and China.

OTHER SPECIES: There are over 10,000 types of cultivated rose! There are several subspecies of R. centifolia, depending on the country of origin. Other therapeutic species are the red rose or apothecary rose (R. gallica) of traditional Western medicine, the oriental or tea rose (R. indica), the Chinese or Japanese rose (R. rugosa) and the Turkish or Bulgarian rose (R. damascena) which is also extensively cultivated for its oil. Recently rosehip seed oil from R. rubiginosa has been found to be a very effective skin treatment; it promotes tissue regeneration and is good for scars, burns and wrinkles. The wild rose (Eubatus rubus) is now also being used to produce a rare absolute with a rich, spicy-earthy fragrance. See also entry on damask rose and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The healing virtues of the rose have been known since antiquity and although roses are rarely used in herbal practice nowadays, up to the Middle Ages they played an essential part in the materia medica, and still

fulfil an important role in Eastern medicine. They were used for a wide range of disorders, including digestive and menstrual problems, headaches and nervous tension, liver congestion, poor circulation, fever (plague), eye infections and skin complaints. ‘The symbolism connected with the rose is perhaps one of the richest and most complex associated with any plant ... traditionally associated with Venus, the Goddess of love and beauty, and in our materialistic age the Goddess is certainly alive and well in the cosmetics industry for rose oil (mainly synthetic) is found as a component in 46% of men’s perfumes and 98% of women’s fragrances.’.

The French or Moroccan rose possesses narcotic properties and has the reputation for being aphrodisiac (more so than the Bulgarian type), possibly due to the high percentage of phenyl ethanol in the former. For further distinctions between the different properties of rose types, see damask rose.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, anti-tubercular agent, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, choleretic, cicitrisant, depurative, emmenagogue, haemostatic, hepatic, laxative, regulator of appetite, sedative (nervous), stomachic, tonic (heart, liver, stomach, uterus).

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil or otto by water or steam distillation from the fresh petals. (Rose water is produced as a byproduct of this process.) 2. Concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh petals. (A rose leaf absolute is also produced in small quantities in France.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a pale yellow liquid with a deep, sweet, rosy-floral, tenacious odour. 2. The absolute is a reddish orange viscous liquid with a deep, rich, sweet, rosy-spicy, honeylike fragrance. It blends well with jasmine, cassie, mimosa, neroli, geranium, bergamot, lavender, clary sage, sandalwood, guaiacwood, patchouli, benzoin, chamomile, Peru balsam, clove and palmarosa.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: It has over 300 constituents, some in minute traces. Mainly citronellol (18–22 per cent), phenyl ethanol (63 per cent), geraniol and nerol (10–15 per cent), stearopten (8 per cent), farnesol (0.2–2 per cent), among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Broken capillaries, conjunctivitis (rose water), dry skin, eczema, herpes, mature and sensitive complexions, wrinkles.

Circulation muscles and joints: Palpitations, poor circulation.

Respiratory system: Asthma, coughs, hay fever.

Digestive system: Cholecystitis, liver congestion, nausea.

Genito-urinary system: Irregular menstruation, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, uterine disorders.

Nervous system: Depression, impotence, insomnia, frigidity, headache, nervous tension and stress-related complaints – ‘But the rose procures us one thing above all: a feeling of well being, even of happiness, and the individual under its influence will develop an amiable tolerance.’.

OTHER USES: Rose water is used as a household cosmetic and culinary article (especially in Persian cookery). The concrete, absolute and oil are employed extensively in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes of all types – floral, oriental, chypres, etc. Some flavouring uses, especially fruit products and tobacco.... rose, cabbage

Salvia sclarea

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Clary, clary wort, muscatel sage, clear eye, see bright, common clary, clarry, eye bright.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Stout biennial or perennial herb up to 1 metre high with large, hairy leaves, green with a hint of purple, and small blue flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe; cultivated worldwide especially in the Mediterranean region, Russia, the USA, England, Morocco and central Europe. The French, Moroccan and English clary are considered of superior quality for perfumery work.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the garden sage (S. officinalis) and the Spanish sage (S. lavendulaefolia), which are both used to produce essential oils. Other types of sage include meadow clary (S. pratensis) and vervain sage (S. verbenaca). Clary sage should not be confused with the common wayside herb eyebright (Euphrasia).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb, highly esteemed in the Middle Ages, has now largely fallen out of use. It was used for digestive disorders, kidney disease, uterine and menstrual complaints, for cleansing ulcers and as a general nerve tonic. The mucilage from the seeds was used for treating tumours and for removing dust particles from the eyes.

