Benzyl benzoate Health Dictionary

(Willd.) DC.

Synonym: A sinuata (Lour.) Merrill; A. rugata (Lamk.) Ham.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Tropical jungles throughout India, especially in the Deccan.

Ayurvedic: Saptalaa, Shitalaa, Saatalaa, Shrivalli, Kantvalli.

Unani: Shikaakaai, Kharunb Nabti.

Siddha/Tamil: Seekai, Sigakai.

Folk: Ban-Reethaa.

Action: Febrifuge, expectorant, emetic, spasmolytic, diuretic, antidiarrhoeal. Leaves—an infusion is given in malarial fever. Pods and seeds—decoction is used to remove dandruff (known as Shikaakaai), extensively used as a detergent. An ointment is used for skin diseases. Bark—extract is used in leprosy.

The bark yields a saponin which, on hydrolysis, yields lupeol, alpha- spinasterol and acacic acid lactone. Pods also yield saponins (20.8%). Sugars identified are glucose, arabinose and rhamnose.

The leaves contain alkaloids, nicotine and colycotomine, a triterpenoid saponin and oxalic, tartaric, citric, suc- cinic and ascorbic acids.

The bark saponins are spermicidal, also haemolytic and spasmolytic. A decoction of pods relieves biliousness and acts as a purgative.

The ethanolic extract of unripe pods yields a glycosidal fraction (0.28%) which exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. It also shows significant antibacterial activity.

The plant acts as an antiseptic agent for curing sores, gums and loose teeth.

The flowers are the source of Cassie perfume.

The main constituents of the flowers are benzyl, anisic, decylic and cuminic aldehydes, as well as traces of geraniol, farnesol and linalool.... acacia concinna

Cucurbitaceae

The family Cucurbitaceae includes a large group of plants which are medicinally valuable. The important genera belonging to the family are Trichosanthes, Lagenaria, Luffa, Benincasa, Momordica, Cucumis, Citrullus, Cucurbita, Bryonopsis and Corallocarpus. The medicinally valuable species of these genera are discussed below.

1. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.

Eng: Wild Snake-gourd; San: Meki,Pargavi, Parvara, Patola;

Hin: Palval, Parvar

Ben: Potol;

Mal: Kattupatavalam, Patolam;

Tam: Kombuppudalai;

Tel: Kommupotta

Wild snake-gourd is a slender-stemmed, extensively climbing, more or less scabrous and woolly herb found throughout the plains of N. India, extending to Assam and W. Bengal. Tendrils are 2-4 fid. Leaves are 7.5x5cm in size, ovate-oblong, cordate, acute, sinuate- dentate, not lobed, rigid, rough on both surface and with a petiole of 2cm. Flowers are unisexual. Male flowers are not racemed but woolly outside. Calyx tube is 4.5cm long, narrow, teeth linear and erect. Anthers are free. Fruit is 5.9cm long, oblong or nearly spherical, acute, smooth and orange-red when ripe. Seeds are half-ellipsoid, compressed and corrugated on the margin (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The unripe fruit of this is generally used as a culinary vegetable and is considered very wholesome and specially suited for the convalescent. The tender shoots are given in decoction with sugar to assist digestion. The seeds are useful for disorders of the stomach. The leaf juice is rubbed over the chest in liver congestion and over the whole body in intermittent fevers (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruit is used as a remedy for spermatorrhoea. The fresh juice of the unripe fruit is often used as a cooling and laxative adjunct to some alterative medicines. In bilious fever, a decoction of patola leaves and coriander in equal parts is given. The fruit in combination with other drugs is prescribed in snakebite and scorpion sting (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988).

Fruits contain free amino acids and 5-hydroxy tryptamine. Fatty acids from seeds comprise elaeostearic, linoelic, oleic and saturated acids. The aerial part is hypoglycaemic. Leaf and root is febrifuge. Root is hydragogue, cathartic and tonic. Unripe leaf and fruit is laxative (Husain et al, 1992). The plant is alterative and tonic. Leaves are anthelmintic. Flower is tonic and aphrodisiac. The ripe fruit is sour to sweet, tonic, aphrodisiac, expectorant and removes blood impurities.

The other important species belonging to the genus Trichosanthes are as follows.

T. palmata Roxb. T. cordata Roxb. T. nervifolia Linn.

T. cucumerina Linn.

T. anguina Linn.

T. wallichiana Wight. syn. T. multiloba Clarke

2. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. syn. Cucurbita Lagenaria Linn. ; Roxb.

Eng: Bottle gourd San: Alabu Hin: Lauki, Jangli-khaddu

Ben: Lau, Kodu

Mal: Katuchuram, Churakka

Tam: Soriai-kay

Tel: Surakkaya

Bottle gourd is a large softly pubescent climbing or trailing herb which is said to be indigenous in India, the Molucas and in Abyssinia. It has stout 5-angled stems with bifid tendrils. Leaves are ovate or orbiculate, cordate, dentate, 5-angular or 5-lobed, hairy on both surfaces. Flowers are large, white, solitary, unisexual or bisexual, the males long and females short peduncled. Ovary is oblong, softly pubescent with short style and many ovules. Fruits are large, usually bottle or dumb-bell-shaped, indehiscent and polymorphous. Seeds are many, white, horizontal, compressed, with a marginal groove and smooth. There are sweet fruited and bitter-fruited varieties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit contains a thick white pulp which, in the cultivated variety (kodu) is sweet and edible, while in the smaller wild variety (tamri) it is bitter and a powerful purgative. The seeds yield clear limpid oil which is cooling and is applied to relieve headache. The pulp of the cultivated forms is employed as and adjunct to purgatives and considered cool, diuretic and antibilious, useful in cough, and as an antidote to certain poisons. Externally it is applied as a poultice. The leaves are purgative and recommended to be taken in the form of decoction for jaundice (Nadkarni, 1998). In the case of sweet-fruited variety, the stem is laxative and sweet. The fruit is sweet oleagenous, cardiotonic, general tonic, aphrodisiac, laxative and cooling. In the case of bitter-fruited variety, the leaves are diuretic, antibilious; useful in leucorrhoea, vaginal and uterine complaints and earache. The fruit is bitter, hot, pungent, emetic, cooling, cardiotonic, antibilious; cures asthma, vata, bronchitis, inflammations ulcers and pains.

3. Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb.

Eng: Ridged gourd; San: Dharmargavah, Svadukosataki;

Hin: Tori, Katitori;

Ben: Ghosha

Mal: Peechil, Peechinga;

Tam: Pikangai, Prikkangai;

Tel: Birakaya;

Kan: Kadupadagila

Ridged gourd or ribbed gourd is a large monoecious climber cultivated throughout India. It is with 5-angled glabrous stems and trifid tendrils. Leaves are orbicular-cordate, palmately 5-7 lobed, scabrous on both sides with prominent veins and veinlets. Flowers are yellow, males arranged in 12-20 flowered axillary racemes. Female flowers are solitary, arranged in the axils of the males. Ovary is strongly ribbed. Fruits are oblong-clavate with 10-sharp angles 15-30cm long, tapering towards the base. Seeds are black, ovoid-oblong, much compressed and not winged (Warrier et al, 1995). The leaves are used in haemorrhoids, leprosy, granular-conjunctivitis and ringworm. The seeds are useful in dermatopathy. The juice of the fresh leaves is dropped into the eyes of children in granular conjunctivitis, also to prevent the lids from adhering at night on account of excessive meihomian secretion (Nadkarni, 1998). Fruits are demulcent, diuretic, tonic, expectorant, laxative and nutritive. The seeds are bitter, emetic, cathartic, expectorant and purgative.

The other important species of the genus Luffa are:

L. aegyptiaca Mill.

L. acutangula var. amara Clarke

L. echinata Roxb.

4. Benincasa hispida (Thumb.) Cogn. syn. B. cerifera Savi.

Eng: Ash gourd, White gourd melon; San: Kusmandah;

Hin: Petha, Raksa;

Ben: Kumra

Mal: Kumpalam;

Tam: Pusanikkai;

Kan: Bile Kumbala;

Tel: Bodigummadi

Ash gourd or White gourd melon is a large trailing gourd climbing by means of tendrils which is widely cultivated in tropical Asia. Leaves are large and hispid beneath. Flowers are yellow, unisexual with male peduncle 7.5-10cm long and female peduncle shorter. Fruits are broadly cylindric, 30-45cm long, hairy throughout and ultimately covered with a waxy bloom. The fruits are useful in asthma, cough, diabetes, haemoptysis, hemorrhages from internal organs, epilepsy, fever and vitiated conditions of pitta. The seeds are useful in dry cough, fever, urethrorrhea, syphilis, hyperdipsia and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al,1993). It is a rejuvenative drug capable of improving intellect and physical strength. In Ayurveda, the fresh juice of the fruit is administered as a specific in haemoptysis and other haemorrhages from internal organs. The fruit is useful in insanity, epilepsy and other nervous diseases, burning sensation, diabetes, piles and dyspepsia. It is a good antidote for many kinds of vegetable, mercurial and alcoholic poisoning. It is also administered in cough, asthma or respiratory diseases, heart diseases and catarrah. Seeds are useful in expelling tapeworms and curing difficult urination and bladder stones. The important formulations using the drug are Kusmandarasayana, Himasagarataila, Dhatryadighrita, Vastyamantakaghrita, Mahaukusmandakaghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Fruits contain lupeol, -sitosterol, n-triacontanol, vitamin B, mannitol and amino acids. The fruit is alterative, laxative, diuretic, tonic, aphrodisiac and antiperiodic. Seed and oil from seed is anthelmintic (Husain et al, 1992).

