a stimulant of the appetite.
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Apium carvi, carum, caraway fruits.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A biennial herb up to 0.75 metres high with a much-branched stem, finely cut leaves and umbels of white flowers, with a thick and tapering root. The small seeds are curved with five distinct pale ridges.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia, naturalized in North America. Now widely cultivated especially in Germany, Holland, Scandinavia and Russia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties depending on origin – the English, Dutch and German types derive from Prussia, which are distinct from the Scandinavian variety. Those plants grown in northerly latitudes produce more oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used extensively as a domestic spice, especially in bread, cakes and cheeses. Traditional remedy for dyspepsia, intestinal colic, menstrual cramps, poor appetite, laryngitis and bronchitis. It promotes milk secretion and is considered specific for flatulent colic in children, according to the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.
ACTIONS: Antihistaminic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, aperitif, astringent, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue, larvicidal, stimulant, spasmolytic, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried ripe seed or fruit (approx. 2–8 per cent yield).
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude caraway oil is a pale yellowish-brown liquid with a harsh, spicy odour. The redistilled oil is colourless to pale yellow, with a strong, warm, sweet-spicy odour, like rye bread. It blends well with jasmine, cinnamon, cassia and other spices; however, it is very overpowering.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly carvone (50–60 per cent) and limonene (40 per cent), with carveol, dihydrocarveol, dihydrocarvone, pinene, phellandrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, may cause dermal irritation in concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs, laryngitis.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, gastric spasm, nervous indigestion, poor appetite. See also sweet fennel and dill.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: Used in carminative, stomachic and laxative preparations and as a flavour ingredient in pharmaceuticals; also to mask unpleasant tastes and odours. Fragrance component in toothpaste, mouthwash products, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially condiments. The German brandy ‘Kummel’ is made from the seeds.... caraway
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYM: Celery fruit.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A familiar biennial plant, 30–60 cms high, with a grooved, fleshy, erect stalk, shiny pinnate leaves and umbels of white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe; extensively cultivated as a domestic vegetable. The oil is principally produced in India, and also Holland, China, Hungary and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many cultivated varieties, such as celeriac root (A. graveolens var. rapaceum) and the salad vegetable (A. graveolens var. dulce).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Celery seed is widely used as a domestic spice. The seed is used in bladder and kidney complaints, digestive upsets and menstrual problems; the leaves are used in skin ailments. It is known to increase the elimination of uric acid and is useful for gout, neuralgia and rheumatoid arthritis. A remedy for hepatobiliary disorders, it has been found to have a regenerating effect on the liver.
Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for rheumatoid arthritis with mental depression.
ACTIONS: Anti-oxidative, antirheumatic, antiseptic (urinary), antispasmodic, aperitif, depurative, digestive, diuretic, carminative, cholagogue, emmenagogue, galactagogue, hepatic, nervine, sedative (nervous), stimulant (uterine), stomachic, tonic (digestive).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the whole or crushed seeds. (An oil from the whole herb, an oleoresin and extract are also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or orange oil with a spicy-warm, sweet, long-lasting odour. It blends well with lavender, pine, opopanax, lavage, tea tree, oakmoss, coriander and other spices.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Limonene (60 per cent), apiol, selinene, santalol, sedanolide and sedanolic acid anhydride, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, build-up of toxins in the blood, gout, rheumatism.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, flatulence, indigestion, liver congestion, jaundice.
Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Amenorrhoea, glandular problems, increases milk flow, cystitis.
Nervous System: Neuralgia, sciatica.
OTHER USES: Used in tonic, sedative and carminative preparations, and as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively used as a flavouring agent in foods, especially by the spice industry, and in alcoholic and soft drinks.... celery seed
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: A. longirostris, garden chervil, salad chervil.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A delicate annual herb up to 30 cms high, with a slender, much branched stem, bright green, finely-divided, fernlike leaves, umbels of flat white flowerheads and long smooth seeds or fruits. The whole plant has a pleasing aromatic scent when bruised.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia; naturalized in America, Australia and New Zealand. Widely cultivated, especially in southern Europe and America.
