Synonymous with eczema in all respects. Although the lay term ‘eczema’ usually refers to atopic (see ATOPY) or endogenous eczema, there are many other causes. Susceptibility to dermatitis is genetically determined in some cases; in others, environmental irritants and allergens are implicated. Symptoms typically include itching, dryness or cracking and, occasionally, soreness of the skin. Physical signs include redness (erythema), scaling, and vesiculation (tiny blisters just beneath the surface of the skin). (See also SKIN, DISEASES OF.)... dermatitis

A small group of capsid-forming DNA viruses, sometimes divided into Type I (forming vesicles and blisters on the mouth, lips-generally above the waist) and Type II (usually sexually transmitted, with symptoms mostly below the waist). Both types form acute initial outbreaks, go dormant, reactivate, and so forth. For most folks, frequent outbreaks are clear signs of stress or immunosuppression. Both types are EQUALLY dangerous for infants.... herpes

A counter irritant strong enough in some cases to cause blistering... vesicant

A fluid-containing blister on the skin, often quite itchy.... vesicle

An infectious skin disease caused usually by Staphylococcus aureus and less often by Streptococcus pyogenes. The itching rash is seen especially on the face but may spread widely. Vesicles and pustules erupt and dry to form yellow-brown scabs. Untreated, the condition may last for weeks. In very young infants, large blisters may form (bullous impetigo).

Treatment Crusts should be gently removed with SALINE. Mild cases respond to frequent application of mupiricin or NEOMYCIN/BACITRACIN ointment; more severe cases should be treated orally or, sometimes, intravenously with FLUCLOXACILLIN or one of the CEPHALOSPORINS. If the patient is allergic to penicillin, ERYTHROMYCIN can be used.

For severe, intractable cases, an oral retinoid drug called isotretinoin (commercially produced as Roaccutane®) can be used. It is given systemically but treatment must be supervised by a consultant dermatologist as serious side-effects, including possible psychiatric disturbance, can occur. The drug is also teratogenic (see TERATOGENESIS), so women who are, or who may become, pregnant must not take isotretinoin. It acts mainly by suppressing SEBUM production in the sebaceous glands and can be very e?ective. Recurrent bouts of impetigo should raise suspicion of underlying SCABIES or head lice. Bactericidal soaps and instilling an antibiotic into the nostrils may also help.... impetigo

Autoimmune disease of the SKIN in which the cells of the epidermis lose their adhesion to each other, resulting in blister formation.

Pemphigus vulgaris is a serious form affecting skin and MUCOUS MEMBRANE. It affects young and middle-aged people with widespread blistering, erosion and crusting of the skin. Extensive involvement of the lips, mouth and throat interfere with nutrition. Untreated, it is eventually fatal, but the disease can now be controlled by large doses of oral CORTICOSTEROIDS and other immunosuppressive drugs. MORBIDITY from the adverse effects of steroids is a serious problem, but some patients are eventually cured.

Pemphigus foliaceus is seen in the elderly; the blistering is more super?cial in the epidermis. It may be very widespread, but is not life-threatening because mucous membranes are not affected. Topical corticosteroids will sometimes control the eruption, but in severe cases treatment is as for pemphigus vulgaris.

Pemphigoid is a variant where the blistering occurs because of separation of the epidermis and dermis. Mucosae are rarely affected and the disease affects mainly the arms and legs in the elderly. Treatment is as for pemphigus but smaller doses of corticosteroids usually su?ce.... pemphigus

An air- or ?uid-?lled bubble occurring in the skin or lungs. The latter may be congenital or the result (in adults) of EMPHYSEMA. Skin bullae are really blisters.... bulla

A streptococcal infection (see STREPTOCOCCUS) of the skin characterised by an acute onset with fever, malaise and a striking, usually unilateral, rash (see ERUPTION) almost always on a lower leg or the face. Shivering, local pain and tenderness are associated with a sharply de?ned, spreading, bright red swollen zone of skin in?ammation. On the leg, blistering and PURPURA may follow. The bacteria enter the skin through a ?ssure in a toe cleft (often associated with tinea pedis [RINGWORM]) or via a crack in the skin behind an ear or in a nostril.

Treatment PENICILLIN in full dosage should be given orally for ten days. In those allergic to penicillin, ERYTHROMYCIN can be substituted. Recurrent attacks are common and may cause progressive lymphatic damage leading to chronic OEDEMA. Such recurrences can be prevented by long-term prophylactic oral penicillin.... erysipelas

A popular term for cantharides, which is used as a blistering agent.... spanish fly

A group of rare, inherited conditions, varying widely in severity, in which blisters appear on the skin after minor injury or occur spontaneously. The conditions can be diagnosed by a skin biopsy. There is no specific treatment. The outlook varies from gradual improvement in mild cases to progressive serious disease in the most severe cases.... epidermolysis bullosa

Ringworm, or tinea, is the name given to in?ammatory rashes caused by DERMATOPHYTES of the genera microsporum, epidermophyton and trichophyton. These fungi can infect skin, hair and nails. The important clinical patterns are:

Tinea capitis Usually seen in children in Britain and caused by microsporum species of human or animal (frequently a kitten) origin. Typically, patches of ALOPECIA are seen with broken-o? hair stumps which ?uoresce bright green under an ultraviolet (Wood’s) lamp. In Asia a chronic, scarring alopecia may be caused by a speci?c trichophyton (favus).

Tinea corporis is usually due to trichophyton species and forms ringed (hence ‘ringworm’) patches of redness and scaling on the trunk or limbs.

Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot) is caused by epidermophyton or trichophyton species. Its minor form manifests as itching, scaling or blistering in the lateral toe clefts. More severe forms can be extensive on the sole. Trichophyton rubrum can cause a chronic, dry, scaling in?ammation of the foot, eventually extending into the nails and on to the soles and top of the foot which may persist for years if untreated.

Tinea cruris typically causes a ‘butter?y’ rash on the upper inner thighs in young adult males. It is usually caused by spread from the feet.

Tinea unguium (onychomycosis) Affecting the nails, especially of the toes, T. rubrum is the usual cause and may persist for decades.

Tinea barbae This rash of the face and beard is rare. It may be very in?ammatory and is usually contracted from cattle by farm workers.

Treatment Tinea of the toe clefts and groin will usually respond to an antifungal cream containing terbina?ne or an azole. Tinea capitis, barbae, extensive tinea corporis and all nail infections require oral treatment with terbina?ne or itraconazole (a triazole antifungal agent taken orally and used for candidiasis of the mouth, throat and vulgovaginal area as well as for ringworm) which have largely superseded the earlier treatment with the antiobiotic griseofulvin. (See FUNGAL AND YEAST INFECTIONS.)... ringworm

A rare, serious infection of tissues beneath the skin by a type of streptococcal bacterium.

Necrotizing fasciitis is most likely to occur as a complication following surgery.

The initial symptoms are inflammation and blistering of the skin.

The infection spreads very rapidly, and the bacteria release enzymes and toxins that can cause extensive destruction of deeper tissues and damage internal organs.

Urgent treatment with antibiotic drugs and removal of all infected tissue are essential.

The infection is life-threatening.... necrotizing fasciitis

An uncommon chronic skin disease, mainly affecting elderly people, in which large, sometimes itchy, blisters form on the skin.

Pemphigoid is thought to be an autoimmune disorder.

Diagnosis is made with a skin biopsy, and treatment is usually a long-term course of corticosteroid or immunosuppressant drugs.... pemphigoid

A small skin blister that contains pus.... pustule

Inflammation of the skin caused by overexposure to the sun. The ultraviolet light in sunlight may destroy cells in the outer layer of the skin and damage tiny blood vessels beneath.

Fair-skinned people are most susceptible.

The affected skin turns red and tender and may become blistered.

The dead skin cells are later shed by peeling.

Calamine lotion soothes the burned skin.

Analgesic drugs may be taken to relieve discomfort.

A high protection factor sunscreen helps to prevent sunburn.

Severe sunburn in childhood increases the risk of skin cancer in later life.... sunburn

Superficial infection of the skin of the feet by a fungus. Ringworm of the feet. Scaly lesions, sometimes with blisters. May be secondary infection from lymphadenitis or cellulitis – in which cases internal treatment would be indicated. Begins between the toes before spreading to plantar surface. Differential diagnosis. Eczema, psoriasis or dermatitis from shoes.

Symptoms. Itchy redness and peeling. Sore raw areas left after removal of patches of skin. Possible invasion of other parts of the body: fingers, palms. The fungus can be picked up walking bare-feet in sport’s clubs, schools or swimming baths. Worse in warm weather. Resistant to cleansing.

Treatment. Tablets/capsules. Echinacea, Thuja, Poke root.

Formula. Echinacea 2; Goldenseal 1; Poke root half. Mix. Dose – Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: two 5ml teaspoons. Thrice daily before meals.

Topical. Alternatives:– Thuja lotion applied on lint or suitable material (1 teaspoon Liquid extract Thuja in 1oz (30ml) distilled extract of Witch Hazel. Wild Indigo salve (1 teaspoon Wild Indigo powder in 1oz (30ml) honey – store in screw-top jar.

Aloe Vera, fresh juice or gel.

Tea Tree oil: if too strong may be diluted many times.

Comfrey cream. Castor oil. Mullein oil. Houseleek.

Black Walnut: tincture or Liquid extract. Cider vinegar. Bran bath.

Night foot-wash. With water to which has been added a few drops of tincture Thuja, Myrrh, or Tea

Tree oil.

Light sprinkle of powdered Myrrh or Goldenseal in sock or shoe. ... athlete’s foot

 Venereal disease. Caused by Herpes simplex virus, type 2, (HSV2) which infects the skin and mucosa of the genital organs and anus. The strain is more virulent than HSV1 which attacks face and lips. Contagious. STD. Blisters appear 4-7 days after coitus. May be transmitted by mother to baby at delivery. The condition is often misdiagnosed as thrush. To dispel doubts, refer to urological department of nearest hospital. Evidence exists between genital herpes and cancer of the cervix. Clinical diagnosis should be confirmed by virus culture. Attacks are recurrent and self-infective.

Symptoms: redness, soreness, itching followed by blisters on the penis or vulva. Blisters ulcerate before crusting over. Lesions on anus of homosexual men.

Treatment by general medical practitioner or hospital specialist.

Alternatives. Sarsaparilla, Echinacea, Chaparral and St John’s Wort often give dramatic relief to itching rash. See entry: ECHINACEA.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Clivers, Gotu Kola, Valerian. One heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes. Dose: 1 cup thrice daily.

Decoction. Combine: Echinacea 2; Valerian 1; Jamaican Dogwood 1. One heaped teaspoon to each cup water gently simmered 20 minutes. Half-1 cup thrice daily.

Tablets/capsules. Poke root. Valerian. Passion flower. St John’s Wort. Echinacea. Chaparral. Pulsatilla. Red Clover.

Powders. Formula. Echinacea 2; Valerian 1; Jamaica Dogwood 1. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.

Tinctures. Formula. Echinacea 2; Sarsaparilla 1; Thuja quarter; Liquorice quarter. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily.

Topical. Apply any of the following 3, 4 or more times daily. Pulp or gel of Aloe Vera, Houseleek, Echinacea lotion. Garlic – apply slice of fresh corm as an antihistamine. Yoghurt compresses (improved by pinch of Goldenseal powder). Zinc and Castor oil (impressive record). Apply direct or on tampons. Diet. Porridge oats, or muesli oats.

Supplementation: same as for Shingles.

Prevention. Women should be advised to submit for an annual cytosmear. Information. Herpes Association, 41 North Road, London N7 9DP, UK. Send SAE. ... herpes, genital

The most common skin disease; recognised by minute blisters (vesicles) which fill with colourless fluid and burst leaving the skin cracked, scaly and weepy with possible bleeding. Successful treatment depends upon recognising the type and distribution. Partly a metabolic imbalance.

Atopic eczema. Allergic eczema. May run in families together with hay fever, asthma or inflamed nasal membrane. May appear anywhere but prefers elbows, knees (flexures), ankles or face. Often seen in infants. May return again and again throughout adult life. Scratching exacerbates.

As regards babies, some paediatricians believe breast-feeding to be protective. A stronger case follows investigation into pollutants from the atmosphere or as additives in food. Industrial chemicals find their way into breast milk that may not be easily excreted but stored in fat.

Cow’s milk is particularly suspect because of exposure of the animal to herbicides and pesticides. For this reason, goat’s milk has met with some success in treatment of this condition, as has Soya milk. Now known that food plays an important part in effective treatment. Chief allergy-stimulators: dairy produce, eggs, cow’s milk. Each individual case must identify those foods that are responsible.

Seborrhoeic eczema leads to scaling of the scalp and redness of the ears, eyebrows, side of the nose and possibly armpits and groin.

Stasis eczema (or varicose eczema) may arise from varicose vein problems, usually limited to the lower third of the leg.

Discoid eczema has coin-shaped patches preferring extensor surfaces of arms and legs.

Contact eczema may be caused by washing-up detergents, etc. See: CONTACT DERMATITIS.

While emotional or psychic disturbance may worsen, eczema is seldom a psychosomatic disorder arising from stressful situations. Contact with water may worsen. Hairdressers and those allergic to dyes may require patch tests.

Eczema patients, especially atopic, have a metabolic deficiency of linoleic acid (a dietary fatty acid) to y-linolenic acid, which is found in Evening Primrose oil. Eczema may develop in bottle-fed babies due to absence of GLA (gamma-linolenic acid) in commercial powdered milk. GLA is present in Evening Primrose.