5. Momordica charantia Linn.

Eng: Bitter gourd, Carilla fruit San: Karavellam

Hin: Karela, Kareli

Mal: Kaypa, Paval

Tam: Pavakkai, Paval, Pakar

Tel: Kakara

Bitter gourd or Carilla fruit is a branched climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India. It is a monoecious plant with angled and grooved stems and hairy or villous young parts. Tendrils are simple, slender and elongate. Leaves are simple, orbicular, cordate and deeply divided into 5-7 lobes. Flowers are unisexual, yellow and arranged on 5-10cm long peduncles. Fruits are 5-15cm long with 3-valved capsules, pendulous, fusiform, ribbed and beaked bearing numerous triangular tubercles. Seeds are many or few with shining sculptured surface. The roots are useful in coloptosis and ophthalmopathy. The leaves are useful in vitiated conditions of pita, helminthiasis, constipation, intermittent fever, burning sensation of the sole and nyctalopia. The fruits are useful in skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers, wounds, burning sensation, constipation, anorexia, flatulence, colic, helminthiasis, rheumatalgia, gout, diabetes, asthma, cough, dysmenorrhoea, impurity of breast milk, fever and debility. Seeds are useful in the treatment of ulcers, pharyngodynia, and obstructions of the liver and spleen. The leaves and fruits are used for external application in lumbago, ulceration and bone fractures and internally in leprosy, haemorrhoids and jaundice (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug improves digestion, calms down sexual urge, quells diseases due to pitta and kapha and cures anaemia, anorexia, leprosy, ulcers, jaundice, flatulence and piles. Fruit is useful in gout, rheumatism and complaints of liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1966; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). Kaccoradi taila is an important preparation using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

The seeds give triterpene glycosides, named momordicosides A, B, C, D and E, which are glycosides of cucurbit-5-en-triol, tetraol or pentaol. Leaves and vines give tetracyclic triterpenes-momordicines I, II and III (bitter principles). Immature fruits give several non-bitter and 2 bitter cucurbitacin glycosides. Four of the non-bitter glycosides, momordicosides F1, F2, G and I and the bitter momordicosides; K and L have also been characterized. Fruits, seeds and tissue culture give a polypeptide which contained 17 types of amino acids and showed hypoglycaemic activity. Fruits also give 5-hydroxy tryptamine and a neutral compound charantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin, cholesterol, lanosterol and -sitosterol. Leaf is emetic, purgative and antibilious. Fruit is stomachic, tonic, carminative, febrifuge, antirheumatic and hypoglycaemic. Root is astringent. Fruit and leaf is anti-leprotic. Fruit, leaf and root are abortifacient and anti-diabetic. Leaf and seed is anthelmintic. Seed oil possesses antifeeding and insecticidal properties. Unsaponifiable matter from seed oil exhibited pronounced inhibitory activity against gram negative bacteria. Seed and fruit are hypoglycaemic, cytotoxic and anti-feedant (Husain et al, 1992).

Other important species belonging to the genus Momordica are as follows.

M. dioica Roxb.

M. cochinchinensis Spreng.

M. tuberosa Cogn.

M. balsamina Linn.

6. Cucumis melo Linn. syn. C. melo Linn. var. cultis Kurz., C. pubescens

Willd., C. callosus (Rottl.) Cogn.

Eng: Sweet melon San,

Hin: Kharbuja

Ben: Kharmul

Mal: Mulam

Tam: Chukkari-kai, Thumatti-kai, Mulampazham

Tel: Kharbuja-doshavSweet melon is a creeping annual extensively cultivated throughout India, found wild in India, Baluchistan and tropical Africa. The stem is creeping, angular and scabrous. Leaves are orbicular-reniform in outline, 5-angled or lobed, scabrous on both surfaces and often with soft hairs. Lobes of leaves are not very deep nor acute and with 5cm long petiole. Female peduncle is 5cm. Fruit is spherical, ovoid, elongate or contorted, glabrous or somewhat hairy, not spinous nor tuberculate.

Cucumis melo includes two varieties, namely,

C. melo var. momordica syn. C. momordica Roxb.

C. melo var. utilissimus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. utilissimus Roxb.

The fruit is eaten raw and cooked. Its pulp forms a nutritive, demulcent, diuretic and cooling drink. It is beneficial as a lotion in chronic and acute eczema as well as tan and freckles and internally in cases of dyspepsia. Pulp mixed with cumin seeds and sugar candy is a cool diet in hot season. Seeds yield sweet edible oil which is nutritive and diuretic, useful in painful discharge and suppression of urine. The whole fruit is useful in chronic eczema (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

Seeds contain fatty acids-myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic; asparagine, glutamine, citrulline, lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine, valine, tyrosine, leucine, iso-leucine, methionine, proline, threonine, tryptophan and crystine. Seed is tonic, lachrymatory, diuretic and urease inhibitor. Fruit pulp is eczemic. Fruit is tonic, laxative, galactagogue, diuretic and diaphoretic. The rind is vulnerary (Husain et al, 1992).

7. Cucumic sativus Linn.

Eng: Cucumber, Common cucumber; San: Trapusah;

Hin,

Ben: Khira;

Mal: Vellari

Tam: Vellarikkai, Pippinkai;

Kan: Mullusavte;

Tel: Dosekaya

Cucumber is a climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India, found wild in the Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim. It is a hispidly hairy trailing or climbing annual. Leaves are simple, alternate, deeply cordate, 3-5 lobed with both surfaces hairy and denticulate margins. Flowers are yellow, males clustered, bearing cohering anthers, connective crusted or elevated above the cells. Females are solitary and thickly covered with very bulbous based hairs. Fruits are cylindrical pepo of varying sizes and forms. Seeds are cream or white with hard and smooth testa. The fruits are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, thermoplegia, fever, insomnia, cephalgia, bronchitis, jaundice, haemorrhages, strangury and general debility. The seeds are useful in burning sensation, pitta, constipation, intermittent fevers, strangury, renal calculus, urodynia and general debility (Warrier et al, 1994). The leaves boiled and mixed with cumin seeds, roasted, powdered and administered in throat affections. Powdered and mixed with sugar, they are powerful diuretic (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruits and seeds are sweet, refrigerant, haemostatic, diuretic and tonic. Other important species belonging to the genus are:

C. trigonus Roxb. syn. C. pseudo-colocynthis

C. prophetarum Linn.

8. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader. syn. Cucumis colocynthis Linn.

Eng: Colocynth, Bitter apple; San: Visala, Mahendravaruni;

Hin: Badi indrayan, Makkal

Ben: Makhal;

Mal: Kattuvellari (Valutu), Valiya pekkummatti;

Tel: Etti-puchcha

Tam: Paitummatti, Petummatti;

Colocynth or Bitter apple is found, cultivated and wild, throughout India in warmer areas. It is an extensively trailing annual herb with bifid tendrils angular branching stems and wooly tender shoots. Leaves are deeply divided, lobes narrow thick, glabrous or somewhat hairy. Flowers are unisexual, yellow, both males and females solitary and with pale-yellow corolla. Fruit is a globose or oblong fleshy indehiscent berry, 5-7.5cm in diameter and variegated with green and white. Seeds are pale brown. The fruits are useful in tumours, ascites, leucoderma, ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, urethrorrhea, jaundice, dyspepsia, constipations, elephantiasis, tubercular glands of the neck and splenomegaly (Warrier et al, 1994). It is useful in abnormal presentations of the foetus and in atrophy of the foetus. In addition to the above properties, the root has a beneficial action in inflammation of the breasts, pain in the joints; externally it is used in ophthalmia and in uterine pains. The fruit and root, with or without is rubbed into a paste with water and applied to boils and pimples. In rheumatism, equal parts of the root and long pepper are given in pill. A paste of the root is applied to the enlarged abdomen of children (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit is useful in ascites, biliousness, jaundice, cerebral congestion, colic, constipation dropsy, fever, worms and sciatica. Root is given in cases of abdominal enlargement, cough, asthma, inflammation of the breast, ulcers, urinary diseases and rheumatism. Oil from seeds is used for poisonous bites, bowel complaints, epilepsy and also for blackening the hair (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980). The important formulations using the root and fruit are Abhayarista, Mahatiktakam kasaya, Manasamitravatakam, Cavikasava, Madhuyastyadi taila, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The powder is often used as an insecticide. The extract should never be given without some aromatic to correct its griping tendency (Nadkarni, 1998).

Fruit contains a glycoside- colocynthin, its aglycone- -elaterin, citrulluin, citrullene and citrullic acid. Unripe fruit contains p-hydroxy benzyl methyl ester. Roots contain - elaterin and hentriacontane (Husain et al, 1992). Colocynth is, in moderate doses, drastic, hydrogogue, cathartic and diuretic. In large doses, it is emetic and gastro-intestinal irritant and in small doses, it is expectorant and alterative. Colocynthin is a cathartic and intensely bitter principle. It has a purgative action. All parts of the plant are very bitter. The fruit has been described as cathartic (Nadkarni, 1982).

9. Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. syn. C. lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai.

Eng: Water melon; San: Tarambuja;

Hin: Tarbuj;

Ben: Tarbuz

Mal: Thannimathan;

Tam: Pitcha, Dharbusini

Watermelon is an extensively climbing annual which is largely cultivated throughout India and in all warm countries. It has thick angular branching stems. Tendrils are bifid, stout and pubescent. Leaves are long, deeply divided or moderately lobed, glabrous or somewhat hairy and hardly scabrous. Petiole is a little shorter than the limb and villous. Calyx-lobes are narrowly lanceolate, equalling the tube. Corolla is yellow within, greenish outside and villous. Lobes are ovate-oblong, obtuse and prominently 5-nerved. Fruit is sub-globose or ellipsoid, smooth, greenish or clouded, often with a glaucous waxy coating. Flesh is juicy, red or yellowish white. Seeds are usually margined. C. vulgaris var. fistulosus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. fistulosus has its fruit about the size of small turnip, the seeds of which are used medicinally. The fruit is tasteless when unripe and sweet when ripe. The unripe fruit is used to cure jaundice. Ripe fruit cures kapha and vata and causes biliousness. It is good for sore eyes, scabies and itching. The seeds are tonic to the brain and used as a cooling medicine. An emulsion of the seeds is made into a poultice with the pounded leaves and applied hot in cases of intestinal inflammations (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Fruit juice is good in quenching thirst and it is used as an antiseptic in typhus fever with cumin and sugar. It is used as a cooling drink in strangury and affections of urinary organs such as gonorrhoea; in hepatic congestion and intestinal catarrh. The bitter watermelon of Sind is known as “Kirbut” and is used as a purgative.

Seeds yield a fixed oil and proteids; citrullin. Seeds are cooling, demulcent, diuretic, vermifuge and nutritive. Pulp is cooling and diuretic. Fruit-juice is cooling and refreshing (Nadkarni, 1982).