OTHER SPECIES: A cultivated form of its wild relative, the wild chervil or garden-beaked parsley (A. sylvestris), with which it shares similar properties and uses. Not to be confused with another common garden herb sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata), also known as sweet or smooth chervil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name chervil comes from the Greek ‘to rejoice’, due to its delightful scent. The leaves are used as a domestic spice in salads, soups, omelettes, sauces and to flavour bread dough. In folk medicine it is used as a tea to ‘tone up the blood and nerves. Good for poor memory and mental depression. Sweetens the entire digestive system.’.
The juice from the fresh herb is used to treat skin ailments such as eczema, abscesses and slow-healing wounds; also used for dropsy, arthritis and gout, among others.
ACTIONS: Aperitif, antiseptic, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, nervine, restorative, stimulant (metabolism), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from seeds or fruit.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a sweet-herbaceous, anisic odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly methyl chavicol, also 1-allyl-2, 4-dimethoxybenzene and anethole, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Methyl chavicol and anethole are known to have toxic and irritant effects; methyl chavicol is reported to have possible carcinogenic effects. Since these constitute the major proportion of the essential oil, it is best avoided for therapeutic use.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient by the food industry, especially in meat products, as well as in alcoholic and soft drinks.... chervil
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Coriander seed, Chinese parsley.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic annual herb about 1 metre high with bright green delicate leaves, umbels of lacelike white flowers, followed by a mass of green (turning brown) round seeds.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia; naturalized in North America. Cultivated throughout the world, the oil is mainly produced in the USSR, Yugoslavia and Romania.
OTHER SPECIES: Various chemotypes of the same species are found according to geographical location.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb with a long history of use the seeds were found in the ancient Egyptian tomb of Rameses 11. The seeds and leaves are widely used as a garnish and domestic spice, especially in curries. It has been used therapeutically, mainly in the form of an infusion for children’s diarrhoea, digestive upsets, griping pains, anorexia and flatulence.
In Chinese medicine the whole herb is used for dysentery, piles, measles, nausea, toothache and for painful hernia.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, depurative, digestive, carminative, cytotoxic, fungicidal, larvicidal, lipolytic, revitalizing, stimulant (cardiac, circulatory, nervous system), stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the crushed ripe seeds. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the fresh and dried leaves, which contains a high proportion of decylaldehyde.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, woody-spicy, slightly musky fragrance. It blends well with clary sage, bergamot, jasmine, olibanum, neroli, petitgrain, citronella, sandalwood, cypress, pine, ginger, cinnamon and other spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly linalol (55–75 per cent), decylaldehyde, borneol, geraniol, carvone, anethole, among others; constituents; vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non irritant, non-sensitizing. Stupefying in large doses – use in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation, Muscles And Joints:
Accumulation of fluids or toxins, arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, stiffness.
Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea, piles, spasm.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, infections (general), measles.
Nervous System: Debility, migraine, neuralgia, nervous exhaustion.
OTHER USES: Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceutical preparations, especially digestive remedies. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. Employed by the food industry especially in meat products and to flavour liqueurs such as Chartreuse and Benedictine; also used for flavouring tobacco.... coriander
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: F. officinale, F. capillaceum, Anethum foeniculum, fenkel.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Biennial or perennial herb up to 2 metres high, with feathery leaves and golden yellow flowers. There are two main varieties of fennel: bitter or common Fennel, slightly taller with less divided leaves occurring in a cultivated or wild form and sweet fennel (also known as Roman, garden or French fennel) which is always cultivated.
DISTRIBUTION: Bitter fennel is native to the Mediterranean region, found growing wild in France, Spain, Portugal and North Africa (they produce the ‘weed’oil). It is cultivated extensively worldwide, the main oil producers being Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, France, Italy and India.
Sweet fennel is thought to have originated on the island of Malta, having been introduced by monks or crusaders thousands of years ago. It is now grown principally in France, Italy and Greece.
OTHER SPECIES: Bitter fennel (F. vulgare var. amara) and sweet fennel (F. vulgare var. dulce) are both closely related to the Florence fennel (F. azoricum), a smaller plant with a large cylindrical fleshy root which can be eaten as a vegetable. There are also many other cultivated varieties such as the German or Saxon fennel, the Russian, Indian and Japanese fennel, all of which produce slightly different oils.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient medical repute, believed to convey longevity, courage and strength. It was also used to ward off evil spirits, strengthen the eyesight and to neutralize poisons. In eastern and western herbalism it is considered good for obstructions of the liver, spleen and gall bladder and for digestive complaints such as colic, indigestion, nausea and flatulence (an ingredient of children’s ‘gripe water’).