A cross-over trial in 99 patients (adults and children) by Bristol (England) dermatologists found Evening Primrose oil (Efamol capsules) produced an overall 43 per cent improvement in eczema severity: doses – 4 to 6 capsules twice daily (adults); 2 capsules twice daily (children). Lower doses were not effective.

Alternatives. Barberry, Bladderwrack, Blood root, Blue Flag root, Bogbean, Burdock, Clivers, Devil’s Claw, Echinacea, Figwort, Fringe Tree, Fumitory, Garlic, Guaiacum, Goldenseal, Mountain Grape, Gotu Kola, Nettles, Plantain, Poke root, Queen’s Delight, Red Clover, Sarsaparilla, Sassafras, Wild Indigo, Heartsease, Yellow Dock.

Tea. Combine herbs: equal parts: Gotu Kola, Clivers, Red Clover. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes; 1 cup thrice daily, before meals (Dry eczema).

Formula: equal parts, Burdock root, Yellow Dock root, Valerian root. Dose. Liquid Extracts, 1 teaspoon. Tinctures, 1-2 teaspoons. Powders, two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon. Thrice daily, before meals. Practitioner: specific medication.

Dry eczema. Equal parts, tinctures: Yarrow, Dandelion, Calendula, Echinacea.

Weeping eczema. Combine tinctures: Barberry 1; Clivers 2; Echinacea 2.

Seborrhoeic eczema. Combine tinctures: Blue Flag root 1; Meadowsweet 2; Boneset 1.

Discoid eczema. Combine tinctures: Yellow Dock 2; Mountain Grape 1; Echinacea 1.

Varicose eczema. Combine tinctures: Echinacea 2; Calendula (Marigold) 1; Hawthorn 1.

Dosage for the above: One to two 5ml teaspoons in water thrice daily before meals.

Skin Care. May reduce necessity for steroid creams. It is best to avoid: lanolin and Coconut oil compounds that may contain coal tar. Wash in soft water (rain water) or water not containing chemical softeners.

Indicated: soothing softening herbal lotions, ointments or creams: Marshmallow, Chickweed, Comfrey, Witch Hazel, Aloe Vera gel, Jojoba oil, Evening Primrose oil. For seborrhoeic eczema: Bran Bath or Bran Wash, twice weekly, soapless, followed by Rosemary shampoo. Vitamin E lotion or cream.

Note: A study carried out at the University of Manchester, England, found that children with eczema had significantly low levels of serum zinc than control-cases. (British Journal of Dermatology, 1984, 111, 597)

Evening Primrose oil. For Omega 6 fatty acids.

Diet. Gluten-free. Oily fish: see entry. Avoid cow’s milk, wheat products.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamins: A (7500iu). C (500mg). E (400iu). Bioflavonoids (500mg). Zinc (15mg). Betaine hydrochloride.

Note: The disorder may be due to a deficiency of essential fatty acids (EFAs) brought about by a deficiency of zinc which is necessary for EFA metabolism.

Chinese herbs. A study has shown herbal treatment to be far superior to placebo in clinical trials. British children with (dry) atopic eczema responded favourably to treatment which included the following herbs known as Formula PSE101.

Ledebouriella sesloides, Potentilla chinesis, Anebia clematidis, Rehmannia glutinosa, Peonia lactiflora, Lophatherum gracile, Dictamnus dasycarpus, Tribulus terrestris, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Schizonepta tenuifolia. Non-toxicity confirms their safety. (Sheeham M et al. “A controlled trial of traditional Chinese medicinal plants in widespread non-exudative atopic dermatitis”, British Journal of Dermatology, 126: 179-184 1992)

When 10 Chinese herbs were analysed by a team at the Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, it was revealed that no single active ingredient or herb was responsible for success. “It was a combination of all 10 herbs that gave the medicine its healing properties.” This is an example of the synergistic effect of combined plant remedies and supports the herbalist’s belief in use of the whole plant. ... eczema

Shingles. An acute inflammatory virus infection of one or more posterior root ganglion of the spine, or of the trigeminal nerve. Caused by a DNA virus (varicella zoster). May be due to re-activation of the chicken-pox virus which lies latent in the ganglia of sensory and somatic nerves and present in the body from childhood infection. Severe in the elderly. Should be distinguished from herpes simplex. Shingles cannot be re-activated by close proximity of a case, but may be caught by direct contact with a burst blister.

Symptoms: Two-to-four-day fever precedes a red rash which develops into clear blisters. Blisters dry up to form scabs that drop off leaving scars. Lesions and pain follow the path of the infected nerve. Pain described as intense, burning, itching: may persist for months as post-herpetic neuralgia. When virus affects the fifth cranial nerve vision will be impaired. In the elderly it may reveal some underlying malignancy. Patients having chemotherapy or radiotherapy are at risk.

Alternatives. Specific anti-viral therapy. Remedies in general use: Asafoetida, Jamaica Dogwood, Marigold, Mistletoe, Nettles, Passion flower, Poke root, Queen’s Delight, Valerian, Wild Lettuce, Wild Yam. St John’s Wort plays a role in reducing the long-lasting neuralgia. Echinacea imparts strength to endure the ordeal. The addition of a stomachic remedy (Gentian) to a prescription may prove beneficial. Mild short-term analgesics include: Oats, Valerian, Asafoetida, Passion flower, Wild Lettuce, Hops.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Oats, Nettles, St John’s Wort.

Decoction. Formula. Echinacea root 2; Valerian half; St John’s Wort 1.

Tablets. Formula. Hops BHP (1983) 45mg; Passion flower BHP (1983) 100mg; Extract Valerian 5:1 20mg. (Gerard 99)

Powders. Combine: Echinacea 2; Jamaican Dogwood 1; Gentian root 1. 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.

Tinctures. Alternatives. (1) Formula. Equal parts Goldenseal and Lupulin (Hops). Or, (2) Formula. Queen’s Delight 1; Valerian quarter; Goldenseal quarter; Asafoetida quarter. Dose: 1 teaspoon in water thrice daily.

Practitioner. Tincture Gelsemium: 5 drops (0.3ml) in water, as indicated, for pain.

Formula. Liquid Extract Hops, half an ounce; Liquid Extract Echinacea, 1oz; Tincture Goldenseal, 30 drops; Tincture Rhubarb BP, 1oz. Essence of Peppermint 20 drops. Water to 8oz. Dose: 2 teaspoons in water after meals. (Arthur Barker, FNIMH)

Topical. Aloe Vera. Houseleek – fresh juice or pulp. Evening Primrose oil. Wash with decoction of seaweed (Bladderwrack, Kelp): follow with Zinc and Castor oil cream or ointment. Slippery Elm made into a paste (powder mixed with few teaspoons of milk): apply after cleaning with Olive oil. Castor oil compress. Dilute Tea Tree oil. Ice-cube – 10 minutes on, 5 minutes off.

Russian study. Liquorice powder ointment.

Diet: Oatmeal porridge. Muesli with oats. Yoghurt. Wholefoods.

Supplementation. One high potency multivitamin daily. Anti-herpes amino acid L-lysine; one 500mg tablet, twice daily. Vitamin B12, 10mg daily. Upon relief, reduce L-lysine to one daily. (Dr L. Mervyn) Minerals: Calcium, Selenium, Zinc.

Self-Care. Resist temptation to touch sores. No sharing of face cloths, towels, etc.

Note: The chicken-pox virus is believed to lie dormant in nerve cells around the spine for many years, after people catch the childhood infection. Virgorous massage of the spine may trigger an attack by activating the dormant virus.

Information. Herpes Association, 41 North Road, London N7 9DP, UK. Send SAE. ... herpes zoster

Any of a group of uncommon and usually inherited disorders caused by the accumulation of substances called porphyrins. Sufferers often have a rash or blistering brought on by sunlight, and certain drugs may cause abdominal pain and nervous system disturbances. Porphyrins are formed in the body during the manufacture of haem (a component of haemoglobin). A block in this manufacture causes a build-up of porphyrins. Such blocks are the result of various enzyme deficiencies, which are genetic disorders. Porphyria may also be due to poisoning.

There are 6 types of porphyria. Acute intermittent porphyria usually appears in early adulthood, causing abdominal pain, and often limb cramps, muscle weakness, and psychiatric disturbances. The patient’s urine turns red when left to stand. Barbiturate drugs, phenytoin, oral contraceptives, and tetracyclines precipitate attacks.

Variegate porphyria has similar effects but also causes blistering of sun-exposedskin. Hereditary coproporphyria also has similar effects and may cause additional skin symptoms.

Protoporphyria usually causes skin symptoms after exposure to sunlight, as does porphyria cutanea tarda. In this type, wounds are slow to heal, and urine is sometimes pink or brown. Many cases are precipitated by liver disease.

The rarest and most serious form, congenital erythropoietic porphyria, causes red discoloration of urine and the teeth, excessive hair growth, severe skin blistering and ulceration, and haemolytic anaemia. Death may occur in childhood. Diagnosis is made from abnormal levels of porphyrins in the urine and faeces. Treatment is difficult. Avoiding sunlight and/or precipitating drugs is the most important measure. Acute intermittent porphyria, variegate porphyria, and hereditary coproporphyria may be helped by administration of glucose or haematin. Cases of porphyria cutanea tarda may be helped by venesection.... porphyria

Linn.

Family: Lythraceae.

Habitat: Marshy areas throughout India, as a weed.

English: Blistering Ammannia.

Ayurvedic: Agnipatri.

Folk: Daadmaari. (Also known as Paashaanabheda.)

Action: Stomachic, laxative, antirheumatic, febrifuge. Leaves— used externally for ringworm, herpic eruptions and other skin diseases; rubefacient.

Leaves contain lawsone. Plant extract—antibacterial. Extracts of stem, leaf and inflorescence are more effective as compared with the seed and root extract.... ammannia baccifera

Anacardium occidentale

Description: The cashew is a spreading evergreen tree growing to a height of 12 meters, with leaves up to 20 centimeters long and 10 centimeters wide. Its flowers are yellowish-pink. Its fruit is very easy to recognize because of its peculiar structure. The fruit is thick and pear-shaped, pulpy and red or yellow when ripe. This fruit bears a hard, green, kidney-shaped nut at its tip. This nut is smooth, shiny, and green or brown according to its maturity.

Habitat and Distribution: The cashew is native to the West Indies and northern South America, but transplantation has spread it to all tropical climates. In the Old World, it has escaped from cultivation and appears to be wild at least in parts of Africa and India.

Edible Parts: The nut encloses one seed. The seed is edible when roasted. The pear- shaped fruit is juicy, sweet-acid, and astringent. It is quite safe and considered delicious by most people who eat it.

CAUTION

The green hull surrounding the nut contains a resinous irritant poison that will blister the lips and tongue like poison ivy. Heat destroys this poison when roasting the nuts.... cashew nut

Sm.

Synonym: D. lunata Buch.-Ham.

Family: Droseraceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, up to 2,438 m.

Ayurvedic: Brahma-suvarchalaa (doubtful synonym).

Folk: Mukhjali. (Drosera burmannii Vahl is also known as Mukhjali.)

Action: Resin from plant—used in bronchitis and whooping cough. Plant—antisyphyilitic. Bruised leaves, mixed with salt are applied for treating blisters.

Key application: Drosera rotundifo- lia—in dry cough and coughing fits, as bronchoantispasmodic. (German Commission E.).

The leaves contain napthaquinones, plumbagin (0.5%), droserone (3-hy- droxyplumbagin) and hydroxydro- serone (0.01%), and the flavonoids, quercetin, gossypetin, gossypin and isogossypitrin. The antispasmodic action of the herb has been attributed to naphthoquinones. Plumbagin is antimicrobial in vitro against some Gram-positive and Gram-negativebac- teria, influenza virus, pathogenic fungi and parasitic protozoa, and is active against some species of Leishmania. In large doses plumbagin is cytotoxic, but in small doses exhibits immunostimu- lating activity in vitro.

A related species, Drosera indica Linn., is found in Deccan peninsula, particularly in the West coast. Plum- bagone, isolated from the plant, depresses the isolated intestine of the guinea-pig and suppresses the effect of acetylcholine. In Indo-China, a maceration of the plant is applied topically to corns.

In Western herbal, Sundew is obtained from the aerial parts of Drosera rotundifolia which grows throughout Europe.... drosera peltata

A usually chronic condition, started by irritation, with congestion in time, leading to edema, blistering, and the formation of an ulcer. Hylobacter infections seem to prolong and aggravate the condition, but the presence alone of the bacteria, without functional impairment, will not begin the disease. Possessing a certain “workaholic” panache...even boasted of in some business circles as if to validate one’s work ethic, it nonetheless is fatal if untreated.... gastric ulcer

A contagious disease due to infection with coxsackie A16 virus (see COXSACKIE VIRUSES). Most common in children, the incubation period is 3–5 days. It is characterised by an eruption of blisters on the palms and the feet (often the toes), and in the mouth. The disease

has no connection with foot and mouth disease in cattle, deer, pigs and sheep.... hand, foot and mouth disease

An organized mass of serous or lymphatic fluid, usually encapsulated by connective tissue. An internal blister. The term is usually applied to a hydrocele of the testes, but a breast cyst is also a hydrocele.... hydrocele

Royle.

Habitat: Western Himalayas. Folk: Archa.

Action: Antispasmodic, muscle relaxant, antiseptic.