10. Curcurbita pepo Linn. syn. Pepo vulgaris et P. verrucosus Moench

Meth.

Eng: Pompion, Pumpkin, Vegetable Marrow; San: Karkaru, Kurkaru, Kushmandi

Hin,

Ben: Kadimah, Konda, Kumra, Safedkkadu;

Mal: Mathan, Matha

Tel: Budadegummadi, Pottigummadi

Pompion or Pumpkin is a climbing herb which is considered to be a native of America and cultivated in many parts of India. The stem and leaves are with a harsh prickly armature. Foliage is stiff, more or less rigid and erect. Leaves are with a broad triangular pointed outline and often with deep lobes. Corolla is mostly with erect or spreading (not drooping) pointed lobes, the tube narrowing towards the base. Peduncle is strongly 5-angled and little or much expanding near the fruit. The fruit is cooling and astringent to the bowels, increases appetite, cures leprosy, ‘kapha and vata’, thirst, fatigue and purifies the blood. The leaves are used to remove biliousness. Fruit is good for teeth, throat and eyes and allays thirst. Seeds cure sore chests, haemoptysis, bronchitis and fever. It is good for the kidney and brain. The leaves are used as an external application for burns. The seeds are considered anthelmintic. The seeds are largely used for flavouring certain preparations of Indian hemp, and the root for a nefarious purpose, viz., to make the preparation more potent. The seeds are taeniacide, diuretic and demulcent. The fruit is cooling, laxative and astringent. The leaves are digestible, haematinic and analgesic.

The other important species belonging to the genus Cucurbita is C. maxima Duchena, the seeds of which are a popular remedy for tape-worm and oil as a nervine tonic (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

11. Corallocarpus epigaeus Benth. ex Hook. f. syn. Bryonia epigaea Wight.

San: Katunahi;

Hin: Akasgaddah;

Mal: Kadamba, Kollankova

Tam: Akashagarudan, Gollankovai;

Tel: Murudonda, Nagadonda

Corallocarpus is a prostrate or climbing herb distributed in Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Deccan, Karnataka and Sri Lanka. It is monoecious with large root which is turnip-shaped and slender stem which is grooved, zigzag and glabrous. Tendrils are simple, slender and glabrous. Leaves are sub-orbicular in outline, light green above and pale beneath, deeply cordate at the base, angled or more or less deeply 3-5 lobed. Petiole is long and glabrous. Male flowers are small and arranged at the tip of a straight stiff glabrous peduncle. Calyx is slightly hairy, long and rounded at the base. Corolla is long and greenish yellow. Female flowers are usually solitary with short, stout and glabrous peduncles. Fruit is stalked, long, ellipsoid or ovoid. Seeds are pyriform, turgid, brown and with a whitish corded margin. It is prescribed in later stages of dysentery and old veneral complaints. For external use in chronic rheumatism, it is made into a liniment with cumin seed, onion and castor oil. It is used in case of snakebite where it is administered internally and applied to the bitten part. The root is given in syphilitic rheumatism and later stages of dysentery. The plant is bitter, sweet, alexipharmic and emetic. The root is said to possess alterative and laxative properties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Root contains a bitter principle like Breyonin (Chopra et al, 1980).

Agrotechnology: Cucurbits can be successfully grown during January-March and September- December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers.

Pits of 60cm diameter and 30-45cm depth are to be taken at the desired spacing. Well rotten FYM or vegetable mixture is to be mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are to be sown at 4-5/pit. Unhealthy plants are to be removed after 2 weeks and retained 2-3 plants/pit. FYM is to be applied at 20-25t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35kg/ha) and full dose of P (25kg) and K (25kg). The remaining dose of N (35kg) can be applied in 2 equal split doses at fortnightly intervals. During the initial stages of growth, irrigation is to be given at an interval of 3-4 days and at alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods. For trailing cucumber, pumpkin and melon, dried twigs are to be spread on the ground. Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and ash gourd are to be trailed on Pandals. Weeding and raking of the soil are to be conducted at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season. The most dreaded pest of cucurbits is fruit flies which can be controlled by using fruit traps, covering the fruits with polythene, cloth or paper bags, removal and destruction of affected fruits and lastly spraying with Carbaryl or Malathion 0. 2% suspension containing sugar or jaggery at 10g/l at fortnightly intervals after fruit set initiation. During rainy season, downy mildew and mosaic diseases are severe in cucurbits. The former can be checked by spraying Mancozeb 0.2%. The spread of mosaic can be checked by controlling the vectors using Dimethoate or Phosphamidon 0.05% and destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts. Harvesting to be done at least 10 days after insecticide or fungicide application (KAU,1996).... cucurbits

Linn.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: The Temperate Himalayas.

English: Goosegrass, Clivers, Cleavers, Catch Weed.

Action: Choleretic, stomachic, diuretic, refrigerant, lymphatic, alterative, antiscorbutic, detoxifier; non-steroidal anti-inflammatory used for enlarged lymph nodes, especially cervical neck nodes, cystic and nodular changes in the glands, modular goitre. Used as a cleansing drink for malignant conditions and skin disorders, including psoriasis.

Key application: As diuretic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)

The plant contains iridoid monoter- penes (asperuloside), benzyl isoquino- line alkaloids (including protopine), beta-carbolin alkaloids (including harmine), quinazoline alkaloids and fla- vonoids (such as luteolin). Methanolic extract of the plant contains chloro- genic acid, scopoletin and rutin. The plant is reported to contain several sterols. The root contains anthraqui- nones.

Asperuloside can be chemically converted to prostanoid intermediates.... galium aparine

Holostemma ada-kodien

Asclepiadaceae

San: Jivanti;

Hin: Chirvel, Charivel;

Mal: Atapathiyan, Atapotiyan, Atakotiyan;

Tam: Palaikkirai;

Tel: Palagurugu; Mar: Dudurli, Shidodi;

Guj: Kharner, Khiravel

Importance: Holostemma is a twining shrub with large flowers. The roots of Holostemma are useful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, cough, burning sensation, stomachalgia, constipation, fever and tridoshas. The leaves, flowers and fruits are eaten as vegetable. The root is also used in spermatorrhoea. It is used in preparations of Vidaryadiganam, Dhanwandharam thaila, Manasamithravatakam, Balarishta and Anuthaila. It is also useful in eye diseases and it imparts resistance to diseases.

Distribution: The plant occurs in tropical countries. In India, it is found in Himalayas, Dehradun, Konkan, Bombay, Deccan, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu. It grows over hedges and in open forests especially on the lower slopes of the hills. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka, Burma and W. China.

Botany: Holostemma ada-kodien Schult. syn. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum.

Holostemma rheedii Wall. belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. It is a laticiferous twining shrub with large conspicuous flowers. Leaves are simple, opposite and cordate. Flowers are purple, arranged in axillary umbellate cymes. Fruits are thick follicles, 9 cm long, cylindrical and bluntly pointed. The roots are long upto 1 m or more, irregularly twisted, thick and cylindrical. When dry it is yellowish brown to brown black in colour with nearly smooth surface bearing white scars and small depressions. A mature root is about 1-2 cm thick when extracted for use (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology: Holostemma prefers a tropical climate. The plant is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings, but mainly by seeds. The seeds are collected from the plant in November-December before being dispersed. Seeds are cleaned, dried and stored for sowing. The stored seeds after soaking in water for 4-5 hours are sown in the seedbeds. About one month old seedlings are then planted in polybags of size 14x10cm which are filled with soil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio, respectively. Polybags should be kept in shade and irrigated. About 1-1.5 month old seedlings are ready for transplanting. Pits of 30cm cube size are taken at 1-1.2m distance and filled with 10kg dried cowdung and sand. This is covered with surface soil and formed into a mound. Seedlings are transplanted on to the mounds from the polybags carefully. Regular irrigation is to be given till flowering. To aid in trailing, staking is given one month after planting. Flowering and fruiting occurs in November-December. Harvesting can be done at the end of second year when the vines start drying up. Harvesting is done by digging up the tubers. The tubers are cut into pieces of 10cm length and dried in sun before sale (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Holostemma tubers give -amyrin, lupeol and -sitosterol. Alanine, aspartic acid, glycine, serine, threonine and valine were detected chromatographically (Hussain et al, 1992). The root is antidiabetic, antigonorrhoeic, bechic, alterative, tonic, lactative, ophthalmic, emollient, stimulant, aphrodisiac, expectorant and galactagogue.

BLACH MUSALE Curculigo orchioides Amaryllidaceae

San: Musali;

Hin: Kalimusali, Mushali;

Ben: Talamuli;

Mal: Nilappana;

Guj: Musalikand

Tam: Nilapanai;

Tel: Nelatadi Kelangu;

Kan: Neladali

Importance: Musali is a small, geophilous herb, the tuberous rootstock of which is used as a rejuvenating and aphrodisiac drug. It cures morbid vata and pitta, improves complexion and is useful in general debility, deafness, cough, asthma, piles, skin diseases, impotence, jaundice, urinary disorders, leucorrhoea and menorrhagia (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1963; Mooss, 1978). Rootstock is the officinal part and it enters into the Ayurvedic formulations like Vidaryadighrta, Vidaryadi lehya, Marmagulika, Musalyadi churna etc. The Pharmacognosy of C. orchioides has been discussed by Aiyer, Kolamma l (1963), Raghunathan, and Mitra (1982). A bibliographical study on C. orchioides has been done by Pandey et al (1983).

Distribution: The plant is found in all districts of India from near sea level to 2300m altitude, especially in rock crevices and laterite soil. It has been recorded to occur in the sub tropical Himalayas from Kumaon eastwards ascending to 1800m, the Khasia hills, Bengal, Asssam, Konkan, Kanara, the western peninsula and Madras extending south as far as a Cape Comerin. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka, Japan, Malaysia and Australia.

Botany: Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. syn. C. malabarica Wight, C. brevifolia Dryand, Hypoxis dulcis Stand belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae. Musali is a small herbaceous plant with cylindrical rootstock. Leaves are simple, sessile, crowded on the short stem with sheathing leaf bases. Flowers are bright yellow. Seeds are black, deeply grooved in wavy lines.