It has traditionally been used for obesity, which may be due to a type of oestrogenic action, which also increases the milk of nursing mothers. Still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, used locally for conjunctivitis, blepharitis and pharyngitis.
ACTIONS: Aperitif, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue, laxative, orexigenic, stimulant (circulatory), splenic, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation. 1. Sweet fennel oil is obtained from crushed seeds, and 2. bitter fennel oil from crushed seeds or the whole herb (the wild ‘weed’).
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a very sweet, anise-like, slightly earthy-peppery scent. It blends well with geranium, lavender, rose and sandalwood. 2. The seed oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sharp, warm camphoraceous odour; the ‘weed’ oil is pale orange-brown with a sharp, peppery-camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Anethole (50–60 per cent), limonene, phellandrene, pinene, anisic acid, anisic aldehyde, camphene, limonene, among others. In addition, bitter fennel oil contains 18–22 per cent fenchone, whereas the sweet fennel oil contains little or none.
SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, relatively non-toxic, narcotic in large doses; bitter fennel may cause sensitization in some individuals. Sweet fennel oil is preferred in aromatherapy and perfumery work, since it does not contain the harsh ‘fenchone’ note, and because it is non-sensitizing. Bitter fennel oil should not be used on the skin at all, although it is considered superior medicinally. Neither oil should be used by epileptics or during pregnancy. Use in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Bitter fennel – none.
Sweet fennel:
Skin Care: Bruises, dull, oily, mature complexions, pyorrhoea.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, obesity, oedema, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis.
Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence, hiccough, nausea.
Genito-Urinary System: Amenorrhoea, insufficient milk (in nursing mothers), menopausal problems.
OTHER USES: In pharmaceutical products it is known as ‘codex’ fennel oil, used in cough drops, lozenges, etc; also used in carminative and laxative preparations. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in all major food categories, in soft drinks and especially in alcoholic drinks such as brandy and liqueurs. Fennel oil (mainly sweet) is used in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. It also provides a good masking agent for industrial products, room sprays, insecticides, etc.... fennel
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: C. medica var. acida, C. latifolia, Mexican lime, West Indian lime, sour lime.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small evergreen tree up to 4.5 metres high, with stiff sharp spines, smooth ovate leaves and small white flowers. The bitter fruit is a pale green colour, about half the size of a lemon.
DISTRIBUTION: Probably native to south Asia; naturalized in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is cultivated mainly in south Florida, the West Indies (Cuba), Central America (Mexico) and Italy.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several species of lime such as the Italian lime (C. limetta) which is used to produce an oil called ‘limette’; and the leech-lime (C. hystrix) which is occasionally used to produce an essential oil called combava.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The fruit is often used indiscriminately in place of lemon with which it shares many qualities. It is used for similar purposes including fever, infections, sore throat, colds, etc. It used to be used as a remedy for dyspepsia with glycerin of pepsin.
ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic, antiviral, aperitif, bactericidal, febrifuge, restorative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by 1. cold expression of the peel of the unripe fruit; the expressed oil is preferred in perfumery work, and 2. steam distillation of the whole ripe crushed fruit (a by-product of the juice industry).
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow or olive-green liquid with a fresh, sweet, citrus-peel odour. 2. A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a fresh, sharp, fruity-citrus scent. It blends well with neroli, citronella, lavender, lavandin, rosemary, clary sage and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Limonene, pinenes, camphene, sabinene, citral, cymene, cineols and linalol, among others. The expressed ‘peel’ oil, but not the ‘whole fruit’ oil, also contains coumarins.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. However, the expressed ‘peel’ oil is phototoxic (but not the steam-distilled ‘whole fruit’ oil).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See lemon.
OTHER USES: Both oils, but mainly the expressed, are used as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Mainly the distilled oil, but also the terpeneless oil, is used by the food industry, especially in soft drinks – ‘lemon and lime’ flavour. The juice is used for the production of citric acid.... lime
FAMILY: Zingiberaceae
SYNONYMS: Common ginger, Jamaica ginger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect perennial herb up to 1 metre high with a thick, spreading, tuberous rhizome root, which is very pungent. Each year it sends up a green reedlike stalk with narrow spear-shaped leaves and white or yellow flowers on a spike direct from the root.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Asia, extensively cultivated all over the tropics in Nigeria, the West Indies, India, China, Jamaica and Japan. Most oil is distilled in the UK, China and India.