The rhizomes contain desoxyrha- pontigenin. The compound, like papaverine, exhibited smooth muscle relaxant activity in a wide variety of in vitro and in vivo tests. Aqueous alcoholic extract showed papaverine-like non-specific spasmolytic activity.

The paste of fresh rhizomes is applied on burns, blisters and boils to prevent scar formation.... rheum webbianum

Burns are injuries caused by dry heat, scalds by moist heat, but the two are similar in symptoms and treatment. Severe burns are also caused by contact with electric wires, and by the action of acids and other chemicals. The burn caused by chemicals di?ers from a burn by ?re only in the fact that the outcome is more favourable, because the chemical destroys the bacteria on the affected part(s) so that less suppuration follows.

Severe and extensive burns are most frequently produced by the clothes – for example, of a child – catching ?re. This applies especially to cotton garments, which blaze up quickly. It should be remembered that such a ?ame can immediately be extinguished by making the individual lie on the ?oor so that the ?ames are uppermost, and wrapping him or her in a rug, mat or blanket. As prevention is always better than cure, particular care should always be exercised with electric ?res and kettles or pots of boiling water in houses where there are young children or old people. Children’s clothes, and especially night-clothes, should be made of non-in?ammable material: pyjamas are also much safer than nightdresses.

Severe scalds are usually produced by escape of steam in boiler explosions. Cigarettes are a common cause of ?res and therefore of burns; people who have fallen asleep in bed or in a chair while smoking may set ?re to the bed or chair. Discarded, unextinguished cigarettes are another cause.

Degrees of burns Burns are referred to as either super?cial (or partial-thickness) burns, when there is su?cient skin tissue left to ensure regrowth of skin over the burned site; and deep (or full-thickness) burns, when the skin is totally destroyed and grafting will be necessary.

Symptoms Whilst many domestic burns are minor and insigni?cant, more severe burns and scalds can prove to be very dangerous to life. The main danger is due to SHOCK, which arises as a result of loss of ?uid from the circulating blood at the site of a serious burn. This loss of ?uid leads to a fall in the volume of the circulating blood. As the maintenance of an adequate blood volume is essential to life, the body attempts to compensate for this loss by withdrawing ?uid from the uninjured areas of the body into the circulation. If carried too far, however, this in turn begins to affect the viability of the body cells. As a sequel, essential body cells, such as those of the liver and kidneys, begin to suffer, and the liver and kidneys cease to function properly. This will show itself by the development of JAUNDICE and the appearance of albumin in the urine (see PROTEINURIA). In addition, the circulation begins to fail with a resultant lack of oxygen (see ANOXIA) in the tissues, and the victim becomes cyanosed (see CYANOSIS), restless and collapsed: in some cases, death ensues. In addition, there is a strong risk of infection occurring. This is the case with severe burns in particular, which leave a large raw surface exposed and very vulnerable to any micro-organisms. The combination of shock and infection can all too often be life-threatening unless expert treatment is immediately available.

The immediate outcome of a burn is largely determined by its extent. This is of more signi?cance than the depth of the burn. To assess the extent of a burn in relation to the surface of the body, what is known as the Rule of Nine has been evolved. The head and each arm cover 9 per cent of the body surface, whilst the front of the body, the back of the body, and each leg each cover 18 per cent, with the perineum (or crutch) accounting for the remaining 1 per cent. The greater the extent of the burn, the more seriously ill will the victim become from loss of ?uid from his or her circulation, and therefore the more prompt should be his or her removal to hospital for expert treatment. The depth of the burn, unless this is very great, is mainly of import when the question arises as to how much surgical treatment, including skin grafting, will be required.

Treatment This depends upon the severity of the burn. In the case of quite minor burns or scalds, all that may be necessary if they are seen immediately is to hold the part under cold running water until the pain is relieved. Cooling is one of the most e?ective ways of relieving the pain of a burn. If the burn involves the distal part of a limb – for example, the hand and forearm – one of the most e?ective ways of relieving pain is to immerse the burned part in lukewarm water and add cold water until the pain disappears. As the water warms and pain returns, more cold water is added. After some three to four hours, pain will not reappear on warming, and the burn may be dressed in the usual way. Thereafter a simple dressing (e.g. a piece of sterile gauze covered by cotton-wool, and on top of this a bandage or adhesive dressing) should be applied. The part should be kept at rest and the dressing kept quite dry until healing takes place. Blisters should be pierced with a sterile needle, but the skin should not be cut away. No ointment or oil should be applied, and an antiseptic is not usually necessary.

In slightly more severe burns or scalds, it is probably advisable to use some antiseptic dressing. These are the cases which should be taken to a doctor – whether a general practitioner, a factory doctor, or to a hospital Accident & Emergency department. There is still no general consensus of expert opinion as to the best ‘antiseptic’ to use. Among those recommended are CHLORHEXIDINE, and antibiotics such as BACITRACIN, NEOMYCIN and polymixin. An alternative is to use a Tulle Gras dressing which has been impregnated with a suitable antibiotic.

In the case of severe burns and scalds, the only sound rule is immediate removal to hospital. Unless there is any need for immediate resuscitation, such as arti?cial respiration, or attention to other injuries there may be, such as fractures or haemorrhage, nothing should be done on the spot to the patient except to make sure that s/he is as comfortable as possible and to keep them warm, and to cover the burn with a sterile (or clean) cloth such as a sheet, pillowcases, or towels wrung out in cold water. If pain is severe, morphine should be given – usually intravenously. Once the victim is in hospital, the primary decision is as to the extent of the burn, and whether or not a transfusion is necessary. If the burn is more than 9 per cent of the body surface in extent, a transfusion is called for. The precise treatment of the burn varies, but the essential is to prevent infection if this has not already occurred, or, if it has, to bring it under control as quickly as possible. The treatment of severe burns has made great advances, with quick transport to specialised burns units, modern resuscitative measures, the use of skin grafting and other arti?cial covering techniques and active rehabilitation programmes, o?ering victims a good chance of returning to normal life.

CHEMICAL BURNS Phenol or lysol can be washed o? promptly before they do much damage. Acid or alkali burns should be neutralised by washing them repeatedly with sodium bicarbonate or 1 per cent acetic acid, respectively. Alternatively, the following bu?er solution may be used for either acid or alkali burns: monobasic potassium phosphate (70 grams), dibasic sodium phosphate (70 grams) in 850 millilitres of water. (See also PHOSPHORUS BURNS.)... burns and scalds

There are some minor signs, such as: relaxation of the facial muscles (which produces the staring eye and gaping mouth of the ‘Hippocratic countenance’), as well as a loss of the curves of the back, which becomes ?at by contact with the bed or table; discoloration of the skin, which takes on a wax-yellow hue and loses its pink transparency at the ?nger-webs; absence of blistering and redness if the skin is burned (Christison’s sign); and failure of a ligature tied round the ?nger to produce, after its removal, the usual change of a white ring, which, after a few seconds, becomes redder than the surrounding skin in a living person.

The only certain sign of death, however, is that the heart has stopped beating. To ensure that this is permanent, it is necessary to listen over the heart with a stethoscope, or directly with the ear, for at least ?ve minutes. Permanent stoppage of breathing should also be con?rmed by observing that a mirror held before the mouth shows no haze, or that a feather placed on the upper lip does not ?utter.

In the vast majority of cases there is no dif?culty in ensuring that death has occurred. The introduction of organ transplantation, however, and of more e?ective mechanical means of resuscitation, such as ventilators, whereby an individual’s heart can be kept beating almost inde?nitely, has raised diffculties in a minority of cases. To solve the problem in these cases the concept of ‘brain death’ has been introduced. In this context it has to be borne in mind that there is no legal de?nition of death. Death has traditionally been diagnosed by the irreversible cessation of respiration and heartbeat. In the Code of Practice drawn up in 1983 by a Working Party of the Health Departments of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, however, it is stated that ‘death can also be diagnosed by the irreversible cessation of brain-stem function’. This is described as ‘brain death’. The brain stem consists of the mid-brain, pons and medulla oblongata which contain the centres controlling the vital processes of the body such as consciousness, breathing and the beating of the heart (see BRAIN). This new concept of death, which has been widely accepted in medical and legal circles throughout the world, means that it is now legitimate to equate brain death with death; that the essential component of brain death is death of the brain stem; and that a dead brain stem can be reliably diagnosed at the bedside. (See GLASGOW COMA SCALE.)

Four points are important in determining the time that has elapsed since death. HYPOSTASIS, or congestion, begins to appear as livid spots on the back, often mistaken for bruises, three hours or more after death. This is due to the blood running into the vessels in the lowest parts. Loss of heat begins at once after death, and the body has become as cold as the surrounding air after 12 hours – although this is delayed by hot weather, death from ASPHYXIA, and some other causes. Rigidity, or rigor mortis, begins in six hours, takes another six to become fully established, remains for 12 hours and passes o? during the succeeding 12 hours. It comes on quickly when extreme exertion has been indulged in immediately before death; conversely it is slow in onset and slight in death from wasting diseases, and slight or absent in children. It begins in the small muscles of the eyelid and jaw and then spreads over the body. PUTREFACTION is variable in time of onset, but usually begins in 2–3 days, as a greenish tint over the abdomen.... death, signs of

Redness of the skin due to dilatation of dermal blood vessels. It may be transient or chronic, localised or widespread, and it can be blanched by pressure. Erythema may be caused by excessive exposure to heat or ultraviolet light, or by in?ammation of the skin due to infection, DERMATITIS, and various allergic reactions – for example, to drugs. It may be emotional (e.g. as in ?ushing), mediated by the autonomic nervous system.

Erythema ab igne is a ?xed redness of the skin caused by chronic exposure to heat from a domestic ?re or radiator.

Erythema pernio (See CHILBLAIN.) Redness induced by spasm of the skin arterioles due to cold. It affects the hands, feet or calves in winter. The red swollen areas are cooler than normal.

Erythema nodosum A singular pattern of red, tender nodules occurring on the shins, often lasting several weeks. It may be caused by a streptococcal throat infection, primary tuberculosis, SARCOIDOSIS, or may be drug-induced.

Erythema multiforme is an acute allergic eruption of the extremities characterised by circular areas of erythema, purpura and blistering, which resolve over two or three weeks, caused by infections or drugs. In severe forms the mucous membranes of the eyes, mouth and genitalia may be involved.

Erythema infectiosum is an acute contagious disease of children caused by a parvo-virus (see PARVOVIRUSES). In young children a bright erythema of the face gives a ‘slapped cheek’ appearance.

... erythema

Vesicants are blistering agents.... vesicants

An uncommon disease that develops after a scratch or bite by a cat. Three quarters of cases occur in children. The fever is due to infection with a small bacterium called

ROCHALIMAEA HENDELAE.

The main symptom, appearing after 3–10 days, is a swollen lymph node near the bite or scratch.

The node may become painful and tender, and an infected blister may develop at the site of the injury.

A fever, rash, and headache may occur.

Diagnosis is confirmed by biopsy of the swollen lymph node and a skin test.

Analgesic drugs (painkillers) may be used to relieve the fever and headache.... cat-scratch fever

Celandine tea is one of the many herbal teas available all around the world. While it has a bitter taste, it is still a valuable beverage thanks to its many health benefits. Find out more about celandine tea! About Celandine Tea Celandine tea is made from the plant called greater celandine, also known as tetterwort in Europe. It is an herbaceous perennial plant which can be found in Europe, western Asia and North America. The greater celandine has an erect stem with a height between 30 and 120cm. The leaves are quite long (around 30cm), lobed and crenate. The flowers are yellow, with four petals and two sepals; they bloom from late spring till the end of summer. The plant also has a pod-like fruit with an unpleasant odor and a bitter taste. How to prepare Celandine Tea For a cup of celandine tea, add half a teaspoon of chopped celandine herbs to a cup of freshly boiled water. Let it steep for about 10 minutes. Once the steeping time is done, strain to remove the herbs and the tea is done. If you think the taste is too bitter for your liking, you can add honey or fruit juice (lemon, for example). Celandine Tea Benefits Celandine tea gets many active constituents from the greater celandine. Some of them include berberine, sanguinarine, chelidonine, protopine, coptisine, and stylopine. Celandine tea, especially in combination with other herbs, is quite beneficial for your stomach. It can be combined with peppermint leaf, German chamomile, caraway, licorice, clown’s mustard plant, lemon balm, angelica, and milk thistle. The mixture helps with dyspepsia, as it reduces the severity of acid reflux, stomach pains, cramping, nausea, and vomiting. You can drink celandine tea if you’ve got problems with gallstones. It increases bile production and therefore flushes out gallstones. It also helps with jaundice, scurvy, and gout. Celandine tea can also help if you’ve got a toothache or high blood pressure. It is often used to treat whooping cough, bronchitis, and arthritis. Also, if you’ve got an irregular menstruation, celandine tea can help regulate it. Celandine tea can also be used topically. It is useful when it comes to various skin problems, for example warts, blister rashes or scabies. Celandine Tea Side Effects Celandine tea has a few side effects, as well. It is recommended not to drink celandine tea if you are pregnant or breastfeeding. It isn’t known just how much harm it can do, but it might affect the baby. Therefore, it is safer not to consume it during these periods. Celandine tea might increase the flow of bile. In some cases, if a large quantity is consumed, it might cause blockage of the bile duct. Also, you shouldn’t drink celandine tea if you know you’ve got liver problems. In some cases, it might cause hepatitis. Be careful with the amount of celandine tea you drink, as well. It is recommended not to drink more than six cups of celandine tea a day. If you do, it might cause more harm than good. Some of the symptoms you might get include: headaches, loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, and irregular heartbeats.   Celandine tea is recommended as an everyday tea. It has important health benefits and very few side effects. Despite its bitter taste, give it a try!... enjoy celandine tea

Linn.