A detailed description of the plant is as follows (Victoria, 1998). Rootstock is straight, cylindrical, tuberous, 5-22cm long, 0.5-0.8 cm thick, brownish surfaces marked with closely spaced prominent transverse wrinkles in the upper or basal half. It bears a few stout lateral roots of 5 or more cm long. Lateral roots are dull white in colour and spongy externally. The fresh cut surfaces of the rootstock has a starch white colour and mucilaginous. A few fibrous roots also occur. Leaves are sessile or short petiolate with sheathing bases, 15-45x1.2-2.5 cm size, linear or linear lanceolate, membranous, glabrouus or sparsely sofly hairy and plicate in bud. The leaf tips when contacts the soil, develops roots and produce adventitious buds. Inflorescence is axillary, scapose racemose, the scape very short and hidden among the bases of leaves underground, clavte, flattened with the pedicels, bracts and the ovary concealed in the leaf sheaths. The lower big flowers on the scape are mostly bisexual and the upper small ones staminate. Flowers are epigynous bright yellow, bisexual or unisxual with lanceolate, memb ranous bract.. Perianth gamophyllous, rotate & six lobed, locate at the top of a slender sterile long extension of the ovary by means of which the perianth is exposed above the ground. Perianth lobes similar, elliptic oblong 1.2-1.6 cm long, 0.2-0.3 cm broad, outer lobes hairy on the back, inner ones sparsely hairy along nerves. Stamens 6 in number, filamentous filiform, short 2mm long, adnate to the base of the perianth lobes, Anthers linear or linear lanceolate, basifixed and sagittate,.Ovary inferior, hidden among the leaves usually below the ground, tricarpellary syncarpous, lanceolate and trilocular with a fairly long slender beak or extension -the stipe. Ovules many in each cell attached by a distinct long funicle. Style short columnar, 2mm with a 3 lobed stigma. Lobes elongate, erect and appressed. Fruit is a capsule about 1.5-2cm long, 8mm broad, oblong, glabrescent with a slender beak and spongy septa. Seeds 1-many, oblong, black, shiny with crustaceous testa grooved deeply in wavy lines.

Properties and activity: Rao and Beri (1951) have identified glucose, mannose, xylose and glucuronic acid from the rootstock of C. orchioides. The rootstock is also reported to contain glycoside, polysaccharides (hemicellulose and other polysaccharides), starch, resin, tannin, mucilage, fat and calcium oxalate. The hexane extract contains an alkaloid-lycorine, sterols including -sitosterols and sapogenin identified as yuccagenin (Rao et al, 1978). The flavone glycoside from the rootstock has been identified as 5,7- dimethoxy glucopyranoside (Yadav et al, 1974; Sharma et al 1975). Mehta et al (1980) have isolated a number of fatty acids from C. orchioides root oil by GLC techniques. They are palmitic, oleic, linolenic linoleic, arachidic and behenic acid. Kubo et al (1983) isolated a new phenolic glycoside namely, curculigoside from the rhizomes and its structure has been elucidated as 5- hydroxy-2-0- -d-glucopyranosyl benzl 1,2,6-dimethoxy benzoate. Yamasaki et al (1994) developed HPLC method for estimating the curculigoside content in curculigo rhizome.

Two new aliphatic hydroxy ketone 27-hydroxy tricontan-6-one (M. P. 84-85o C) and 23- hydroxy tricontan-2-one (M. P. 109-110 o C) were isolated from the rhizome by Misra et al (1984). They also isolated 21-hydroxy tetracontan-20-one and 4-methyl heptade canoic acid from the root stock. Porwal et al (1988) have isolated and identified three new compounds from the rhizome as N- acetyl-N-hydroxy-2-carbamic acid methyl ester, 3-acetyl-5-carbomethoxy-2H-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro-1,2,3,5,6-oxatetrazine and N, N, N’, N’-tetra methyl succinamide. The rhizomes of C. orchioides yielded a new phenolic glycoside corchioside a, characterised as orcinol-3- -D-xylopyranosyl- (1 6)- -D-glucopyranoside and hentriacontanol (Garg et al, 1989).

A new aliphatic compound has been isolated from the rhizomes and characterised as 25- dihydroxy-33-methyl pentatricontan-one (Mehta et al, 1990). Misra et al (1990) isolated a new natural triterpene alcohol-Curculigol charactrised as 24-methy cycloart-7-en-3-beta-20-diol. A novel pentacyclic triterpene has been isolated from the rhizomes of C.orchioides and characterised as 31- methyl-3-oxo-20-ursen-28-oic acid (Metha and Gawarikar,1991). Xu and Xu (1992) and Xu et al (1992 a, b) have isolated 13 cycloartane type. Triterpene glycosides from C. orchioides rhizome and characterised them as curculigo saponin A-M.

The root stock are mucilaginous, sweet, cooling, bitter, emollient, diuretic, aphrodisiac, depurative, alternative, appetiser, carminative, viriligenic, antipyretic and tonic (Sivarajan and Indira, 1994; Warrier et al, 1994).

The uterine stimulant activity of the flavone glycoside extracted from C. orchioides has been studied by Dhawan and Saxena (1958), Sharma et al (1975) and Dhar et al (1979).

The plant extract of C. orchioides showed hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic and anticancer properties (Dhar et al,1968). Phagocytic activity (Kubo et al, 1983) and immunoadjuvant activity (Oru et al, 1982) of phenolic glycosides, curculigoside isolated from the rhizome of the plant have been reported. Porwal and Mehta (1985) discussed the medicinal importance of the plant and its use in indigenous system of medicine as a tonic. Sharma et al (1991) reported the influence of MAK an ayurvedic food supplement constituting C. orchioides against Dimethyl benz anthracene induced mammary tumours in rats. Samanta (1992) reported the modulation of male infertility by Ayurvedic drug, which constitutes C. orchioides. Immunostimulant activity of C. orchioides has been demonstrated by Saxena (1992). Immunological activites of curculigo saponin G were assayed in mice and the results showed that it promoted proliferation of spleen lymphocyctes very significantly and increased the weight of the thymus in vivo in mice (Xu et al,1992).

Pharmacological studies in China, on the alcoholic extract obtained from the plant showed several active effects such as adaptogenic, anti-inflammatory, anticonvulsant, sedative, androgenic and immunopromoting activities (Xu et al, 1992).

Curculigo orchioides is distributed widely throughout the country. The demand of the raw materials and derivatives of the plant for the indigenous drug industries are satisfied mainly from the wild source, depleting the natural population and thus the species have become extinct or endangered. Ansari (1993) have reported C. orchioides as a threatened plant from Madhulia forest of Garakhpur. Augustin and Souza (1995) also considered the plant as an endangered species. As the information on the cultivation of C.orchioides is scanty, it is very necessary to develop suitable agrotechniques for the domestication and large-scale cultivation of the plant.... holostemma

Vahl.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India, especially in Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Uttar Pradesh, cultivated on commercial scale in Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Farrukhabad and Kannauj for its fragrant flowers which yield an essential oil.

Ayurvedic: Yuuthikaa, Yuuthi, Mugdhee.

Siddha/Tamil: Usimalligai.

Folk: Juuhi.

Action: See Jasminum humile.

The leaves gave lupeol, its epimer, hentriacontane and n-tricantanol, a triterpenoid, jasminol; d-mannitol; volatile constituent, jasmone. The pin type pointed flower buds (long styled) on solvent extraction yielded higher concrete content rich in indole and methyl anthranilate, whereas thrum type (short styled) buds yield higher absolute with benzyl acetate as the prominent constituent.... jasminum auriculatum

n. (in microscopy) the process of removing the cloudiness from microscopical specimens after *dehydration by means of a clearing agent. This increases the transparency of the specimens. Xylene, cedar oil, methyl benzoate plus benzol, and methyl salicylate plus benzol are commonly used as clearing agents.... clearing

n. a genus of widely distributed mites – the harvest mites. The six-legged parasitic larvae (chiggers) are common in fields during the autumn and frequently attack humans, remaining attached to the skin for several days while feeding on the lymph and digested skin tissues. Their bite causes intense irritation and a severe dermatitis. Various repellents, e.g. benzyl benzoate, can be applied to clothing. Trombicula larvae transmit scrub typhus in southeast Asia.... trombicula

a resinous semi-solid mass or viscous liquid exuded from a plant, which can be either a pathological or physiological product. A ‘true’ balsam is characterized by its high content of benzoic acid, benzoates, cinnamic acid or cinnamates.... balsam

Linn. var. grandiflorum (L.) Kobuski.

Synonym: J. grandiflorum Linn.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: North-Western Himalayas and Persia; cultivated in Kumaon, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh; in gardens throughout India.

English: Spanish Jasmine.

Ayurvedic: Jaati, Jaatikaa, Jaatimalli, Pravaaljaati, Saumanasyaayani, Sumanaa, Chetikaa, Hriddgandhaa, Maalati, Chameli.

Unani: Yaasmin.

Siddha/Tamil: Manmadabanam, Mullai, Padar-malligai, Pichi, Malli

Folk: Chameli.

Action: Flowers—calming and sedative, CNS depressant, astringent and mild anaesthetic. A syrup prepared from the flowers is used for coughs, hoarsenesses and other disorders of the chest. Plant—diuretic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue; used for healing chronic ulcers and skin diseases. Oil—externally relaxing.

Indian oil sample gave benzyl acetate 26.3, benzyl benzoate 19.2, phytol 10.6, jasmone 8.5, methyl jasmonate 6.3, linalool 5.4, geranyl linalool 3.5, eugenol 2.9, isophytyl acetate 2.7, and isophytol 2.4%.

The leaves gave ascorbic acid, an- thranilic acid and its glucoside, indole oxygenase, alkaloid jasminine and salicylic acid.

The flowers contain pyridine and nicotinate derivatives; tested positive for indole.

The flowers and leaf juice is used for treating tumours.

Dosage: Dried leaves—10-20 g powder for decoction (API, Vol. III.); Juice—10-20 ml. (CCRAS.).... jasminum officinale

Linn.

Family: Rosaceae.

Habitat: Asian Minor region. Cultivated in Indian gardens.

English: Common English Dog Rose, White Cottage Rose.