OTHER SPECIES: Several varieties according to location which are all used to produce oils with slight variations in their constitiuents; for example the African oil is generally darker. Another member of the same family, galangal (Alpinia officinarum), is also known as ginger root or Chinese ginger.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ginger has been used as a domestic spice and as a remedy for thousands of years, especially in the East. Fresh ginger is used in China for many complaints including rheumatism, bacterial dysentery, toothache, malaria, and for cold and moist conditions such as excess mucus and diarrhoea.
It is best known as a digestive aid, especially in the West: in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is specifically indicated for flatulent intestinal colic. Preserved and crystallized ginger is a popular sweet, in the East and West.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the unpeeled, dried, ground root. (An absolute and oleoresin are also produced for use in perfumery.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, amber or greenish liquid with a warm, slightly green, fresh, woody-spicy scent. It blends well with sandalwood, vetiver, patchouli, frankincense, rosewood, cedarwood, coriander, rose, lime, neroli, orange and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Gingerin, gingenol, gingerone, zingiberine, linalol, camphene, phellandrene, citral, cineol, borneol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), slightly phototoxic; may cause sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, strains etc.
Respiratory System: Catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.
Digestive System: Diarrhoea, colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion, loss of appitite, nausea, travel sickness.
Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, fever, infectious disease.
Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion.
OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in digestive, carminative and laxative preparations; used as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental and men’s fragrances; extensively employed in all major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... ginger
FAMILY: Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)
SYNONYMS: Sinapsis nigra, B. sinapioides, black mustard.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect annual up to 3 metres high, with spear-shaped upper leaves, smooth flat pods containing about ten dark brown seeds, and bright yellow cabbage-like flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout south eastern Europe, southern Siberia, Asia Minor and North Africa; naturalized in North and South America. Cultivated for its seed and oil in England, Holland, Denmark, Germany and Italy.
OTHER SPECIES: The Russian variety is known as brown mustard or ‘sarepta’ (B. juncea); the white mustard (B. alba) does not contain any essential oil. Also closely related is rape (B. napus) and other local species which are used in India and China.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The seeds are highly esteemed as a condiment and for their medicinal qualities. They have been used in the East and West to aid the digestion, warm the stomach and promote the appetite, and for cold, stiff or feverish conditions such as colds, chills, coughs, chilblains, rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago and general aches and pains.
ACTIONS: Aperitif, antimicrobial, antiseptic, diuretic, emetic, febrifuge, rubefacient (produces blistering of the skin), stimulant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the black mustard seeds, which have been macerated in warm water.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sharp, penetrating, acrid odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Allyl isothiocyanate (99 per cent). NB: Black mustard seed or powder does not contain this constituent, which is only formed by contact with water during the production of the essential oil.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin, dermal toxin, mucous membrane irritant. It is considered one of the most toxic of all essential oils.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘It should not be used in therapy either externally or internally.’.
OTHER USES: Used in certain rubefacient or counter-irritant liniments. Used extensively by the food industry especially in pickles, seasonings and sauces. Little used as a fragrance component except in cat and dog repellents.... mustard
FAMILY: Piperaceae
SYNONYMS: Piper, pepper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial woody vine up to 5 metres high with heart-shaped leaves and small white flowers. The berries turn from red to black as they mature – black pepper is the dried fully grown unripe fruit.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south west India; cultivated extensively in tropical countries. Major producers are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and Madagascar. It is also distilled in Europe and America from the imported dried fruits.
OTHER SPECIES: The so-called white pepper is the dried ripe fruit with the outer pericarp removed. Not to be confused with cayenne pepper or paprika from the capsicum species, which are used to make an oleoresin.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both black and white pepper have been used in the East for over 4000 years for medicinal and culinary purposes. In Chinese medicine, white pepper is used to treat malaria, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, stomach ache and other digestive problems. In Greece it is used for intermittent fever and to fortify the stomach. ‘The mendicant monks of India who cover daily considerable distances on foot, swallow 7–9 grains of pepper a day. This gives them remarkable endurance.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant (nervous, circulatory, digestive), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the black peppercorns, dried and crushed. (‘Light’ and ‘heavy’ oils are produced by the extraction of the low or high boiling fractions respectively.) An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction, mainly for flavour use.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white to pale olive mobile liquid with a fresh, dry-woody, warm, spicy scent. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, spices and florals (in minute quantities).