Family: Euphorbiaceae.

Habitat: The coastal and tidal forests of India.

English: Blinding tree.

Siddha/Tamil: Kampetti, Tillai, Agil, Ambala-vrksham.

Folk: Gevaa, Huraa (Maharashtra). Gangawaa.

Action: Latex—antileprotic. The latex blisters the skin and is reported to cause blindness if it enters the eye. The juice, boiled in oil, is applied in rheumatism, paralysis and leprosy.

The leaves are toxic and contain gallo tannins (0.616 mg/g dry weight). Fresh twigs and bark contain a piscici- dal component. The latex is biocidal.... excoecaria agallocha

This results from the action of extreme cold (below 0 °C) on the skin. VASOCONSTRICTION results in a reduced blood – and hence, oxygen

– supply, leading to NECROSIS of the skin and, in severe cases, of the underlying tissues. Chie?y affecting exposed parts of the body, such as the face and the limbs, frostbite occurs especially in people exercising at high altitudes, or in those at risk of peripheral vascular disease, such as diabetics (see DIABETES MELLITUS), who should take particular care of their ?ngers and toes when in cold environments.

In mild cases – the condition sometimes known as frostnip – the skin on exposed parts of the body, such as the cheeks or nose, becomes white and numb with a sudden and complete cessation of cold and discomfort. In more severe cases, blisters develop on the frozen part, and the skin then gradually hardens and turns black until the frozen part, such as a ?nger, is covered with a black shell of dead tissue. Swelling of the underlying tissue occurs and this is accompanied by throbbing and aching. If, as is often the case, only the skin and the tissues immediately under it are frozen, then in a matter of months the dead tissue peels o?. In the most severe cases of all, muscles, bone and tendon are also frozen, and the affected part becomes cold, swollen, mottled and blue or grey. There may be no blistering in these severe cases. At ?rst there is no pain, but in time shooting and throbbing pains usually develop.

Prevention This consists of wearing the right clothing and never venturing on even quite short expeditions in cold weather, particularly on mountains, without taking expert advice as to what should be worn.

Treatment Frostnip is the only form of frostbite that should be treated on the spot. As it usually occurs on exposed parts, such as the face, each member of the party should be on the lookout for it in another. The moment that whitening of the skin is seen, the individual should seek shelter and warm the affected part by covering it with his or her warm hand or a glove until the normal colour and consistency of the affected part are restored. In more severe cases, treatment should only be given in hospital or in a well-equipped camp. In essence this consists of warming the affected part, preferably in warm water, against a warm part of the body or warm air. Rewarming should be done for spells of 20 minutes at a time. The affected part should never be placed near an open ?re. Generalised warming of the whole body may also be necessary, using hot drinks, and putting the victim in a sleeping bag.... frostbite

If you’re looking for a special herbal tea, you can try pipsissewa tea. It has a pleasant taste, slightly bitter, like most herbal teas, but also a bit sweet. Also, it comes with many health benefits. Read to find out more!

About Pipsissewa Tea

Pipsissewa tea is made from the pipsissewa plant, also known as Umbellate Wintergreen or Prince’s pine. It is a small, evergreen perennial plant, usually found in the dry woodlands or sandy soils of Southern Canada and northern United States.

The plant can grow up to 30cm tall. It usually has 4 evergreen, shiny leaves with a toothed margin; they’re arranged one opposite the other on the stem. It has 4-8 flowers, either pink or white, which bloom during summer.

The pipsissewa plant is used to make root beer. It can also be used to flavor candies and soft drinks.

How to prepare Pipsissewa Tea

You only need a few minutes to prepare a cup of pipsissewa tea. Put a tablespoon of herbs in the cup, then pour freshly boiled water over it. Let it steep for 2-4 minutes; then, strain the drink. Sweeten it with milk or honey, if you wish.

Pipsissewa Tea Benefits

Pipsisewa, as a plant, contains many important constituents which are also transferred to the pipsissewa tea. Some of them are hydroquinones (for example, arbutin), flavonoids, triterpenes, methyl salicylate, phenols, essential oils, and tannins. They have many health benefits.

Pipsissewa teais often recommended in the treatment for infections of the urinary tract, such as cystitis, painful urination, bladder and kidney stones, kidney inflammation, prostatitis, gonorrhea, and urethritis. It can also be used to treat arthritis, gout and rheumatism.

Drinking pipsissewa tea will help your body expel various infectious microorganisms. It can increase sweating in order to treat fever diseases. It is also often included in the treatment for ailments of the respiratory tract, such as colds, whooping cough, and bronchitis.

Pipsissewa tea can be used topically, as well. It can be used with blisters, tumors, and swellings. Also, you can use it as an eye wash if you’ve got sore eyes.

Pipsissewa Tea Side Effects

It is not well-known if pipsissewa tea can affect women during pregnancy or breast feeding. However, it’s considered safe not to drink it, just in case it might affect the baby.

It is best not to drink pipsissewa tea if you’re taking medication for the intestine, or if you’ve got iron deficiency.

Drinking a large amount of pipsissewa tea can also lead to a few side effects. The symptoms you might get are: diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, headaches, and loss of appetite.

You’ll definitely enjoy drinking pipsissewa tea, both for its pleasant taste and because of the health benefits it has.

... have a cup of pipsissewa tea

One of a group of viruses responsible for a broad range of diseases.

There are 2 main types of coxsackievirus: A and B.

The best known of the type A infections is hand, foot, and mouth disease, a common childhood disorder characterized by blistering of the mouth, hands, and feet.

Type B viruses can cause serious illnesses such as meningitis, pericarditis, and pneumonia.... coxsackievirus

An eroded area of skin on the genitalia.

The most common cause is a sexually transmitted infection, particularly syphilis and genital herpes (see herpes, genital).

Chancroid and granuloma inguinale are tropical bacterial infections that cause genital ulcers.

Lymphogranuloma venereum is a viral infection producing genital blisters.

Behçet’s syndrome is a rare condition that causes tender, recurrent ulcers in the mouth and on the genitals.

Cancer of the penis or vulva may first appear as a painless ulcer with raised edges.... genital ulcer

An infectious disease, mainly affecting young children, that is caused by the coxsackievirus. Hand-foot-and-mouth disease may occur in small epidemics, usually in the summer. The illness is usually mild and lasts for only a few days. Symptoms include blistering of the palms, soles of the feet, and inside of the mouth, and a slight fever. There is no treatment other than mild analgesic drugs. The illness is not related to foot-and-mouth disease, which occurs in cattle.... hand-foot-and-mouth disease

Plumbago spp.

Plumbaginaceae

The genus Plumbago belonging to the family Plumbaginaceae is a popular and medicinally very important group of medicinal plants. Three species, namely P. rosea, P. zeylanica and P. auriculata have been identified. Among these P. rosea and P. zeylanica are important ones.

Plumbago, in general is an esteemed remedy for leucoderma and other skin diseases. The synonyms of fire like agnih, vahnih, etc. are attributed to this drug to indicate the very burning action of the root, causing blisters on the skin (daranah). The drug is used only after adequate curing and purification. Root is the officinal part and it enters into the composition of preparations like Citrakasavam, Dasamularista, Gulgulutiktaka kasaya, Yogarajachurna, etc.

1. P. rosea Linn. syn. P. indica Linn.

Eng: Rosy-flowered Leadwort; San: Citrakah, Dhahanah;

Hin: Lalcitra, Raktacitra;

Ben: Lalchita;

Mal: Kotuveli, Chettikkoduveli, Chuvannakotuveli;

Tam: Chenkotuveli, Cittiramulam;

Kan: Kempacitramula;

Tel: Yerracitramulam

Rosy-flowered leadwort or Fire plant is a native of Coromandel Coast. It is found throughout India, in moist situations as well as cultivated. The roots are useful in dyspepsia, colic, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, helmenthiasis, haemorrhoids, elephantiasis, chronic and intermittent fever, leprosy, leucoderma, ringworm, scabies, hepatosplenomegaly, amenorrhoea, odontalgia, vitiated conditions of vata, kapha and anaemia. It is a pretty subscandent perennial shrub with semi -woody striate stems and flexible branches. Leaves are simple, alternate oblong, short cuneate at the base passing into a very short amplexicaul, exauriculate, and reddish petiole. Flowers are bright red, arranged in long terminal spikes. The calyx ribs are covered with stipitate, bifarious and subsessile gland. Corolla tube is slender and four times as long as the calyx. The stout roots are cylindrical, irregularly bent, light yellowish brown with smooth surface having short transverse shallow fissures at the regions of the bents. A light yellowish juice excudes from the cut surface. A healthy plant may produce 18-20 stout roots (Warrier et al, 1995).

The chemical constituents include plumbagin and sitosterol glucoside. Clinical trials have demonstrated that plumbagin oil from P. indica is useful in common wart (Satyavati et al, 1987). The roots are acrid, astringent, thermogenic, anthelmintic, constipating, expectorant, antiinflammmatory, abortifacient, alterant, anti-periodic, carminative, digestive, sudorific, narcotic, gastric, nervous stimulant and rejuvenating. Root is a powerful sialogogue and vesicant.

2. P. zeylanica Linn.

Eng:White flowered Leadwort; San:Chitraka;

Hin, Ben:Chitarak, Chitra; Mal:Vellakotuveli

Tam: Sittragam, Chittiramoolam;

Kan: Vahini; Mar: Chitraka;

Tel: Chitramulam

White flowered Leadwort or Chitarak is found wild in peninsular India and mostly in West Bengal. Root is used externally in leprosy and other skin diseases or obstinate character, aphthae, abscesses, influenza, piles and anasarca. Juice is used externally in scabies and ulcers. One of the important preparations of Chitrak is “Yograjguggal”, prescribed for arthritis, rheumatism, etc. The other well known preparations are “Chitrak Adivati” and “ Chitraka Haritaki”. In Unani system it is an ingredient of “Aqaruva-i- Kabir”, “Hab Ashkhar”, “Ma’jun Baladur”, “Ma’jun Raig Mahi”, etc. It is a branched undershrub. Roots are long and tuberous. Stem is striate. Leaves are simple, alternate, short petioled, ovate or ovate-oblong, acute with entire or wavy margin, 7x3.8cm and glabrous. Flowers are white, arranged in terminal spikes. Calyx is tubular, glandular-hairy. Corolla tube is slender; limb rotate and 5 lobbed. Stamens are 5 on a disc. Style is slender with 5 stigmatic branches. Fruit is membranous capsule enclosed within the persistent calyx.

The roots of P. zeylanica have been exhaustively studied and naphthaquinones have been isolated, namely, plumbagin, 3-chlroplumbagin, droserone (Sidhu et al, 1971; Padhye et al, 1973), 3,3’-biplumbagin(Chitranone), zeylanone and iso-zeylanone and a coumarin, elliptinone (Sankaram et al, 1976, 1979). It also contains 1,2(3)-tetrahydro-3,3’-biplumbagin and plumbazeylanone. The leaf is antirheumatic. Root is appetiser, sudorific, relieves pain, vasicant, diuretic, caustic, antidiarrhoeal and expellent of phlegmatic tumours. Root is uterine stimulant. Root and fruits have antiimplantation activity. Plumbagin induces antiimplantation, has abortifacient and antiovulatory activity and causes selective testicular lesions in dogs. It is also a mitotic inhibitor. In lower concentration it behaves like a spindle, poison but in higher concentration it exhibits radiomimetic, nucleotoxic and cyclotoxic effects. It also has antibacterial, antifungal and anticoagulant activities and shows antagonism to amphetamine hyperactivity in mice.

3. P. auriculata Lam. syn. P. capensis

Eng: Blue flowered Leadwort;

Mal: Neelakotuveli

The blue flowered Leadwort is often grown in gardens throughout India (Moos, 1976; Chunekar, 1982; Sharma, 1983). It is a native of Cape Province in South Africa. It is a constituent of many Ayurvedic drugs (KAU, 1991). The plant is a subshrub growing to a height of 1-1.5m. Leaves are elliptic to obovate, 3-4 x 1.5-2cm. Inflorescence is a raceme of length 3-4cm. Corolla is blue to violet. Stamens are 5 in number. Flowers and fruits may be upto 12 in number (Matthew, 1995).