Ayurvedic: Sevati, Shveta Taruni. (Flowers—white or bluish.)

Unani: Sevati. Garden var.— Gul-safed Bustaani, Vard Abyaz. Wild var.—Gul-safed Sahraai, Vard Abyaz Barri.

Action: Flower—cardiac tonic, prescribed in palpitation of heart, febrifuge. Petal—laxative.

Rose hip contains pectin, citric acid and malic acid which are responsible for its laxative activity.

The pollen contains carotene (2.08 mg/100 g), free and bound amino acids and sugars.

The major constituents of the essential oil are geraniol, beta-phenylethyl alcohol, beta-geranic acid, geraniol esters, nerol, citronellol, eugenol, methyl- eugenol and benzoate.

R. Canina Linn. is equated with (Indian) Dog Rose. The anthocyanin, isolated from the petals, exhibits radio- protective effect. The scavenging and antilipoperoxidant activities of the fruit depend on the polyphenol content.... rosa alba

Linn.

Synonym: S.persica L.var. wightiana Verde. S. indica Wt.

Family: Salvadoraceae.

Habitat: Arid regions, on saline lands and in coastal regions.

English: Mustard tree. Salt Bush tree, Tooth Brush tree.

Ayurvedic: Pilu (smaller var.), Pilukaa, Sransi, Angaahva, Tikshna- vrksha.

Unani: Miswaak, Araak.

Siddha: Perungoli.

Action: Fruit—carminative (used in biliousness), deobstruent (used for rheumatism, tumours, splenomegaly), diuretic, lithotriptic. Leaves—decoction used for cough and asthma, poultice in painful piles and tumours; juice in scurvy. Flowers—stimulant, laxative. Applied in painful rheumatic conditions. Seeds—diuretic; purgative; fatty oil applied locally on rheumatic swellings. Root bark—topically vesicant. Bark—emmenagogue, ascarifuge, febrifuge. Biological activity of stem bark—spasmolytic. Plant—anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, antibacterial.

The root gave elemental gamma- monoclinic sulphur, benzyl glucosino- late, salvadourea (a urea derivative), m-anisic acid and sitosterol. Benzyl isothiocyanate, isolated from the root, exhibits antiviral activity against Herpes simplex virus-1 which affects oral region. (The root is used in many parts of the world as a tooth brush.) Root bark and stem bark contain trimethy- lamine. Myristic, lauric and palmitic acids are the major acid components of the seed fat.

Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder; 50100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... salvadora persica

(L.) Scop.

Family: Caryophyllaceae.

Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Uttar Pradesh at 1,200-2,400 m.

English: Chickweed, Water Starwort.

Folk: Budeolaa.

Action: Leaves—decoction used in galactorrhoea.

Fresh plant contains an essential oil having 3-hydroxymethylfuran, alpha- pinene, limonene, n-hexanol, geran- iol, camphor, benzyl alcohol, guaia- col, cresol, eugenol and carvacrol as the major constituents.... stellaria aquatica

(Lam.) HK. f. & Thoms.

Synonym: T. racemosa Colebr.

Family: Menispermaceae.

Habitat: Throughout tropical India.

Siddha/Tamil: Kodaparuavalli.

Folk: Tiliyaa-koraa (Bihar, Bengal).

Action: Plant—CVS and CNS active, spasmolytic, hypothermic. Used externally for skin diseases.

The rootbark contains bis-benzyl- isoquinoline alkaloids—tiliacorine, ti- liarine, tiliacorinine, nor-tiliacorinines A and B, corine, tiliacine and mo- hinine. The alkaloid tiliacoridine has been reported from the leaves.... tiliacora acuminata

Blume.

Family: Annonaceae.

Habitat: Western ghats from Maharashtra southwards up to an altitude of 1,200 m.

Siddha/Tamil: Pulichan.

Action: Root and leaves—used in intermittent fevers, biliousness, jaundice; also in rheumatic affections; bruised in salt water, used in skin diseases. A decoction of the root bark is given to women to control fits at the time of delivery.

Acetogenins, including stereoiso- mers, are important constituents of the root bark. Glutinone, glutinol, taraxerol, beta-sitosterol and benzyl benzoate have also been isolated. The essential oil of the root bark of Kerala plant contains bornyl acetate 15.2% and patchoulenone 8.1%.

A decoction and roots of Uvaria gandiflora Roxb., synonym U. purpurea Blume (Indian Botanic Garden, Kolkata) is used for flatulence, stomachache; also after childbirth. A decoction of U. micrantha (A. DC.) Hook. f. & Thoms. (tropical forests of the Andamans) is also administered after childbirth as a prophylactic.... uvaria narum

n. a skin infection caused by the mite *Sarcoptes scabiei. Scabies is typified by severe itching (particularly at night), red papules, and often secondary infection. The female mite invades the skin to lay her eggs and the newly hatched mites pass from person to person by close prolonged contact. The intense itching represents a true allergic reaction to the mite, its eggs, and its faeces. Commonly infected areas are the penis, nipples, and the finger webs. Treatment is by application of a scabicide, usually *permethrin or *malathion, to all areas of the body from the neck down; benzyl benzoate may be used but is more irritant. All members of a family need treatment, but clothing and bedding need not be disinfested.... scabies

Cananga odorata

FAMILY: Annonaceae

SYNONYM: C. odoratum var. macrophylla.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall tropical tree, up to 30 metres high, which flowers all year round. It bears large, fragrant, tender yellow flowers which are virtually identical to those of the ylang ylang.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia: Java, Malaysia, the Philippines, the Moluccas.

OTHER SPECIES: Very closely related to the tree which produces ylang ylang oil, C. odorata var. genuina. Cananga is considered an inferior product in perfumery work; being grown in different regions the oil has a different quality, heavier and less delicate than ylang ylang. However, cananga is truly a ‘complete’ oil whereas ylang ylang is made into several distillates.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used locally for infectious illnesses, for example malaria. The beautiful flowers are also used for decorative purposes at festivals.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antidepressant, aphrodisiac, hypotensive, nervine, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water distillation from the flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: Greenish-yellow or orange viscous liquid with a sweet, floral balsamic tenacious scent. It blends well with calamus, birch tar, copaiba balsam, labdanum, neroli, oakmoss, jasmine, guaiacwood and oriental-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Caryophyllene, benzyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, terpineol, borneol, geranyl acetate, safrol, linalol, limonrne, methyl salicylate and over 100 minor components.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization especially in those with sensitive skin.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Insect bites, fragrance, general skin care.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. Limited use as a flavour ingredient in some food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.... cananga

Styrax benzoin

FAMILY: Styracaceae

SYNONYMS: Gum benzoin, gum benjamin, styrax benzoin.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large tropical tree up to 20 metres high with pale green citrus-like leaves, whitish underneath, bearing hard-shelled flattish fruit about the size of a nutmeg. The benzoin is a pathological product, formed when the trunk is cut; the tree exudes a balsamic resin which hardens upon exposure, to air and sunlight.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia; the two main regions of production are Sumatra, Java and Malaysia for ‘Sumatra’ benzoin, and Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, China and Thailand for ‘Siam’ benzoin.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many different varieties within the Styrax family which produce benzoin, but these are generally classified under either Sumatra benzoin (S. paralleloneurus) or Siam benzoin (S. tonkinensis) – see also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It has been used for thousands of years in the east as a medicine and incense; the fumigations were believed to drive away evil spirits. It was used by the Chinese herbalists for its heating and drying qualities, as a good urinary antiseptic and as an aid to digestion.

In the west, it is best known in the form of compound tincture of benzoin or Friars Balsam, used for respiratory complaints. Externally it is used for cuts and irritable skin conditions; internally it is used as a carminative for indigestion, etc. It also acts as a preservative of fats.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cordial, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, sedative, styptic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: The crude benzoin is collected from the trees directly. Benzoin resinoid, or ‘resin absolute’, is prepared from the crude using solvents, for example benzene and alcohol, which are then removed. Commercial benzoin is usually sold dissolved in ethyl glycol or a similar solvent. A ‘true’ absolute is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Sumatra crude benzoin occurs as greyish-brown brittle lumps with reddish streaks, with a styrax-like odour. There are several different qualities available; the so-called ‘almond’ grade is considered superior. 2. Siam benzoin comes in pebble or tear-shaped orange-brown pieces, with a sweet-balsamic vanilla-like scent, this type having a more refined odour than the Sumatra type.

Benzoin resinoid is produced from both the Siam and Sumatra types, or a mix of the two. It is an orange-brown viscous mass with an intensely rich sweet-balsamic odour. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, jasmine, copaiba balsam, frankincense, myrrh, cypress, juniper, lemon, coriander and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Sumatra Benzoin: mainly coniferyl cinnamate and sumaresinolic acid, with benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and traces of styrene, vanillin and benzaldehyde. 2. Siam benzoin: mainly coniferyl benzoate (65–75 per cent), with benzoic acid, vanillin, siaresinolic acid and cinnamyl benzoate.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Compound benzoin tincture is ‘regarded as moderately toxic, due probably to occasional contact dermatitis developed in some individuals … which contains, in addition to benzoin, aloe, storax, Tolu balsam and others.’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Cuts, chapped skin, inflamed and irritated conditions.

Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, gout, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, chills, colic, coughs, laryngitis.

Immune System: ’Flu.

Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints. It warms and tones the heart and circulation, both physically and metaphorically: ‘This essence creates a kind of euphoria; it interposes a padded zone between us and events.’.

OTHER USES: Compound benzoin tincture is used in pharmaceuticals and in dentistry to treat gum inflammation. The resinoid and absolute are used extensively as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially Siam benzoin. Both types are used in most food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... benzoin

Gardenia jasminoides

FAMILY: Rubiaceae

SYNONYMS: G. grandiflora, G. radicans, florida, gardinia, Cape jasmine, common gardenia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. A decorative bush, often grown for ornamental purposes, bearing fragrant white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Far East, India and China. Efforts to produce the oil commercially have been largely unsuccessful.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties of gardenia depending on location, such as G. citriodora or G. calyculata found in Japan and Indonesia.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The flowers are used locally to flavour tea, much like jasmine.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, aphrodisiac. Extraction an absolute (and concrete) by solvent extraction from the fresh flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark yellow, oily liquid with a sweet, rich, floral, jasmine-like scent. It blends well with ylang ylang, jasmine, tuberose, neroli, rose, spice and citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly benzyl acetate, with phenyl acetate, linalol, linalyl acetate, terpineol and methyl anthranilate, among others – composition varies according to source.