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes (70–80 per cent): thujene, pinene, camphene, sabinene, carene, myrcene, limonene, phellandrene, and sesquiterpenes (20–30 per cent) and oxygenated compounds.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, irritant in high concentration due to rubefacient properties. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains.
Circulation muscles and joints: Anaemia, arthritis, muscular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, poor muscle tone (muscular atonia), rheumatic pain, sprains, stiffness.
Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections and viruses.
OTHER USES: Used in certain tonic and rubefacient preparations. Used for unusual effects in perfumery work; for example, with rose or carnation in oriental or floral fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are used extensively in the food industry, as well as in alcoholic drinks.... pepper, black
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Estragon (oil), little dragon, Russian tarragon.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb with smooth narrow leaves; an erect stem up to 1.2 metres tall, and small yellowy-green, inconspicuous flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, southern Russia and western Asia. Now cultivated worldwide, especially in Europe and the USA. The oil is mainly produced in France, Holland, Hungary and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: The so-called French tarragon or ‘sativa’, which is cultivated as a garden herb, is a smaller plant with a sharper flavour than the Russian type and is a sterile derivative of the wild species.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The leaf is commonly used as domestic herb, especially with chicken or fish, and to make tarragon vinegar. The name is thought to derive from an ancient use as an antidote to the bites of venomous creatures and ‘madde dogges’. It was favoured by the maharajahs of India who took it as a tisane, and in Persia it was used to induce appetite.
‘The leaves, which are chiefly used, are heating and drying, and good for those that have the flux, or any prenatural discharge.’. The leaf was also formerly used for digestive and menstrual irregularities, while the root was employed as a remedy for toothache.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aperitif, carminative, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypnotic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid (turning yellow with age), with a sweet-anisic, spicy-green scent. It blends well with labdanum, galbanum, lavender, oakmoss, vanilla, pine and basil.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Estragole (up to 70 per cent), capillene, ocimene, nerol, phellandrene, thujone and cineol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Moderately toxic due to ‘estragole’ (methyl chavicol); use in moderation only. Possibly carcinogenic. Otherwise non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Digestive system: Anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, hiccoughs, intestinal spasm, nervous indigestion, sluggish digestion.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, PMT.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially condiments and relishes, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... tarragon
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: T. aestivus, T. ilerdensis, T. webbianus, T. valentianus, French thyme, garden thyme, red thyme (oil), white thyme (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial evergreen subshrub up to 45 cms high with a woody root and much-branched upright stem. It has small, grey-green, oval, aromatic leaves and pale purple or white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Spain and the Mediterranean region; now found throughout Asia Minor, Algeria, Turkey, Tunisia, Israel, the USA, Russia, China and central Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Spain but also in France, Israel, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Germany and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous varieties of thyme – the common thyme is believed to have derived from the wild thyme or mother-of-thyme (T. serpyllum), which is also used to produce an essential oil called serpolet, similar in effect to the common thyme oil.
Another species used for the production of the so-called red thyme oil is particularly the Spanish sauce thyme (T. zygis), a highly penetrating oil good for cellulitis, sports injuries, etc. (although, like the common thyme, it is a skin irritant). Other species used for essential oil production include lemon thyme (T. citriodorus), a fresh scented oil good for asthma and other respiratory conditions, safe for children. Spanish marjoram (T. Mastichina) is actually botanically classified as a variety of thyme, with which it shares many common properties, despite its common name. Spanish marjoram contains mainly 1,8-cineole (up to 75 per cent) and linalool (up to 20 per cent), so therapeutically has much in common with eucalyptus, being well suited to treating viral and bacterial respiratory infections. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest medicinal plants employed throughout the Mediterranean region, well known to both Hippocrates and Dioscorides. It was used by the ancient Egyptians in the embalming process, and by the ancient Greeks to fumigate against infectious illness; the name derives from the Greek thymos meaning ‘to perfume’. It is also a long-established culinary herb, especially used for the preservation of meat.