Agrotechnology: The plant is grown in tropical to subtropical ecosystems. Warm humid tropical climate is most suited. They come up well in almost all types of deep and well drained soils. It is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings. Three stem cuttings of size 15cm long are planted in polybags of size 14x10cm. IAA and IBA treatments will improve rooting of cuttings. The land is to be ploughed well. About 4 tonnes of FYM are to be applied, mixed thoroughly and seed bed of size 50cm breadth, 1.5cm height and convenient length are to be prepared. On these beds pits are taken at a distance of 25cm and the rooted plants are transplanted from the polybags. Regular irrigation and weeding are to be carried out. In the second year with the onset of monsoon, seedbeds are again refreshed after adding about 4 tonnes of FYM. At the end of second year tubers are collected. Care should be taken to wear gloves, else the chemical plumbagin present in the roots will cause burning sensation. The collected tubers are washed, tied into bundles and marketed. Plumbago yields about 7-10t tubers/ha with good management (Prasad et al, 1997).... leadwort

A throat infection caused by coxsackievirus. Herpangina most commonly affects young children. The virus is usually transmitted via infected droplets coughed or sneezed into the air. Many people harbour the virus but do not have symptoms. Symptoms may include fever, sore throat, headache, abdominal discomfort, and muscular pains. The throat becomes red and a few small blisters appear, which enlarge and burst. Symptoms usually clear up within a week, without specific treatment.... herpangina

Diseases of the SKIN for which sunlight is partially or wholly responsible. In su?cient dosage, short-wave ultraviolet light (UVB – see ULTRAVIOLET RAYS (UVR)) always causes ERYTHEMA. Higher doses progressively cause OEDEMA and blistering; this is acute sunburn. Graduated exposure to UVB causes pigmentation (tanning). Prolonged chronic exposure to sunlight eventually accelerates ageing of the exposed skin with LENTIGO formation and loss of COLLAGEN and elastic tissue. After decades of such exposure, epidermal DYSPLASIA and CANCER may supervene.

Drugs given orally or topically may induce phototoxic reactions of various types. Thus, TETRACYCLINES exaggerate sunburn reactions. and the diuretic FRUSEMIDE may cause blistering reactions. Psoralens induce erythema and pigmentation. AMIODARONE also induces pigmentation. (See also PHOTOCHEMOTHERAPY.)

Phytophotodermatitis is a streaky, blistering photodermatosis typically seen on the limbs of children playing in grassy meadows in summer. The phototoxic reaction is caused by psoralens in weeds.

Berlocque dermatitis is a pattern of streaky pigmentation usually seen on women’s necks, caused by a reaction to psoralens in perfumes.

Certain rare metabolic diseases may lead to photosensitisation. They include the PORPHYRIAS and PELLAGRA. Other skin diseases such as lupus erythematosus (see under LUPUS) and ROSACEA may be aggravated by light exposure. Sometimes, in the absence of any of these factors, some people spontaneously develop a sensitivity to light causing various patterns of DERMATITIS or URTICARIA. The most common pattern is ‘polymorphic light eruption’ which typically appears within a day or two of arrival at a sunny holiday destination and persists until departure. Continuously exposed areas, such as the hands and face, may be ‘hardened’ and unaffected.

Treatment Appropriate clothing and headgear, sunscreen creams and lotions are the main preventative measures.... photodermatoses

Linn.

Family: Ranunculaceae.

Habitat: The plains of northern India, and the warm valleys of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam.

English: Blister Buttercup, Celery- leaved Crowfoot.

Ayurvedic: Kaandira, Kaandakatu- ka, Naasaa-samvedana, Toyavalli, Sukaandaka.

Folk: Jal-dhaniyaa.

Action: Fresh Plant—highly acrid, rubefacient, vesicant and toxic; causes inflammation of the digestive tract. Used after drying or as a homoeopathic medicine for skin diseases.

The plant contains anemonin, pro- toanemonin, ranunculine, serotonin and other tryptamine derivatives.

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) is a potent vaso-constrictor. Pro- toanemonin possesses strong antibacterial, antiviral, cytopathogenic and vermicidal properties, and is effective against both Gram-positive and Gramnegative bacteria, similar to penicillic acid. It inhibits the growth of E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida al- bicans. It inactivates in vitro diptheria toxin.

Dosage: Whole plant—1-3 g powder. (CCRAS.)... ranunculus sceleratus

A rare skin disorder of pregnant women that produces crops of blisters on the legs and abdomen. The cause is not known.

Severe herpes gestationis is treated with corticosteroid drugs in tablet form and may require hospital admission.

The disorder usually clears up completely after birth of the baby, but tends to recur in subsequent pregnancies.... herpes gestationis

Inflammation of the skin due to 2 surfaces rubbing together. Intertrigo is most common in obese people. The affected skin is red and moist and may have an odour, often with a fungal infection such as candidiasis; there may also be scales or blisters. The condition worsens with sweating. Treatment consists of weight reduction and keeping the affected areas clean and dry. A cream containing a corticosteroid and/or antifungal drug is used if candidiasis is present.... intertrigo

Infections that are characterized by the presence of the larval (immature) forms of certain worms in

the body. Visceral larva migrans (toxocariasis) is caused by a type of worm that normally parasitizes dogs. Cutaneous larva migrans (creeping eruption) is caused by a form of hookworm infestation; the larvae penetrate the skin and move around, leaving intensely itchy red lines sometimes accompanied by blistering. Both types of larva migrans can be treated with anthelmintic drugs.... larva migrans

A sexually transmitted disease caused by a chlamydial infection; it is most common in tropical areas.

The first sign of this condition may be a small genital blister that heals in a few days.

There may also be fever, headache, muscle and joint pains, and a rash.

The lymph nodes, particularly in the groin, become painfully enlarged and inflamed.

Abscesses may form, and persistent ulcers may develop, on the skin over the affected glands.

Treatment is with antibiotic drugs.... lymphogranuloma venereum

Linn.

Synonym: R. acuminata DC.

Family: Anacardiaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas, from Kashmir, Sikkim to Bhutan at altitudes of 600-2,500 m.

English: Japanese Wax tree, Wild Varnish tree.

Ayurvedic: Karkatashringee. (Used as a substitute for Pistacia integerrima galls.).

Unani: Kaakraasingi.

Siddha/Tamil: Karkatakasringi, Kadukapoo (galls).

Action: Thorn-like excrescences on the branches—astringent, expectorant; prescribed in diarrhoea, dysentery and vomiting. Fruits— expectorant (used as an adjuvant in tuberculosis).

The sapwood and heartwood contain polyphenols. The sapwood contains gallo tannin; the heartwood gave fisetin, and its -7-glucoside, fustin, gar- banzol, 3,7,4'-trihydroxyflavone, gallic and ellagic acid. The bark is reported to contain 10% of tannin.

The juice from the leaves causes blisters. Leaves contain 20% tannin (dry basis), a flavone glycoside rhoifolin, co- rilagin and shikimic acid. Ethanolic extract of the leaves is reported to exhibit anticancer and antiviral activities. Latex from the stem also causes blisters.

Mesocarp of the fruit contains el- lagic acid. An acid isolated from the fruit is reported to be cardiotonic and sympathomimetic. It was found to be toxic to rabbits. However, the fruits are used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Hinokiflavone, isolated from the fruits, showed cytotoxic activity in vitro against KB culture cells.

Drupes are rich in biflavones.

The wax obtained from the pulpy mesocarp of the fruit contains palmitic 77, stearic 5, dibasic 6, oleic 12%, and linoleic acid (a trace). It is used as a substitute for beeswax.... rhus succedanea

Tea Tree Essential Oil

Tea tree oil is often referred to as “medicine cabinet in a bottle,” as it’s remedies are seemingly endless. Check out these 79 uses for the ultimate survival remedy:

1. Abrasions and minor cuts
2. Acne
3. Air freshener
4. Allergies
5. Arthritus
6. Asthma
7. Athletes foot
8. Baby care
9. Bacterial infections
10. Bad breath
11. Bladder infection
12. Blisters
13. Boils
14. Bronchial congestion
15. Bronchitus
16. Bruises
17. Bunions
18. Burns
19. Calluses/corns
20. Canker sores
21. Carbuncies
22. Chapped lips
23. Chicken pox
24. Chigger bite
25. Cold sores
26. Coughs
27. Dandruff
28. Dermatitus
29. Dry skin
30. Eczema
31. Emphysema
32. Flea bites
33. Gout
34. Gum disease
35. Head lice
36. Hives
37. Homemade mouthwash
38. Household cleaning
39. Immune system
40. Infected wounds
41. Inflammation
42. Ingrown hair
43. Insect repellant
44. Jock itch
45. Laryngitis
46. Laundry helper
47. Mildew/mold remover
48. Mosquito bites
49. Muscle aches/pains
50. Mumps
51. Nail fungus
52. Pest control
53. Plantar warts
54. Psoriasis
55. Rashes
56. Rheumatism
57. Ringworm
58. Rubella
59. Scabies
60. Sciatica
61. Seborrhea
62. Shingles
63. Shock
64. Sinusitis
65. Sore muscles
66. Sore throat
67. Staph infection
68. Stye
69. Sunburn
70. Tattoos
71. Thrush
72. Ticks
73. Toenail fungus
74. Toothbrush cleaner
75. Tonsillitus
76. Vaginal infection
77. Viral infections
78. Warts
79. Wounds

 ... tea tree essential oil

A severe, blistering rash in which the surface layers of the skin peel off, exposing large areas of red raw skin over the body. The condition carries a risk of widespread infection and loss of body fluid and salts.

The most common cause of toxic epidermal necrolysis is an adverse reaction to a drug, particularly a barbiturate, sulphonamide, or penicillin. The condition usually clears up when the drug is discontinued. Intravenous fluid replacement is sometimes necessary.... necrolysis, toxic epidermal

Cordyline terminalis

Description: The ti has unbranched stems with straplike leaves often clustered at the tip of the stem. The leaves vary in color and may be green or reddish. The flowers grow at the plant’s top in large, plumelike clusters. The ti may grow up to 4.5 meters tall.

Habitat and Distribution: Look for this plant at the margins of forests or near homesites in tropical areas. It is native to the Far East but is now widely planted in tropical areas worldwide.

Edible Parts: The roots and very tender young leaves are good survival food. Boil or bake the short, stout roots found at the base of the plant. They are a valuable source of starch. Boil the very young leaves to eat. You can use the leaves to wrap other food to cook over coals or to steam.

Other Uses: Use the leaves to cover shelters or to make a rain cloak. Cut the leaves into liners for shoes; this works especially well if you have a blister. Fashion temporary sandals from the ti leaves. The terminal leaf, if not completely unfurled, can be used as a sterile bandage. Cut the leaves into strips, then braid the strips into rope.... ti

This is due to prolonged exposure of the feet to water – particularly cold water. Trench warfare is a common precipitating factor, and the condition was rampant during World War I. Cases also occurred during World War II and during the Falklands campaign. (The less common form, due to warm-water immersion, occurred with some frequency in the Vietnam war.) It is characterised by painful swelling of the feet accompanied in due course by blistering and ulceration which, in severe, untreated cases, may progress to GANGRENE. In mild cases recovery may be complete in a month, but severe cases may drag on for a year. (See also IMMERSION FOOT.)

Treatment Drying of the feet overnight, where practicable, is the best method of prevention, accompanied by avoidance of constrictive clothing and tight boots, and of prolonged immobility. Frequent rest periods and daily changing of socks also help. The application of silicone grease once a day is another useful preventive measure. In the early stages, treatment consists of rest in bed and warmth; in more severe cases treatment is as for infected tissues and ulceration. ANALGESICS are usually necessary to ease the pain. Technically, smoking should be forbidden, but the adverse psychological effects of this in troops on active service may outweigh its advantages.... trench foot

Turkey Rhubarb Tea is used to prevent constipation and stop diarrhea, giving you a feeling of relief and ease. Chinese people thought of it as a very important medicine and today it can be the answer for fighting off cancer. Description of Turkey Rhubarb Tea Turkey Rhubarb, on its botanical name Rheum palmatum, is a plant similar to common garden rhubarb. The root of the plant is thick, prolonged and oval shaped having an almost dark-yellow or brown color. It is a 2,000 years old medicine native from China, but bearing its name because of the trade route that went through Turkey. The uses of this ancient medicine are recorded in a medical book called “Divine Husbandman’s Classic of the Materia Medica”. Benefits of Turkey Rhubarb Tea Turkey Rhubarb Tea is a concoction of vitamins and minerals: A, B complex, C, calcium, chlorine, copper, iodine, iron, magnesium, phosphorous, potassium, silicon, sodium, sulfur and zinc, making it an anti-diarrhea and anti-inflammatory agent, being also a cellular regeneration agent. Drinking this tea will improve the functions of liver, spleen and colon and even prevent hair loss and increase appetite. It is more and more believed that Turkey Rhubarb Tea can fight cancer and scientific research is heavily taken on this matter. It can also be used externally like an infusion to treat acne, blisters, boils, furuncles and many more types of skin infection. It has astringent properties, antibacterial benefits and accelerates the whole healing process. Moreover Turkey Rhubarb Tea is perfect in winter to relieve the symptoms of cold or respiratory problems, strengthening your stomach. Side effects of Turkey Rhubarb Tea Turkey Rhubarb Tea can have some gastrointestinal side effects related to the dose taken. These can include: nausea, vomiting, burning in the mouth and throat, problems with gastric motility and colic. Some persons with kidney or liver problems should avoid drinking Turkey Rhubarb Tea without consulting their personal doctor.   Turkish Rhubarb Tea helps detoxify the bowel, cleanse the liver, and decrease blood glucose levels. It is a thorough treatment in cleansing your whole body, in reinforcing your disposition and stimulating your life.... turkey rhubarb tea benefits

A skin infection occasionally transmitted to humans from sheep. Caused by a pox virus, orf usually produces a single persistent, fluid-filled blister on the arm or hand. The antiviral drug idoxuridine may hasten recovery. Large lesions may be removed surgically.... orf

An acute form of eczema in which itchy blisters form on the palms and/or soles. The condition, also called dyshydrotic eczema, is sometimes due to an allergic response. Rarely, it is associated with ringworm. Treatment is with an astringent or with topical application of a corticosteroid drug.... pompholyx

Any of various infectious diseases characterized by blistery skin eruptions (for example chickenpox).