SAFETY DATA: Safety data unavailable at present. Almost all gardenia oil is now synthetically produced.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Perfume.

OTHER USES: Employed in high-class perfumery, especially oriental fragrances.... gardenia

Michelia champaca

FAMILY: Magnoliaceae

SYNONYMS: M. aurantiaca, Magnolia champaca, joy perfume tree, champak, champac, champa, golden champaca.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Champaca is a large, sub-tropical tree up to 6 metres high with a smooth grey bark and long, oval-shaped, glossy evergreen leaves. The flowers have 10–20 yellow, orange or cream-coloured narrow petals and an extremely heady fragrance. They bloom both in spring and autumn – on a warm, humid night, the scent can be enjoyed several hundred feet away! Champaca fruit are brown, containing bright red seeds.

DISTRIBUTION: Michelia champaca is native to India, where it occurs in humid, tropical evergreen forests. It is also found throughout Indo-China, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and south-western China, as well as occurring naturally in the eastern Himalayan region. It is often grown as a boulevard tree in the tropics and in India is frequently planted in Hindu temple grounds and ornamental gardens. Champaca, especially its white-flowered hybrid, is now commonly cultivated in warm climates worldwide, for example, in California.

OTHER SPECIES: The genus Michelia contains about 40 species with a distribution including India, Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Japan, Taiwan and China. The leaves and flowers of the Michelia species resemble Magnolia, but the blossoms of Michelia generally form clusters among the leaves, rather than singly at the branch ends like Magnolia. There are several related species of M. champaca, such as the red champaca and the white champaca, grown specifically for their scented flowers, which are also used to produce essential oils. M. x alba, a white-flowered hybrid of M. champaca and M. montana, is prized throughout Asia for its fragrant, pure-white flowers, which are commonly floated in water bowls as Buddhist temple offerings and used a household decoration.

NB: Occasionally champaca is confused with champaca wood oil or guaiacwood oil (Bulnesia sarmienti), also known as palo santo (meaning ‘holy wood’), which is derived from an entirely different species native to South America.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Champaca is regarded as one of the most sacred trees of India and tropical Asia and has been revered by the people of India for thousands of years. M. champaca is sacred to Hindus and Buddhists alike and the flower is especially sacred to the Hindi god Vishnu, the god of love, and his consort Lakshmi. In India, the flowers are also used for adornment and their alluring scent is employed as a natural aphrodisiac, and as a fragrant decoration for bridal beds and for garlands.

All parts of the tree are considered medicinal and are utilized in various traditional remedies. In India, the scented oil infused from the champaca blossom is used for relief of vertigo and headaches. As a herbal remedy, the flowers have been used to treat urinary tract infections and as an emollient, febrifuge and to soothe anxiety. It is also considered a valuable aid for the treatment of all skin types, particularly mature, dry or sensitive skin. The derivation of the word ‘shampoo’ is the Hindi word champo, meaning ‘to massage’, which comes from champa, the Sanskrit name for champaca. This is because the oil from the tree was traditionally used to make fragrant hair and massage oils!

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, antiseptic, antiviral, astringent, emollient, euphoric, emollient, febrifuge, stimulant and tonic.

EXTRACTION: The absolute is produced by solvent extraction from the fresh flowers. (An oil is also produced by steam distillation of the petals). The absolute requires thousands of fresh flowers to produce a tiny amount: thus its high cost.

CHARACTERISTICS: An intense, fresh, green-floral scent with an underlying warmth and subtle leafy notes. It blends well with jasmine, lemon, coriander, tuberose, grapefruit, bergamot, rose, ylang ylang, neroli, sandalwood and other floral scents

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Champaca absolute contains mainly linalool, benzyl acetate, beeta lonone, phenyl ethyl alcohol, gamma-selinene, benzyl benzoate, phenylethyl benzoate and eugenol.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:

Skin Care: Dry, mature skin and sensitive skin, wrinkles and general skin care.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fear, grief, insomnia, nervous debility, tension headaches, mood swings, stress.

OTHER USES: Champaca flowers are used (in part) to make the world’s most expensive perfume, Jean Patou’s famous scent, ‘Joy’, the second best selling perfume in the world after Chanel No. 5. The tree is also a source of timber and fuel and for the production of a yellow dye. The tree’s wood is used for making boats, drums, and religious engravings. In India, however, where the tree is revered, it is rarely cut down. ... champaca

Cinnamomum zeylanicum

FAMILY: Lauraceae

SYNONYMS: C. verum, Laurus cinnamomum, Ceylon cinnamon, Seychelles cinnamon, Madagascar cinnamon, true cinnamon, cinnamon leaf (oil), cinnamon bark (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical evergreen tree up to 15 metres high, with strong branches and thick scabrous bark with young shoots speckled greeny-orange. It has shiny green, leathery leaves, small white flowers and oval bluish-white berries. The leaves have a spicy smell when bruised.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Sri Lanka, Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, South India, Burma and Indochina. It is also cultivated in India, Jamaica and Africa – each region tending to have its own particular species.

OTHER SPECIES: Madagascar cinnamon is considered superior to the various other types of cinnamon such as the Saigon cinnamon (C. loureirii) and the Batavia Cinnamon (C. burmanii). See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The inner bark of the new shoots from the cinnamon tree are gathered every two years and sold in the form of sticks for use as a domestic spice. It has been used for thousands of years in the east for a wide range of complaints including colds, ’flu, digestive and menstrual problems, rheumatism, kidney troubles and as a general stimulant. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic and dyspepsia with nausea.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal, antidote (to poison), antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiputrescent, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue, haemostatic, orexigenic, parasiticide, refrigerant, spasmolytic, stimulant (circulatory, cardiac, respiratory), stomachic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the 1. leaves and twigs, and 2. dried inner bark.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A yellow to brownish liquid with a warm-spicy, somewhat harsh odour. 2. A pale to dark yellow liquid with a sweet, warm-spicy, dry, tenacious odour. It blends well with olibanum, ylang ylang, orange, mandarin, benzoin, Peru balsam and in oriental type mixtures.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Leaf – eugenol (80-96 per cent), eugenol acetate, cinnamaldehyde (3 per cent), benzyl benzoate, linalol, safrol among others. 2. Bark - cinnamaldehyde (40-50 per cent), eugenol (4-10 per cent), benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, pinene, cineol, phellandrene, furfurol, cymene, linalol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: 1. The leaf oil is relatively nontoxic, though possibly irritant due to cinnamaldehyde. Its major component, eugenol, causes irritation to the mucous membranes: use in moderation. 2. The bark oil is a dermal toxin, irritant and sensitizer; also irritant to the mucous membranes. ‘Should never be used on the skin (one of the most hazardous oils).’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Cinnamon bark oil – none. Cinnamon leaf oil:

Skin care: Lice, scabies, tooth and gum care, warts, wasp stings.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Poor circulation, rheumatism.

Digestive System: Anorexia, colitis, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, intestinal infection, sluggish digestion, spasm.

Genito-Urinary System: Childbirth (stimulates contractions), frigidity, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia, scanty periods.

Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.

Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Both bark and leaf oils are used for their fragrance and therapeutic actions in toothpastes, nasal sprays, mouthwashes, cough syrups and dental preparations. The leaf oil is used in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes. Both are used extensively in food flavouring, especially in alcoholic and soft drinks, including Coca-Cola.... cinnamon

Hyacinthus orientalis

FAMILY: Liliaceae

SYNONYMS: Scilla nutans, bluebell.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A much loved cultivated plant with fragrant, bell-shaped flowers of many colours, bright lance-shaped leaves and a round bulb.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Asia Minor, said to be of Syrian origin. Cultivated mainly in Holland and southern France.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to garlic (Allium sativum), onion (A. cepa) and the wild bluebell (H. non scriptus). At one time bluebell essential oil was produced at Grasse in the south of France, which had a fresher and more flowery fragrance.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The wild bluebell bulbs are poisonous; however, the white juice used to be employed as a substitute for starch or glue. ‘The roots, dried and powdered, are balsamic, having some styptic properties that have not fully been investigated.’.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, balsamic, hypnotic, sedative, styptic.

EXTRACTION: Concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the flowers. (An essential oil is also obtained by steam distillation from the absolute.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A reddish or greeny brown viscous liquid with a sweet-green, floral fragrance and soft floral undertone. It blends well with narcissus, violet, ylang ylang, styrax, galbanum, jasmine, neroli and with oriental-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Phenylethyl alcohol, benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde, benzyl alcohol, benzoic acid, benzyl acetate, benzyl benzoate, eugenol, methyl eugenol and hydroquinone, among others.

SAFETY DATA: No safety data available at present. Most commercial hyacinth is nowadays adulterated or synthetic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE NERVOUS SYSTEM: The Greeks described the fragrance of hyacinth as being refreshing and invigorating to a tired mind. It may also be used for stress-related conditions, ‘in self-hypnosis techniques … and developing the creative right-hand side of the brain’..

OTHER USES: Used in high class perfumery, especially oriental floral types.... hyacinth

Plumeria rubra

FAMILY: Apocynaceae

SYNONYMS: P. acuminate, P. acutifolia, common frangipani, temple tree, pagoda tree, graveyard tree, temple flower, may flower, frangipane, plumeria, melia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Plumeria is a genus of 7–8 species native to tropical and subtropical Americas consisting mainly of deciduous shrubs and trees. P. rubra (and variation P. acutifolia) is the commonest frangipani species and has the most fragrant flowers. P. rubra is a small tree up to 5 metres tall with a ‘candelabrum’ shape, having a single trunk and branches that spread to form an open canopy. The deciduous pointed leaves, dark green on top and a lighter shade underneath, cluster at the tips of branches. The greyish-green, scaly bark produces a milky, sticky sap that is poisonous, much like oleander. The frangipani flowers which appear in clusters, each with five waxy petals, are most fragrant at night in order to lure moths to pollinate them. The species P. rubra comes in many colours: white, cream, yellow, orange, pink and red, usually with a contrasting centre.