It has a wide range of uses, though in Western herbal medicine its main areas of application are respiratory problems, digestive complaints and the prevention and treatment of infection. In the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is indicated for dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, bronchitis, pertussis, asthma, children’s diarrhoea, laryngitis, tonsillitis and enuresis in children.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiputrescent, antirheumatic, antiseptic (intestinal, pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antitussive, antitoxic, aperitif, astringent, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypertensive, nervine, revulsive, rubefacient, parasiticide, stimulant (immune system, circulation), sudorific, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and flowering tops. 1. ‘Red thyme oil’ is the crude distillate. 2. ‘White thyme oil’ is produced by further redistillation or rectification. (An absolute is also produced in France by solvent extraction for perfumery use.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A red, brown or orange liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, powerful odour. 2. A clear, pale yellow liquid with a sweet, green-fresh, milder scent. It blends well with bergamot, lemon, rosemary, melissa, lavender, lavandin, marjoram, Peru balsam, pine, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thymol and carvacrol (up to 60 per cent), cymene, terpinene, camphene, borneol, linalol; depending on the source it can also contain geraniol, citral and thuyanol, etc.
There are many chemotypes of thyme oil: notably the ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ types (warming and active); the ‘thuyanol’ type (penetrating and antiviral); and the milder ‘linalol’ or ‘citral’ types (sweet-scented, non-irritant).
SAFETY DATA: Red thyme oil, serpolet (from wild thyme), ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ type oils all contain quite large amounts of toxic phenols (carvacrol and thymol). They can irritate mucous membranes, cause dermal irritation and may cause sensitization in some individuals. Use in moderation, in low dilution only. They are best avoided during pregnancy.
White thyme is not a ‘complete’ oil and is often adulterated. Lemon thyme and ‘linalol’types are in general less toxic, non-irritant, with less possibility of sensitization – safe for use on the skin and with children.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, bruises, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, insect bites, lice, gum infections, oily skin, scabies.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, gout, muscular aches and pains, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, sports injuries.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis, sinusitis, sore throat, tonsillitis.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urethritis.
Immune system: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.
Nervous system: Headaches, insomnia, nervous debility and stress-related complaints – ‘helps to revive and strengthen both body and mind’..
OTHER USES: The oil is used in mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes and cough lozenges. ‘Thymol’ is isolated for pharmaceutical use in surgical dressings, disinfectants etc. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, aftershaves, perfumes, colognes, etc. Extensively employed by the food and drink industry, especially in meat products.... thyme, common
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Milfoil, common yarrow, nosebleed, thousand leaf – and many other country names.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb with a simple stem up to 1 metre high, with finely dissected leaves giving a lacy appearance, bearing numerous pinky-white, dense flowerheads.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Eurasia; naturalized in North America. Now found in most temperate zones of the world. The oil is mainly distilled in Germany, Hungary, France and Yugoslavia, also the USA and Africa.
OTHER SPECIES: A very extensive species. Other varieties include the Ligurian yarrow (A. ligustica) and the musk yarrow or iva (A. moschata), which also produces an essential oil containing mainly cineol – used in the preparation of ‘iva liquor’, a medicinal aperitif.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: An age-old herbal medicine used for a wide variety of complaints including fever, respiratory infections, digestive problems, nervous tension and externally for sores, rashes and wounds. Its use in the treatment of wounds is said to go back to Achilles who used it for injuries inflicted by iron weapons.
It is used in China mainly for menstrual problems and haemorrhoids. In Norway it is also used for rheumatism. The stalks are traditionally used for divination in the I Ching, the Chinese classic. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for thrombotic conditions with hypertension.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, digestive, expectorant, haemostatic, hypotensive, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried herb.
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark blue or greenish olive liquid with a fresh, green, sweet herbaceous, slightly camphoraceous odour. It blends well with cedarwood, pine, chamomile, valerian, vetiver and oakmoss.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Azulene (up to 51 per cent), pinenes, caryophyllene, borneol, terpineol, cineol, bornyl acetate, camphor, sabinene and thujone, among others. Constituents, especially azulene levels, vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, burns, cuts, eczema, hair rinse (promotes hair growth), inflammations, rashes, scars, tones the skin, varicose veins, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arteriosclerosis, high blood pressure, rheumatoid arthritis, thrombosis.
Digestive system: Constipation, cramp, flatulence, haemorrhoids, indigestion.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, cystitis and other infections.
Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu, etc.
Nervous system: Hypertension, insomnia, stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in pharmaceutical bath preparations for skin conditions. Limited use in perfumes and aftershaves. Employed as a flavour ingredient in vermouths and bitters.... yarrow
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