Pox is sometimes used as a slang word for syphilis.... pox

Drugs containing chemicals called psoralens, which occur in some plants and are present in some perfumes.

When absorbed into the skin, psoralens react with ultraviolet light to cause skin darkening or inflammation.

Psoralen drugs may be used in conjunction with ultraviolet light (a combination called PUVA) to treat psoriasis and vitiligo.

Overexposure to ultraviolet light during treatment, or to too high a dose of a psoralen drug, may cause redness and blistering of the skin.

Psoralens in perfumes may cause photosensitivity.... psoralen drugs

Less.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Distributed throughout India. Common in waste places and road side.

English: Ash coloured Fleabane, Purple Fleabane.

Ayurvedic: Sahadevi, Uttamkanya- ka, Dandotpalaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Naichotte Poonde.

Action: Plant—febrifuge, diaphoretic (infusion of herb, combined with quinine, is used against malaria). Used as a specific herb for leucor- rhoea, dysuria, spasm of bladder, strangury and for haematological disorders, as a blood purifier and styptic. Also used in asthma. Seeds—anthelmintic, antiflatulent, antispasmodic; used in dysuria, leucoderma, psoriasis and other skin diseases. Roots—anthelmintic; decoction used for colic.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends the plant in inter mittent fever, filariasis, pityriasis versi- colour (tinea versicolor), blisters, boils, vaginal discharges and in cases of psy- choneurosis.

Aerial parts gave luteolin-7-mono- beta-D-glucopyranoside. Whole plant gave triterpene compounds—beta- amyrin acetate, lupeol acetate, beta- amyrin and lupeol; sterols—beta-sito- sterol, stigmasterol and alpha-spinaste- rol; phenolic resin and potassium chloride.

Dosage: Whole plant—10-20 ml juice; 5-10 g powder for external use. (API, Vol. III.)... vernonia cinerea

Hypersensitiveness to a foreign protein which produces a violent reaction taking the form of asthma, hay fever, urticaria, eczema, migraine, catarrh, irritable bowel. Sensitivity covers a wide range of irritants including animal odours, pollens, insect bites. All kinds of food may be responsible: milk, eggs, pork, tomatoes, strawberries, coffee, tea, etc, also preservatives and artificial colourings.

Substances that cause allergic reactions are known as allergens. Their number are limitless. Against these, the body produces antibodies to fight off invaders. If we are allergic, such defence mechanisms over-react. The reaction has the effect of releasing various chemicals such as histamine which causes irritation and swelling of mucous membranes. Removal of dental amalgam fillings sometimes relieves.

Perhaps the most common allergy is hay fever. It is now known that most sufferers have a family

history of the complaint. Asthma is a serious form, but with the aid of certain herbs (Lobelia, etc) sufferers may lead normal lives.

Premature babies fed on cow’s milk are at risk of cow’s milk allergy with increased histamine release. (Dunn Nutrition Unit, Cambridge)

Food allergies from shell fish and cereal grain fungi are difficult to detect. A large body of opinion favours Garlic (corm, tablets or capsules), being observed that Garlic eaters seldom suffer allergies. Agrimony tea.

Skin reactions may be severe. Hives, dermatitis and blisters can be the result of allergies triggered off by insect stings or animal bites, drugs, food additives, colourings, monosodium glutamate, chocolate, wines, aspirin, penicillin and other drugs. Cytotoxic tests are made to discover foods to which a person may be allergic.

Heredity predisposes, but forms vary. A ‘nettle rash’ father may have a ‘hay fever’ son. Stress is an important factor. While allergy is not a psychosomatic disturbance, there is general agreement that emotional distress – fright, fury or fatigue – can be related. An allergy can also be due to a flaw in the immune system, the body over-reacting to an allergen. Some allergies are treated with the antihistamines of orthodox pharmacy but which may induce drowsiness.

Treatment. The phytotherapist’s primary agent is Ephedra.

Teas. Chamomile, Centuary, Elderflowers, Ground Ivy, Lime flowers, Nettles, Plantain, Red Sage. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-10 minutes. 1 cup 1 to 3 times daily.

Liquid Extract. Ephedra sinica BHP (1983): Dose – 1-3ml. Thrice daily.

Tincture. Ephedra sinica BHP (1983) 1:4 in 45 per cent alcohol. Dose: 6-8ml thrice daily.

A Vogel. Devil’s Claw, thrice daily.

J. Christopher. Burdock, Marshmallow root, Parsley root.

Valerian. Add to prescription in cases of nervous hyperactivity.

Diet. Low salt, low fat, high fibre. Eggs and dairy products are known to cause allergies. Raw salad once daily. Add more protein, cooked and raw vegetables. Rice is not known to cause any allergic reactions. Supplements. Daily. Vitamin A, B-complex, Vitamin C. Bromelain, Selenium, Zinc.

Note: No animals or birds in the house. ... allergy

A rare, life-threatening form of erythema multiforme characterized by severe blisters and bleeding in the mucous membranes of the eyes, mouth, nose, and genitals.... stevens–johnson syndrome

Inflammation of the beard area due to infection of the hair follicles, usually with STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS bacteria contracted from infected razors or towels. Pus-filled blisters appear around the follicles. Treatment is usually with antibiotic drugs.... sycosis barbae

adj. describing impulses travelling ‘the wrong way’ in a nerve fibre. This is rare but may happen in shingles, when the irritation caused by the virus in the spinal canal initiates impulses that travel outwards in normally afferent nerves. The area of skin that the sensory nerves supply (usually a strip on the trunk) becomes painfully blistered. Antidromic impulses cannot pass *synapses, which work in one direction only.... antidromic

n. a blister or large vesicle. A filtering bleb is a blister-like cyst underneath the conjunctiva resulting from a surgical procedure such as *trabeculectomy, used in the treatment of glaucoma.... bleb

Scalds are caused by moist heat and burns by dry heat but their treatment is the same. There are six degrees of burns; anything beyond the first degree (skin not broken) and second degree (blisters and broken skin) should receive hospital treatment.

All burns are serious. Vulnerary herbs are available to promote healing and cell growth, including: Aloe Vera, Comfrey, Fenugreek, Marigold, Marshmallow, Slippery Elm, Chickweed, Myrrh (powder).

Even hospital authorities may find these effective, enhancing healing, reducing risk of infection, and often concluding with a minimum of scar tissue. Echinacea – to mobilise the immune system.

Exclude air from affected parts as soon as possible. Remove no clothing adhering to wound; cut round. For corrosive alkalis: bathe with cider vinegar (2-4 teaspoons to teacup water). Follow with honey: apply lint and bandage. Honey has a long traditional reputation for burns. The following are analgesic and antiseptic, keeping wounds clean and free from pus. Apply sterile dressings.

Tea for internal use: Nettles 1; Valerian 1; Comfrey leaf 2. Mix. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup every 2 hours. Or, cup of ordinary tea laced with 2-3 drops Life Drops.

Topical. (1) Tea Tree oil: 1 part to 20 parts Almond oil. (2) Strong Nettle tea – pain killer. (3) St John’s Wort oil. (4) Aloe Vera – cut off piece of leaf and pulp; or, gel. (5) Slippery Elm – Powder mixed with little milk to form a paste. (6) Pierce Vitamin E capsule and anoint area. (7) Distilled extract of Witch Hazel. (8) Cod liver oil.

Compress. Apply piece of suitable material steeped in teas of any of the following: Chamomile, Chickweed, Comfrey, Cucumber, Elderflowers, Marigold, Plantain, St John’s Wort.

Alcohol should not be taken.

Supplementation. Vitamins A, B-complex, C, D, E. Potassium. Zinc. ... burns & scalds

Varicella. Contagious virus disease with small red spots becoming vesicles, first on chest and back but later spreading over whole body. More children than adults.

Symptoms: Slight fever with temperature rising 39°-40° (102°-104°), sore throat, heavy nasal discharge, rashes come in crops soon to progress to milky white blisters which shrivel into scabs. Irritability. The virus may lie latent in the ganglia of sensory and somatic nerves for many years to manifest later as shingles.

Object of the therapy is to reduce the temperature and promote a healthy outcropping of the rash.

Alternatives. Ensure adequate fluid intake. Antihistamine herbs: Lobelia, Goldenseal root, Parsley root, Juniper. Mucous membranes: spots on: Goldenseal, Myrrh. Ears: spots in: Instil oil Mullein or contents of Vitamin E capsule.

Teas: Boneset, Elderflowers and Peppermint, Marigold, Chamomile.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Red Clover, Boneset, Yarrow.

Maria Treben’s tea. Marigold 3; Nettles 1; Yarrow 1. Prepare: all teas, one heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. 1 cup freely.

Tinctures. Alternatives. (1) Combine, Echinacea 2; Poke root 1; Goldenseal 1. (2) Combine, Wild Indigo 2; Marigold 1; Myrrh quarter; Dose: as many drops as the age of the child, in a little water. (Adults: One 5ml teaspoon) Dose: 3-4 times daily.

Gargle and Mouthwash, where spots appear on mucous membranes: 5 drops Tincture Myrrh or Goldenseal (or combined), in warm water.

Topical. Aloe Vera. Evening Primrose oil. Oil from Vitamin E capsule. Wash with distilled extract Witch Hazel, Lavender water, or Chamomile tea.

Cayenne. Pinch Cayenne in teas, or few drops Tincture Capsicum in tinctures heightens action.

Note: For restlessness add, equal parts, Skullcap or Chamomile. For severe itching, wash with potato water or Chamomile tea.

Diet. Commence 3-day fast, with herb teas and fruit juices only. Vitamins A and C. Carrot juice.

High Temperature. If serious: tinctures – Pleurisy root 1; Lobelia 1; Catnep 2; Valerian 1. One 5ml teaspoon every 2 hours. Reduced to thrice daily when temperature abates.

Patients suffer less itching if kept cool. ... chicken pox

a specific abnormality of chromosome 15 in which the individual suffers from recurrent infections, blisters on the hands and lips, and poor growth. Such children have a much higher than normal risk of developing cancer. [D. Bloom (20th century), US dermatologist]... bloom’s syndrome

a pathological condition of the cornea of the eye due to failure in the functioning of its endothelium. It results in corneal oedema, seen as small blisters in the cornea that cause blurring of vision. See Fuchs’ endothelial dystrophy.... bullous keratopathy

(acute vesicular eczema of the hands) n. a type of blistering *eczema affecting the palms and fingers. The thickness of the skin in these areas prevents the pinhead vesicles from breaking and eventually the skin peels after a period of intense itching. See pompholyx.... cheiropompholyx

 Redness and possible blistering caused by a sensitive substance such as chromium, nickel, other metals, rubber, paints, cosmetic materials, plants (primula), house dust mites, aerosols, deodorants, photocopying, dyes in clothing, etc. A patch test establishes diagnosis. A suspected irritant is applied to the skin and after two days its reaction is noted. If inflammation is present the test is positive. Symptoms may include vesicles with weeping, scaling, and presence of dropsy.

In a study of 612 patients attending the Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield, more than half of the women who had ears pierced reported skin reactions to metallic jewellery, while a third had sensitivity to nickel. (British Journal of Dermatology, Jan 1992)

Treatment. Remove article or cause of irritation. Garlic is claimed to be successful, either in diet or by capsule when the condition is caused by histamines. Other agents: Betony, Burdock leaves, Chickweed, Dandelion, Figwort, Gotu Kola, Plantain, Red Clover.

Internal. Burdock tea. Clivers tea.

Tablets/capsules. Garlic, Devil’s Claw, Blue Flag.

Topical. Avoid use of Calamine, if possible. Creams or salves: Aloe Vera, Comfrey, Evening Primrose, Witch Hazel, Jojoba. All are alternatives to corticosteroids.

Tamus (Black Bryony) tincture. Distilled extract of Witch Hazel. ... dermatitis, contact

 Red inflammation of the skin with blisters. Not eczema. Common cause: gluten, as present in cereals barley, oats, rye, wheat.

Alternatives. Teas. Betony, Burdock, Elderflowers, German Chamomile, Hops, Gotu Kola, Mullein, Plantain, Red Clover, Valerian.

Tea formula. Equal parts, Mullein, Red Clover, Valerian. Mix. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; 1 cup thrice daily.

Tablets/capsules. Blue Flag, Dandelion, Devil’s Claw, Echinacea, Poke root, Red Clover, Seaweed and Sarsaparilla, Valerian.

Powders. Formula. Equal parts: Burdock root, Dandelion root, Valerian root. Two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon thrice daily, (500mg).

Liquid extracts or tinctures. Formula. Chickweed 10ml; Poke root 5ml; Meadowsweet 10ml; Valerian 10ml. Dose: liquid extracts, one 5ml teaspoon; tinctures, two 5ml teaspoons. Thrice daily in water. Topical. Apply dilute Tea Tree oil 3-4 times daily. Witch Hazel, Aloe Vera, Vitamin E cream, Evening Primrose oil, or Marshmallow and Slippery Elm ointment. Bran bath.

Diet. Gluten-free.

DERMATITIS, LIGHT. Photo dermatitis. Reddening and blistering of the skin on exposure to sunlight.