DISTRIBUTION: P. rubra is native to tropical Central America, Venezuela, Brazil and Mexico, although it is now widely cultivated throughout the world in tropical and sub-tropical regions. In Hawaii it grows so abundantly that many people think that it is indigenous to the island. The frangipani tree is also very popular on the island of Bali, where it is planted in almost every village temple and, as in Hawaii, plays an important part in the local culture. Many countries have given a traditional name to this decorative aromatic species, such as ‘pagoda tree’ in India, ‘temple flower’ in Sri Lanka and ‘melia’ in Hawaii. In Indonesia, where the flower is associated with Balinese culture, it is known as ‘kamboja’. Now it has become naturalized throughout southern and southeastern Asia and can also commonly be found growing in the southern Mediterranean, for example in the Canary Islands.

OTHER SPECIES: P. rubra is the source of many Plumeria hybrid cultivars. In the past, the different flower colours of this plant were associated with distinct species but are now regarded as different forms of the same species. However, the white-flowered form of P. rubra is sometimes misidentified as P. alba, a rarely cultivated species endemic to the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico. Other popular species in the genus include P. obtusa or the evergreen frangipani (with leaves more rounded than those of P. rubra) and the white- or cream-flowered P. stenophylla which blooms heavily over a long period.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The genus Plumeria is attributed to Charles Plumier, a seventeenth-century French botanist who described several tropical species. The common name, ‘frangipani’, comes from the Italian nobleman, Marquis Frangipani, who created a perfume used to scent gloves in the sixteenth century. Frangipani is known as the ‘tree of life’, according to ancient Indian belief, and is associated with temples in both Hindu and Buddhist cultures. In India, the frangipani is considered to be a symbol of immortality because of its ability to produce leaves and flowers even after it has been lifted out of the soil. It is regarded as a sacred tree in Laos and every Buddhist temple in the country has frangipani planted in their courtyards. In Cambodia, the flowers are used in ritual offerings to the deities and Balinese Hindus use the flowers in their temple offerings daily. In several Pacific islands, such as Tahiti, Fiji, Samoa and Hawaii, Plumeria species are used for making leis, their traditional flower garlands. In modern Polynesian culture, the flowers are also worn by women to indicate their relationship status.

Frangipani has also been celebrated for centuries for its healing capacity in many diverse cultures. In Sri Lanka, Plumeria flowers are eaten as fritters, while the heart of the wood is taken as a vermifuge or as a laxative. In Ayurveda, the Plumeria species are widely used as a purgative, as a remedy for diarrhoea, to treat itch, asthma, coughs, bronchitis, blood disorders and fever. In the Guianas, P. rubra is used for the treatment of skin eruptions, abscesses, dysentery, herpes, coughs and as a purgative. In Caribbean cultures, the leaves are used as a healing wrap for bruises and ulcers while the latex is used as a liniment for rheumatism. In Vietnam, the bark mashed in alcohol, is used to combat skin inflammation, indigestion and high blood pressure. Frangipani flower tea is also generally believed to have a beneficial effect, being good for digestion.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-tumoral, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, nervine.

EXTRACTION: Frangipani absolute is obtained by alcoholic or solvent extraction from the concrete prepared from P. rubra (acutifolia). The absolute has a thick, treacle consistency at room temperature.

CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute has a heavy, sweet, floral-green aroma, with a soft-spicy background and hints of apricot. It blends with sandalwood, rose, patchouli, tuberose, clove bud, jasmine, neroli, bergamot, ginger, ylang ylang and most citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The oil of .P obtusa is rich in benzyl salicylate (45.4 per cent) and benzyl benzoate (17.2 per cent) Oil obtained from P.acuminata is rich in palmitic acid (36.2 per cent), linoleic acid (16.8 per cent), lauric acid (10.4 per cent) and myristic acid (10.3 per cent). ‘The pink flowered P. rubra oil was similar to P. acuminata oil in that it was also devoid of benzyl salicylate and benzyl benzoate and rich in alkanoic acids but linoleic acid was absent in the oil of the former. However, the orange-flowered P. rubra oil contained both the non-terpene esters (benzyl salicylate, benzyl benzoate and 2-phenylethyl benzoate) and alkanoic acids in significant amounts.’.

SAFETY DATA: Generally considered to be a safe oil, but best avoided in pregnancy and for children. May cause skin irritation in concentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Inflamed and sensitive skin, mature skin, wrinkles and general skin care.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fear, insomnia, nervous debility and tension, mood swings, stress.

OTHER USES: Frangipani absolute is mainly used in the high-class perfumery due to its unique aroma and long-lasting qualities. It is also used in candle and soap making along with some phyto-cosmetic applications and various beauty and skin care products for defying the ageing process.... frangipani

Solidago canadensis

FAMILY: Asteraceae

SYNONYMS: S. canadensis var. gilvocanescens, S. altissima, S. canadensis var. salebrosa, Canadian goldenrod, meadow goldenrod, common goldenrod, giant goldenrod, tall goldenrod, rough goldenrod.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Solidago canadensis is a herbaceous, perennial plant of the daisy family often found growing as a wildflower, commonly forming colonies. The stem is stiff and erect, growing up to 7 feet high with numerous branches and lance-shaped leaves. The attractive small yellow or golden flowers are held above the foliage in clusters, which bloom late in the season. Goldenrod is often unfairly blamed for causing hay fever in humans although the pollen causing these allergy problems is mainly produced by ragweed, another wild plant which blooms at the same time. Goldenrods have a reputation of being difficult to control due to their aggressive rhizomatous growth, which enables them to rapidly colonize large areas.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, the herb occurs in most US states and Canadian provinces. It is found in a variety of habitats, and it typically is one of the first plants to colonize an area after disturbance (such as fire) but rarely persists once shrubs and trees become established and is found neither in very dry locations nor in waterlogged ones. In many parts of Europe, Japan and China, it is considered an invasive weed, often endangering local fauna.

OTHER SPECIES: The genus Solidago comprises over 140 varieties, many of which are very similar; it can even crossbreed with other plants! Nearly all are known simply as goldenrod, though some have specific folk names such as woundwort, Aaron’s rod and Blue Mountain tea. Most of the goldenrod species are native to North America although a few are native to Europe, Asia, North Africa and South America. The European goldenrod (S. virgaurea), was known as woundwort in England as it was used as an astringent remedy for treating wounds and bleeding. The sweet goldenrod (S. odora), a native of the US and Canada, is the species most frequently seen in herb gardens and is also used to produce an essential oil used by the perfumery industry. Sweet goldenrod also has a long history of medicinal use by Native Americans and was exported for tea in the nineteenth century.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The genus name Solidago derives from the Latin soldare, which means ‘to make whole’. Goldenrod has a long history of medicinal use especially by the Native Americans who used the plant for a wide range of conditions: infusions and compounds of the flowers and roots were used as emetics, sedatives and to counteract love potions, treat diarrhoea, fevers and the ’flu. The Shuswap used the plant in baths for women giving birth and the Zunis chewed crushed flowers to treat sore throats and drank infusions of the flowers for body pain. People of the Gosiute tribe ate the seeds and the Navajo people ate the roots. The Navajo also smoked the root with other plants and used the plant as a charm for success in gambling. The ground flowers were used on bee stings and a tea made to treat snakebite. During the Boston Tea Party, colonists drank goldenrod tea instead of English tea, which gave it the nick-name ‘Liberty Tea’. The tea is aromatic with a pleasing anise-like flavour as well as being a mildly astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge and stimulant.

Traditionally the herb has also been used for respiratory conditions and urinary tract infections. In the Swiss Pharmacopoeia, Goldenrod essential oil is indicated for supporting the circulatory system including cardiovascular problems like tachycardia as well as urinary tract and liver function. Goldenrod has also been approved by the German Commission as a natural anti-inflammatory, diuretic and antispasmodic in the treatment of urinary tract conditions. It is also reputed to be a lymphatic system conditioner, a regulator of the autonomic nervous system, with relaxing and calming effects valuable for hypertension.

According to the University of Montreal in Canada, goldenrod shows great potential in dealing with impotence. Although a little-known aromatherapy essential oil, it may have value due to its anti-allergy properties, for conditions like hay fever, allergic reactions, coughs and respiratory infections.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antihypertensive, antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, immuno-stimulant, liver support/stimulant, mucolytic, sedative.

EXTRACTION: The essential oil is steam distilled from the goldenrod flower.

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellowish liquid with a strong fresh, balsamic-peppery and slightly bitter aroma with a woody undertone. It blends well with ravintsara, peru balsam, rosemary, pine, ginger, spruce and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinene, bornyl acetate, benzoates, myrcene, methyl chavicol, borneol and limonene. NB: Essential oil from a sample of S. odora contained up to 75 per cent methyl chavicol (estragole), which is known to be moderately toxic

SAFETY DATA: Generally considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing: possible skin sensitivity. Avoid during pregnancy and for children due to high levels of estragole in some chemotypes.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, cuts, inflammations of the skin, insect bites, sores, wounds.

Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills, coughs and colds, hay fever, allergies, laryngitis (as a gargle) and respiratory congestion, sinus infection, sore throat, ’flu.

Digestive system: Liver congestion, hepatitis and fatty liver.

Genito-urinary system: Urinary tract and bladder conditions.

Immune system: Boosts vitality.

Nervous system: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension, stress.

OTHER USES: The essential oil is used in pharmaceutical and in perfumery products, especially for scenting soaps. Mustard, orange and brown dyes can be obtained from the whole plant.... goldenrod

Jasminum officinale

FAMILY: Oleaceae

SYNONYMS: Jasmin, jessamine, common jasmine, poet’s jessamine.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or vine up to 10 metres high with delicate, bright green leaves and star-shaped very fragrant white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to China, northern India and west Asia; cultivated in the Mediterranean region, China and India (depending on the exact species). The concrete is produced in Italy, France, Morocco, Egypt, China, Japan, Algeria and Turkey; the absolute is mainly produced in France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of jasmine used for medicine and perfumery work. Apart from the common jasmine, the most widespead varieties are the royal or Italian jasmine (J. grandiflorum) which is grown in the Mediterranean region, and its Eastern counterpart J. officinale var. grandiflorum or J. auriculatum. See the Botanical Classification section for a more comprehensive list.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In China the flowers of J. officinale var. grandiflorum are used to treat hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and dysentery; the flowers of J. sambac are used for conjunctivitis, dysentery, skin ulcers and tumours. The root is used to treat headaches, insomnia, pain due to dislocated joints and rheumatism.