Like garden sage, it cools inflammation and is especially useful for throat and respiratory infections.

ACTIONS: Anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, emmenagogue, hypotensive, nervine, regulator (of seborrhoea), sedative, stomachic, tonic, uterine.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops and leaves. (A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellowy-green liquid with a sweet, nutty herbaceous scent. It blends well with juniper, lavender, coriander, cardamon, geranium, sandalwood, cedarwood, pine, labdanum, jasmine, frankincense, bergamot and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Linalyl acetate (up to 75 per cent), linalol, pinene, myrcene and phellandrene, among others. Constituents vary according to geographical origin – there are several different chemotypes.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Do not use clary sage oil while drinking alcohol since it can induce a narcotic effect and exaggerate drunkenness. Clary sage is generally used in preference to the garden sage in aromatherapy due to its lower toxicity level.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, boils, dandruff, hair loss, inflamed conditions, oily skin and hair, ophthalmia, ulcers, wrinkles.

Circulation muscles and joints: High blood pressure, muscular aches and pains.

Respiratory system: Asthma, throat infections, whooping cough.

Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, labour pain, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Nervous system: Depression, frigidity, impotence, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related disorders.

OTHER USES: The oil and absolute are used as fragrance components and fixatives in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. The oil is used extensively by the food and drink industry, especially in the production of wines with a muscatel flavour.... sage, clary

Santalum album

FAMILY: Santalaceae

SYNONYMS: White sandalwood, yellow sandalwood, East Indian sandalwood, sandalwood Mysore, sanders-wood, santal (oil), white saunders (oil), yellow saunders (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, evergreen, parasitic tree up to 9 metres high with brown-grey trunk and many smooth, slender branches. It has leathery leaves and small pinky-purple flowers. The tree must be over thirty years old before it is ready for the production of sandalwood oil.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia and Taiwan. India is the main essential oil producer; the region of Mysore exports the highest quality oil, although some oil is distilled in Europe and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: The Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum or Eucarya spicata) produces a very similar oil, but with a dry-bitter top note. The so-called West Indian sandalwood or amyris (Amyris balsamifera) is a poor substitute and bears no botanical relation to the East Indian sandalwood.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the oldest known perfume materials, with at least 4000 years of uninterrupted use. It is used as a traditional incense, as a cosmetic, perfume and embalming material all over the East. It is also a popular building material, especially for temples.

In Chinese medicine it is used to treat stomach ache, vomiting, gonorrhoea, choleraic difficulties and skin complaints. In the Ayurvedic tradition it is used mainly for urinary and respiratory infections, for acute and chronic diarrhoea. In India it is often combined with rose in the famous scent aytar.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic (urinary and pulmonary), antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative; cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, insecticidal, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the roots and heartwood, powdered and dried.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, greenish or brownish viscous liquid with a deep, soft, sweet-woody balsamic scent of excellent tenacity. It blends well with rose, violet, tuberose, clove, lavender, black pepper, bergamot, rosewood, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, benzoin, vetiver, patchouli, mimosa, cassie, costus, myrrh and jasmine.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: About 90 per cent santalols, 6 per cent sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: santene, teresantol, borneol, santalone, tri-cyclo-ekasantalal, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dry, cracked and chapped skin, aftershave (barber’s rash), greasy skin, moisturizer.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs (dry, persistent), laryngitis, sore throat.

Digestive system: Diarrhoea, nausea.

Genito-urinary system: Cystitis.

Nervous system: Depression, insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Used to be used as a pharmaceutical disinfectant, now largely abandoned. Extensively employed as a fragrance component and fixative in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes – especially oriental, woody, aftershaves, chypres, etc. Extensively used in the production of incense. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including soft and alcoholic drinks.... sandalwood