See: SUNBURN. ... dermatitis, herpetiformis

n. 1. the outbreak of a rash. A bullous eruption is an outbreak of blisters. 2. (in dentistry) the emergence of a growing tooth from the gum into the mouth.... eruption

a nematode worm, Dracunculus medinensis, that is a parasite of humans. The white threadlike adult female, 60–120 cm long, lives in the connective tissues beneath the skin. It releases its larvae into a large blister on the legs or arms; when the limbs are immersed in water the larvae escape and are subsequently eaten by tiny water fleas (Cyclops), inside which their development continues. The disease *dracontiasis results from drinking water contaminated with Cyclops.... guinea worm

a self-limiting disease, mainly affecting young children, caused by *Coxsackie virus A16. A feeling of mild illness is accompanied by mouth ulcers and blisters on the hands and feet.... hand, foot, and mouth disease

(pemphigoid gestationis) a rare autoimmune condition (1 in 10,000–1 in 60,000 pregnancies) that usually starts in the second trimester with itching preceding a widespread *polymorphic eruption with vesicles and blisters. It is associated with *intrauterine growth restriction and preterm delivery.... pemphigoid gestationalis

n. an eruption of linear blisters occurring after exposure to light in people who have been in contact with certain plants, such as wild parsnip or cow parsley, to which they are sensitive. A particularly dramatic reaction occurs with giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum). The skin often appears brown as the blisters resolve.... phytophotodermatitis

n. a mixture of serum and pus, which forms, for example, in infected blisters.... seropus

adj. resembling a local infection with vaccinia (cowpox) virus. A vaccinoid reaction is one of the possible results of vaccination against smallpox in individuals who already have partial immunity. The swelling, reddening, and blistering are considerably less than the so-called primary reaction that occurs after the inoculation of a person with no immunity against smallpox.... vaccinoid

Cold sores, sensitive, cracked, blistered. Not to be confused with herpes simplex.

Causes: lowered resistance, menstrual disorders, constitutional weakness, shock, Vitamin C deficiency, food allergies.

Alternatives. Teas: Singly, or in equal parts combination: Red Clover. Gotu Kola, Plantain.

Decoctions: Echinacea, Burdock root, Yellow Dock root, Poke root.

Tablets/capsules. Echinacea. Poke root. Slippery Elm.

Tinctures. Formula. Equal parts: Echinacea, Red Clover, Gotu Kola. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily in water or honey.

Topical. Aloe Vera gel or fresh pulp. Houseleek juice. Chickweed ointment. Jojoba oil. Comfrey (moist). Witch Hazel (dry).

Aromatherapy. 3-5 drops of any one of the following oils in a heavy carrier oil (Avocado) to ensure penetration: Chamomile, Jasmine, Orange Blossom, Patchouli, Sandalwood.

Diet. See: DIET – SKIN DISORDERS.

Supplements. Vitamin A, B-complex, C (3-6g daily). Vitamin E (400iu morning and evening). Calcium, Biochemic silicea, Zinc. ... lips

A serious bacterial infection of livestock that occasionally spreads to humans. In humans, the most common form of the infection is cutaneous anthrax, which affects the skin. Another form, pulmonary anthrax, affects the lungs. Anthrax is caused by BACILLUS ANTHRACIS. This microorganism produces spores that can remain dormant for years in soil and animal products and are capable of reactivation. Animals become infected by grazing on contaminated land. People may become infected via a scratch or sore if they handle materials from infected animals. Pulmonary anthrax occurs as a result of inhaling spores from animal fibres.

In cutaneous anthrax, a raised, itchy, area develops at the site of entry of the spores, progressing to a large blister and finally a black scab, with swelling of the surrounding tissues.

This is treatable with penicillin in its early stages.

Without treatment, the infection may spread to lymph nodes and the bloodstream, and may be fatal.

Pulmonary anthrax causes severe breathing difficulty and is fatal in most cases.... anthrax

An inhaled corticosteroid drug used in the treatment of bronchial asthma to prevent asthma attacks. It is administered using an inhaler. Side effects of budesonide, which include hoarseness, throat irritation and, rarely, fungal infections, can be reduced by rinsing the mouth after administration.

’S

Buerger’s disease A rare disorder, also called thromboangiitis obliterans, in which the arteries, nerves, and veins in the legs, and sometimes those in the arms, become severely inflamed. Blood supply to the toes and fingers becomes cut off, eventually causing gangrene. The disease is most common in men under the age of 45 who smoke heavily. bulimia An illness that is characterized by bouts of overeating usually followed by self-induced vomiting or excessive laxative use. Most sufferers are girls or women between the ages of 15 and 30. In some cases, the symptoms coexist with those of anorexia nervosa. Repeated vomiting can lead to dehydration and loss of potassium, causing weakness and cramps, and tooth damage due to the gastric acid in vomit. Treatment includes supervision and regulation of eating habits, and sometimes, antidepressant drugs and/or psychotherapy. bulk-forming agent A substance that makes stools less liquid by absorbing water: a type of antidiarrhoeal drug. bulla A large air- or fluid-filled bubble, usually in the lungs or skin. Lung bullae in young adults are usually congenital. In later life, lung bullae develop in patients with emphysema. Skin bullae are large, fluid-filled blisters with a variety of causes, including the bullous disease pemphigus.... budesonide

Tissue damage resulting from contact with heat, electricity, chemicals or radiation. Burns are classified according to the severity of damage to the skin. A 1st-degree burn causes reddening of the skin and affects only the epidermis, the top layer of the skin. A 2nd-degree burn damages the skin more deeply, extending into the dermis and causing blister formation. A 3rd-degree burn destroys the full skin thickness and may extend to the muscle layer beneath the skin. Specialist treatment, and possibly skin grafts, is necessary for 3rd-degree burns. Electrical burns can cause extensive tissue damage with minimal external skin damage. A 2ndor 3rd-degree burn that affects more than 10 per cent of the body surface causes shock due to massive fluid loss.

A burn is covered with a non-stick dressing to keep the area moist. If necessary, analgesic drugs are given, and antibiotic drugs are prescribed if there is any sign of infection. For extensive 2nddegree burns, when there may be slow healing or a fear of infection, a topical antibacterial agent such as silver sulphadiazine is used. Skin grafts are used early in treatment to minimize scarring. 3rd-degree burns always require skin grafting. Extensive burns may require repeated plastic surgery.... burns

A common, mild infectious disease (also called varicella) occurring in childhood and characterized by a rash and slight fever.

In adults, chickenpox is rare but usually more severe.

An attack gives lifelong immunity, but the virus remains dormant in nerves and may reappear later in life to cause herpes zoster (shingles).

The cause of chickenpox is the varicella-zoster virus, which is spread in airborne droplets.

A widespread rash develops 2–3 weeks after infection, consisting of clusters of small, red, itchy spots that become fluid-filled blisters within a few hours.

After several days the blisters dry out to form scabs.

Scratching the blisters can lead to secondary infection and scarring.

Paracetamol helps reduce fever and calamine lotion may be used to relieve itching.

In severe cases, aciclovir (an antiviral drug) may be prescribed.... chickenpox

A small skin blister, usually around the mouth, commonly caused by a strain of the herpes simplex virus called HSV1 (herpes simplex virus type 1). The first attack of the virus may be symptomless or may cause a flu-like illness with painful mouth and lip ulcers called gingivostomatis. The virus then lies dormant in nerve cells, but may occasionally be reactivated and cause cold sores. Reactivation may occur after exposure to hot sunshine or a cold wind, during a common cold or other infection, or in women around the time of their menstrual periods. Prolonged attacks can occur in people with reduced immunity to infection due to illness or treatment with immunosuppressant drugs.

In many cases, an outbreak of cold sores is preceded by tingling in the lips, followed by the formation of small blisters that enlarge, causing itching and soreness. Within a few days they burst and become encrusted. Most disappear within a week. The antiviral drug aciclovir in a cream may prevent cold sores if used at the first sign of tingling.... cold sore

Acute inflammation of the skin, and sometimes of the mucous membranes. The disease can occur as a reaction to certain drugs, or may accompany viral infections such as herpes simplex or bacterial infections such as streptococcal infections. Other possible causes are pregnancy, vaccination, and radiotherapy. Half of all cases occur for no apparent reason.

A symmetrical rash of red, often itchy spots erupts on the limbs and sometimes on the face and the rest of the body. The spots may blister or form raised, pale-centred weals, called target lesions. Those affected may have a fever, sore throat, headache, and/or diarrhoea. In a severe form of erythema multiforme, known as Stevens–Johnson syndrome, the mucous membranes of the mouth, eyes, and genitals are affected and become ulcerated.

Corticosteroid drugs may be given to reduce the inflammation. People with Stevens–Johnson syndrome are also given analgesic drugs and may need intensive care.... erythema multiforme

A tropical disease caused by a female parasitic worm more than 1 m long. Infection is the result of drinking water containing the water flea cyclops, which harbours larvae of the worm. The larvae pass through the intestine and mature in body tissues. After about a year, the adult female worm, now pregnant, approaches the skin surface and creates an inflamed blister that bursts, exposing the end of the worm. Urticaria, nausea, and diarrhoea often develop while the blister is forming. The disease occurs in Africa, South America, the Caribbean, Middle East, and India.

The traditional remedy is to wind the worm from the skin on to a small stick. Once the worm is out, the condition usually clears up. The drugs tiabendazole and niridazole are given to reduce inflammation, antibiotics are given to control secondary infection, and the patient is immunized against tetanus.... guinea worm disease

A common viral infection, characterized by small, fluid-filled blisters. Herpes simplex infections are contagious and usually spread by direct contact. The virus has 2 forms, HSV1 (herpes simplex virus, type 1) and HSV2 (herpes simplex virus, type 2).

Most people are infected with HSV1 at some point in their lives, usually during childhood. The initial infection may be symptomless, or may cause a flu-like illness with mouth ulcers. Thereafter, the virus remains dormant in nerve cells in the facial area. In many people, the virus is periodically reactivated, causing cold sores. Rarely, the virus infects the fingers, causing a painful eruption called a herpetic whitlow. HSV1 may produce eczema herpeticum (an extensive rash of skin blisters) in a person with a preexisting skin disorder, such as eczema. Eczema herpeticum may require hospital admission. If the virus gets into an eye, it may cause conjunctivitis or a corneal ulcer. Rarely, HSV1 spreads to the brain, leading to encephalitis. The virus may cause a potentially fatal generalized infection in a person with an immunodeficiency disorder or in someone taking immunosuppressant drugs. HSV2 is the usual cause of sexually transmitted genital herpes (see herpes, genital).

Treatment of herpes simplex depends on its type, site, and severity.

Antiviral drugs, such as aciclovir, may be helpful, particularly if used early in an infection.... herpes simplex

A potentially fatal nutritional disorder caused by deficiency of niacin (see vitamin B complex) and resulting in dermatitis, diarrhoea, and dementia. Pellagra occurs primarily in poor rural communities in parts of the world, such

as areas of India, where people subsist on maize. Most of the niacin in maize is unabsorbable unless the maize is treated with an alkali such as limewater. Disorders such as carcinoid syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease may also be a cause of pellagra.

The 1st symptoms are weakness, weight loss, lethargy, depression, irritability, and inflammation and itching of skin exposed to sunlight.

In acute attacks, weeping blisters may develop on the affected skin, and the tongue becomes swollen and painful.

Diagnosis is made from the patient’s condition and dietary history.

Daily intake of niacin and a varied diet usually bring about a cure.... pellagra

Treatment of cancer and, occasionally, some noncancerous tumours, by X-rays or other radiation. Radioactive sources produce ionizing radiation, which destroys or slows down the development of abnormal cells. Normal cells suffer little or no longterm damage, but short-term damage is a side effect.Radiotherapy may be used on its own in an attempt to destroy all the abnormal cells in various types of cancer, such as squamous cell carcinoma and Hodgkin’s disease. It may also be used with other cancer treatments. Surgical excision of a cancerous tumour is often followed by radiotherapy to destroy any remaining tumour cells. Radiotherapy may also be used to relieve the symptoms of a cancer that is too advanced to be cured.

If benefits outweigh risks, radiotherapy may be used to treat noncancerous diseases; for example, part of an overactive thyroid gland (see thyrotoxicosis) may be destroyed using radioactive iodine.

Radiotherapy is usually performed on an outpatient basis. X-rays (or sometimes electrons) produced by a machine called a linear accelerator are aimed at the tumour from many directions. This produces a large enough dose of radiation to destroy the tumour. Alternatively, a source of radiation, in the form of tiny pellets, is inserted into the tumour through a hollow needle (see interstitial radiotherapy) or into a body cavity (see intracavitary therapy). Radioactive iodine used to treat thyrotoxicosis is given in liquid form and drunk through a straw.

There may be unpleasant side effects, including fatigue, nausea and vomiting, and loss of hair from irradiated areas. Rarely, there may be reddening and blistering of the skin.... radiotherapy

A group of spots or an area of red, inflamed skin. A rash is usually temporary and is only rarely a sign of a serious underlying problem. It may be accompanied by itching or fever.

Rashes are classified according to whether they are localized (affecting a small area of skin) or generalized (covering the entire body), and the type of spots. A bullous rash has large blisters, a vesicular rash has small blisters, and a pustular one has pus-filled blisters. A macular rash consists of spots level with the surrounding skin and discernible from it by a difference in colour or texture. Nodular and papular rashes are composed of small, raised bumps.

Rashes are the main sign of many infectious diseases (such as chickenpox), and are a feature of many skin disorders, such as eczema and psoriasis. They may also indicate an underlying medical problem, such as the rashes of scurvy or pellagra, which are caused by vitamin deficiency. The rashes of urticaria or contact dermatitis may be caused by an allergic reaction. Drug reactions, particularly to antibiotic drugs, are a common cause of rashes.