In the West, the common jasmine was said to ‘warm the womb ... and facilitate the birth; it is useful for cough, difficulty of breathing, etc. It disperses crude humours, and is good for cold and catarrhous constitutions, but not for the hot.’ It was also used for hard, contracted limbs and problems with the nervous and reproductive systems.

ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, galactagogue, parturient, sedative, tonic (uterine).

EXTRACTION: A concrete is produced by solvent extraction; the absolute is obtained from the concrete by separation with alcohol. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the absolute.

CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a dark orange-brown, viscous liquid with an intensely rich, warm, floral scent and a tealike undertone. It blends well with rose, sandalwood, clary sage, and all citrus oils. It has the ability to round off any rough notes and blend with virtually everything.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: There are over 100 constituents in the oil including benzyl acetate, linalol, phenylacetic acid, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, methyl anthranilate, cis jasmone, methyl jasmonate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing. (An allergic reaction has been known to occur in some individuals.)

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Dry, greasy, irritated, sensitive skin.

Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular spasm, sprains.

Respiratory system: Catarrh, coughs, hoarseness, laryngitis.

Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, frigidity, labour pains, uterine disorders.

Nervous system: Depression, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions. ‘It ... produces a feeling of optimism, confidence and euphoria. It is most useful in cases where there is apathy, indifference or listlessness.’.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially high-class floral and oriental fragrances. The oil and absolute are employed in a wide range of food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The dried flowers of J. sambac are used in jasmine tea.... jasmine

Liquidambar orientalis

FAMILY: Hamamelidaceae

SYNONYMS: Balsam styracis, oriental sweetgum, Turkish sweetgum, asiatic styrax, styrax, storax, liquid storax.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A deciduous tree up to 15 metres high with a purplish-grey bark, leaves arranged into five three-lobed sections, and white flowers. The styrax is a pathological secretion produced by pounding the bark, which induces the sapwood to produce a liquid from beneath the bark. It hardens to form a semi-solid greenish-brown mass with a sweet balsamic odour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Asia Minor. It forms forests around Bodrum, Milas, Mugla and Marmaris in Turkey.

OTHER SPECIES: Very similar to the American styrax (L. styraciflua) or red gum, which produces a natural exudation slightly darker and harder than the Levant type. There are also many other types of styrax; Styrax officinale produced the styrax of ancient civilizations. NB: Styrax benzoin is the botanical name for benzoin, with which it shares similar qualities.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In China it is used for coughs, colds, epilepsy and skin problems, including cuts, wounds and scabies. In the West it has been recommended as a remedy for catarrh, diphtheria, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, ringworm, etc. A syrup made from the bark of the American styrax is used for diarrhoea and dysentery in the western USA.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, bactericidal, balsamic, expectorant, nervine, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the crude. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction).

CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a sweet-balsamic, rich, tenacious odour. It blends well with ylang ylang, jasmine, mimosa, rose, lavender, carnation, violet, cassie and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly styrene with vanillin, phenylpropyl alcohol, cinnamic alcohol, benzyl alcohol and ethyl alcohol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Frequently adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Cuts, ringworm, scabies, wounds.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs.

Nervous system: Anxiety, stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Used in compound benzoin tincture, mainly for respiratory conditions. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components mainly in soaps, floral and oriental perfumes. The resinoid and absolute are used in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, stomachic.... styrax, levant

Polianthes tuberosa

FAMILY: Agavaceae

SYNONYMS: Tuberosa, tubereuse

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender, tall, slim perennial up to 50 cms high, with long slender leaves, a tuberous root and large, very fragrant, white lilylike flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native of Central America, where it is found growing wild. Cultivated for its oil in southern France, Morocco, China, Taiwan and Egypt.

OTHER SPECIES: Related to the narcissus and jonquil. The Chinese species of tuberose is somewhat different from the French and Moroccan type, although both are single flowered varieties.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The double flowered variety is grown for ornamental purposes and for use by the cut flower trade. ‘Pure absolute extraction of tuberose is perhaps the most expensive natural flower oil at the disposal of the modern perfumer.’.

ACTIONS: Narcotic.

EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh flowers, picked before the petals open. (An essential oil is also obtained by distillation of the concrete.)

CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a dark orange or brown soft paste, with a heavy, sweet floral, sometimes slightly spicy, tenacious fragrance. It blends well with gardenia, violet, opopanax, rose, jasmine, carnation, orris, Peru balsam, neroli and ylang ylang.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Methyl benzoate, methyl anthranilate, benzyl alcohol, butyric acid, eugenol, nerol, farnesol, geraniol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: No safety data available – often adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Perfume.

OTHER USES: Used in high-class perfumes, especially of an oriental, floral or fantasy type. Occasionally used for flavouring confectionery and some beverages.... tuberose

Viola odorata

FAMILY: Violaceae

SYNONYMS: English violet, garden violet, blue violet, sweet-scented violet.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, tender, perennial plant with dark green, heart-shaped leaves, fragrant violet-blue flowers and an oblique underground rhizome.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia; cultivated in gardens worldwide. It is mainly grown in southern France (Grasse) and to a lesser extent in Italy and China for perfumery use.

OTHER SPECIES: There are over 200 species of violet; the main types cultivated for aromatic extraction are the ‘Parma’ and the ‘Victoria’ violets.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both the leaf and flowers have a long tradition of use in herbal medicine, mainly for congestive pulmonary conditions and sensitive skin conditions, including capillary fragility. The leaf has also been used to treat cystitis and as a mouthwash for infections of the mouth and throat. It is reported to have mild pain-killing properties, probably due to the presence of salicylic acid (as in ‘aspirin’).

The flowers are still used to make a ‘syrup of violet’ which is used as a laxative and colouring agent. The dried leaf and flowers are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘eczema and skin eruptions with serious exudate, particularly when associated with rheumatic symptoms’.

ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antiseptic, decongestant (liver), diuretic, expectorant, laxative, soporific, stimulant (circulation).

EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute from 1. fresh leaves, and 2. flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The leaf absolute is an intense dark green viscous liquid with a strong green-leaf odour and a delicate floral undertone. 2. The flower absolute is a yellowish-green viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, floral fragrance, characteristic of the fresh flowers. It blends well with tuberose, clary sage, boronia, tarragon, cumin, hop, basil, hyacinth and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Both leaves and petals contain nonadienal, parmone, hexyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, ionone and viola quercitin, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, eczema, refines the pores, thread veins, wounds.

Circulation muscles and joints: Fibrosis, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, mouth and throat infections.

Nervous system: Dizziness, headaches, insomnia, nervous exhaustion – the scent was believed to ‘comfort and strengthen the heart’.

OTHER USES: Used in high-class perfumery work; occasionally used in flavouring, mainly confectionery.... violet

Cananga odorata var. genuina

FAMILY: Annonaceae

SYNONYMS: Unona odorantissimum, flower of flowers.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall tropical tree up to 20 metres high with large, tender, fragrant flowers, which can be pink, mauve or yellow. The yellow flowers are considered best for the extraction of essential oil.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially Indonesia and the Philippines. Major oil producers are Madagascar, Reunion and the Comoro Islands.

OTHER SPECIES: Very closely related to cananga (C. odoratum var. macrophylla), although the oil produced from the ylang ylang is considered of superior quality for perfumery work, having a more refined quality.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Indonesia, the flowers are spread on the beds of newly married couples on their wedding night. In the Molucca Islands, an ointment is made from ylang ylang and cucuma flowers in a coconut oil base for cosmetic and hair care, skin diseases, to prevent fever (including malaria) and fight infections.

In the Victorian age, the oil was used in the popular hair treatment Macassar oil, due to its stimulating effect on the scalp, encouraging hair growth. The oil was also used to soothe insect bites, and is thought to have a regulating effect on cardiac and respiratory rhythm.

ACTIONS: Aphrodisiac, antidepressant, anti infectious, antiseborrhoeic, antiseptic, euphoric, hypotensive, nervine, regulator, sedative (nervous), stimulant (circulatory), tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the freshly picked flowers. The first distillate (about 40 per cent) is called ylang ylang extra, which is the top grade. There are then three further successive distillates, called Grades 1, 2 and 3. A ‘complete’ oil is also produced which represents the total or ‘unfractionated’ oil, but this is sometimes constructed by blending ylang ylang 1 and 2 together, which are the two least popular grades. (An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction for their long-lasting floral-balsamic effect.)

CHARACTERISTICS: Ylang ylang extra is a pale yellow, oily liquid with an intensely sweet, soft, floral-balsamic, slightly spicy scent – a good oil has a creamy rich topnote. A very intriguing perfume oil in its own right, it also blends well with rosewood, jasmine, vetiver, opopanax, bergamot, mimosa, cassie, Peru balsam, rose, tuberose, costus and others. It is an excellent fixative. The other grades lack the depth and richness of the ylang ylang extra.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Methyl benzoate, methyl salicylate, methyl paracretol, benzyl acetate, eugenol, geraniol, linalol and terpenes: pinene, cadinene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, a few cases of sensitization reported. Use in moderation, since its heady scent can cause headaches or nausea.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, hair growth, hair rinse, insect bites, irritated and oily skin, general skin care.

Circulation muscles and joints: High blood pressure, hyperpnoea (abnormally fast breathing), tachycardia, palpitations.

Nervous system: Depression, frigidity, impotence, insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related disorders – ‘The writer, working with odorous materials for more than twenty years, long ago noticed that ... ylang ylang soothes and inhibits anger born of frustration.’.

OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component and fixative in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental and floral types; ylang ylang extra tends to be used in high-class perfumes, ylang ylang 3 in soaps, detergents, etc. Used as a flavour ingredient, mainly in alcoholic and soft drinks, fruit flavours and desserts.... ylang ylang