A diagnosis is based on the appearance and distribution of the rash, the presence of any accompanying symptoms, and the possibility of allergy (for example, to drugs). Any underlying cause is treated if possible. An itching rash may be relieved by a lotion, such as calamine, or an antihistamine drug.... rash

An illusion that one or one’s surroundings are spinning. Vertigo is due to a disturbance of the semicircular canals in the inner ear or the nerve tracts leading from them. Sudden-onset vertigo is treated with rest and antihistamine drugs, which, in some cases, are also given to prevent recurrent attacks.vesicle A small blister, usually filled with clear fluid, that forms at a site of skin damage. The term is also used to refer to any small sac-like structure in the body. vestibule A chamber. The vestibule in the inner ear is a hollow chamber that connects the 3 semicircular canals. vestibulitis Inflammation of the nasal vestibule (the part of the nasal cavity just inside the nostril), usually as a result of bacterial infection.... vertigo

n. tissue damage caused by such agents as heat, cold, chemicals, electricity, ultraviolet light, or nuclear radiation. A first-degree burn affects only the outer layer (epidermis) of the skin. In a second-degree burn both the epidermis and the underlying dermis are damaged. A third-degree burn involves damage or destruction of the skin to its full depth and damage to the tissues beneath. Burns cause swelling and blistering, due to loss of plasma from damaged blood vessels. In serious burns, affecting 15% or more of the body surface in adults (10% or more in children), this loss of plasma results in severe *shock and requires immediate transfusion of blood or saline solution. Burns may also lead to bacterial infection, which can be prevented by administration of antibiotics. Third-degree burns may require skin grafting. Small burns, or scars of previous burns, may be vital evidence of *child abuse.

burning mouth syndrome (BMS) a disorder characterized by a burning sensation in the mouth for which there is no obvious medical or dental cause. Other symptoms may include thirst, sore throat, and an unpleasant taste. BMS occurs most commonly in older females and may be related to menopause, stress, or vitamin deficiencies.... burn

n. a tropical disease caused by the parasitic nematode Dracunculus medinensis (see guinea worm) in the tissues beneath the skin. The disease is transmitted to humans via contaminated drinking water. The initial symptoms, which appear a year after infection, result from the migration of the worm to the skin surface and include itching, giddiness, difficulty in breathing, vomiting, and diarrhoea. Later a large blister forms on the skin, usually on the legs or arms, which eventually bursts and may ulcerate and become infected. Dracontiasis is common in India and West Africa but also occurs in Arabia, Iran, East Africa, and Afghanistan. Treatment involves extracting the worm or administering anthelmintics.... dracontiasis

n. an acute infectious virus disease causing high fever and a rash that scars the skin. It is transmitted chiefly by direct contact with a patient. Symptoms commence 8–18 days after exposure and include headache, backache, high fever, and vomiting. On the third day, as the fever subsides, red spots appear on the face and spread to the trunk and extremities. Over the next 8–9 days all the spots (macules) change to pimples (papules), then to pea-sized blisters that are at first watery (vesicles) but soon become pus-filled (pustules). The fever returns, often causing delirium. On the eleventh or twelfth day the rash and fever abate. Scabs formed by drying out of pustules fall off 7–20 days later, leaving permanent scars. The patient remains infectious until all scabs have been shed. Most patients recover but serious complications, such as nephritis or pneumonia, may develop. Treatment with thiosemicarbazone is effective. An attack usually confers immunity; immunization against smallpox has now totally eradicated the disease. Medical name: variola. See also alastrim; cowpox.... smallpox

Brassica nigra

FAMILY: Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)

SYNONYMS: Sinapsis nigra, B. sinapioides, black mustard.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect annual up to 3 metres high, with spear-shaped upper leaves, smooth flat pods containing about ten dark brown seeds, and bright yellow cabbage-like flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout south eastern Europe, southern Siberia, Asia Minor and North Africa; naturalized in North and South America. Cultivated for its seed and oil in England, Holland, Denmark, Germany and Italy.

OTHER SPECIES: The Russian variety is known as brown mustard or ‘sarepta’ (B. juncea); the white mustard (B. alba) does not contain any essential oil. Also closely related is rape (B. napus) and other local species which are used in India and China.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The seeds are highly esteemed as a condiment and for their medicinal qualities. They have been used in the East and West to aid the digestion, warm the stomach and promote the appetite, and for cold, stiff or feverish conditions such as colds, chills, coughs, chilblains, rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago and general aches and pains.

ACTIONS: Aperitif, antimicrobial, antiseptic, diuretic, emetic, febrifuge, rubefacient (produces blistering of the skin), stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the black mustard seeds, which have been macerated in warm water.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sharp, penetrating, acrid odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Allyl isothiocyanate (99 per cent). NB: Black mustard seed or powder does not contain this constituent, which is only formed by contact with water during the production of the essential oil.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin, dermal toxin, mucous membrane irritant. It is considered one of the most toxic of all essential oils.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘It should not be used in therapy either externally or internally.’.

OTHER USES: Used in certain rubefacient or counter-irritant liniments. Used extensively by the food industry especially in pickles, seasonings and sauces. Little used as a fragrance component except in cat and dog repellents.... mustard

Abies balsamea

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: A. balsamifera, Pinus balsamea, balsam fir, balsam tree, American silver fir, balm of Gilead fir, Canada turpentine (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, graceful evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with a tapering trunk and numerous branches giving the tree an overall shape of a perfect cone. It forms blisters of oleoresin (the so-called ‘balsam’) on the trunk and branches, produced from special vesicles beneath the bark. The tree does not produce a ‘true’ balsam, since it does not contain benzoic or cinnamic acid in its esters; it is really an oleoresin, being a mixture of resin and essential oil.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, particularly Quebec, Nova Scotia and Maine.

OTHER SPECIES: The hemlock spruce (Tsuga canadensis) also yields an exudation sold under the name of ‘Canada balsam’. There are also many other species of fir which produce oils from their needles – see entry on silver fir and Botanical Classification section. NB: Not to be confused with the genuine balsam of Gilead (Commiphora opabalsamum), of ancient repute.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oleoresin is used extensively by the American Indians for ritual purposes and as an external treatment for burns, sores, cuts and to relieve heart and chest pains. It is also used internally for coughs.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic (genito-urinary, pulmonary), antitussive, astringent, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, purgative, regulatory, sedative (nerve), tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: 1. The oleoresin is collected by punturing vesicles in the bark. 2. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin, known as Canada balsam or Canada turpentine. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the leaf or needles, known as fir needle oil.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oleoresin is a thick pale yellow or green honeylike mass which dries to crystal clear varnish, with a fresh sweet balsamic, almost fruity odour. 2. A colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, soft-balsamic, pinelike scent. It blends well with pine, cedarwood, cypress, sandalwood, juniper, benzoin and other balsams.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Consists almost entirely of monoterpenes, pinene, phellandrene, esters and alcohols.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. ‘In large doses it is purgative and may cause nausea.’4

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Burns, cuts, haemorrhoids, wounds.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs, sore throat.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, genito-urinary infections.

Nervous System: Depression, nervous tension, stress-related conditions – described as ‘appeasing, sedative, elevating, grounding, opening’.5

OTHER USES: The oil from the oleoresin is used in certain ointments and creams as an antiseptic and treatment for haemorrhoids. Used in dentistry as an ingredient in root canal sealers. Also used as a fixative or fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfurmes. There is some low-level use in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The oleoresin is used as a medium in microscopy and as a cement in glassware.... balsam, canadian

Juniperus sabina

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS: Sabina cacumina, savin (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A compact evergreen shrub about 1 metre high (though much taller in the Mediterranean countries), which tends to spread horizontally. It has a pale green bark becoming rough with age, small, dark green leaves and purplish-black berries containing three seeds.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, middle and southern Europe. The oil is produced mainly in Austria (the Tirol), a little in France and Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the common juniper (J. communis) and other members of the family – see juniper.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was used at one time as an ointment or dressing for blisters, in order to promote discharge, and for syphilitic warts and other skin problems. It is rarely administered nowadays because of its possible toxic effects.

ACTIONS: Powerful emmenagogue, rubefacient, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the twigs and leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive oily liquid with a disagreeable, bitter, turpentine-like odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Sabinol, sabinyl acetate, terpinene, pinene, sabinene, decyl aldehyde, citronellol, geraniol, cadinene and dihydrocuminyl alcohol.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin. Dermal irritant. Abortifacient. ‘The oil is banned from sale to the public in many countries due to its toxic effects (nerve poison and blood circulation stimulant).’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy, whether internally or externally.’.

OTHER USES: Occasional perfumery use. Little employed nowadays.... savine

Eucalyptus globulus var. globulus

FAMILY: Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS: Gum tree, southern blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum, fever tree, stringy bark.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A beautiful, tall, evergreen tree, up to 90 metres high. The young trees have bluish-green oval leaves while the mature trees develop long, narrow, yellowish leaves, creamy-white flowers and a smooth, pale grey bark often covered in a white powder.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia. Mainly cultivated in Spain and Portugal, also Brazil, California, Russia and China. Very little of this oil now comes from its native countries.

OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 different species of eucalyptus, of which at least 500 produce a type of essential oil. Many have been extracted simply for experimental purposes, and research is still being carried out with regard to the different constituents of each oil. In general, they can be divided into three categories. 1. The medicinal oils containing large amounts of cineol (or eucalyptol), such as the blue gum, but increasingly the blue malee (E. polybractea), the narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. australiana) and the gully gum (E. smithii). 2. The industrial oils containing mainly piperitone and phellandrene, such as the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita), grey peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra) and increasingly the broad-leaved peppermint (E. dives var. Type). 3. The perfumery oils containing mainly citronellal, such as the lemon-scented eucalyptus (E. citriodora). See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional household remedy in Australia, the leaves and oil are especially used for respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and croup, and the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco for asthma. It is also used for feverish conditions (malaria, typhoid, cholera, etc.) and skin problems like burns, ulcers and wounds. Aqueous extracts are used for aching joints, bacterial dysentery, ringworms, tuberculosis, etc. and employed for similar reasons in western and eastern medicine. The wood is also used for timber production in Spain.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, balsamic, cicatrisant, decongestant, deodorant, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hypoglycaemic, parasiticide, prophylactic, rubefacient, stimulant, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and young twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless mobile liquid (yellows on ageing), with a somewhat harsh camphoraceous odour and woody-sweet undertone. It blends well with thyme, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, pine, cedarwood and lemon. (The narrow-leaved eucalyptus (E. radiata var. australiana) is often used in preference to the blue gum in aromatherapy work, being rich in cineol but with a sweeter and less harsh odour.)

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (70–85 per cent), pinene, limonene, cymene, phellandrene, terpinene, aromadendrene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Externally non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. ‘When taken internally eucalyptus oil is toxic and as little as 3.5ml has been reported as fatal’..

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Burns, blisters, cuts, herpes, insect bites, insect repellent, lice, skin infections, wounds.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, etc.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea.

Immune System: Chickenpox, colds, epidemics, ’flu, measles.

Nervous System: Debility, headaches, neuralgia.

OTHER USES: The oil and cineol are largely employed in the preparation of liniments, inhalants, cough syrups, ointments, toothpaste and as pharmaceutical flavourings also used in veterinary practise and dentistry. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents and toiletries – little used in perfumes. Used for the isolation of cineol and employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories.... eucalyptus, blue gum

Melaleuca alternifolia

FAMILY: Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS: Narrow-leaved paperbark tea tree, ti-tree, ti-trol, melasol.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small tree or shrub (smallest of the tea tree family), with needle-like leaves similar to cypress, with heads of sessile yellow or purplish flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia. Other varieties have been cultivated elsewhere, but M. alternifolia is not produced outside Australia, mainly in New South Wales.

OTHER SPECIES: Tea tree is a general name for members of the Melaleuca family which exists in many physiological forms including cajeput (M. cajeputi) and niaouli (M. viridiflora), and many others such as M. bracteata and M. linariifolia – see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name derives from its local usage as a type of herbal tea, prepared from the leaves. Our present knowledge of the properties and uses of tea tree is based on a very long history of use by the aboriginal people of Australia. It has been extensively researched recently by scientific methods with the following results: ‘1. This oil is unusual in that it is active against all three varieties of infectious organisms: bacteria, fungi and viruses. 2. It is a very powerful immuno-stimulant, so when the body is threatened by any of these organisms ti-tree increases its ability to respond.’ .

ACTIONS: Anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, fungicidal, immuno-stimulant, parasiticide, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam or water distillation from the leaves and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-green or water-white mobile liquid with a warm, fresh, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, lavender, clary sage, rosemary, oakmoss, pine, cananga, geranium, marjoram, and spice oils, especially clove and nutmeg.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinene-4-ol (up to 30 per cent), cineol, pinene, terpinenes, cymene, sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene alcohols, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Abscess, acne, athlete’s foot, blisters, burns, cold sores, dandruff, herpes, insect bites, oily skin, rashes (nappy rash), spots, verrucae, warts, wounds (infected).

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, tuberculosis, whooping cough.

Genito-urinary system: Thrush, vaginitis, cystitis, pruritis.

Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious illnesses such as chickenpox.

OTHER USES: Employed in soaps, toothpastes, deodorants, disinfectants, gargles, germicides and, increasingly, in aftershaves and spicy colognes.... tea tree

Grindelia squarrosa

FAMILY: Asteraceae

SYNONYMS: Gumweed, hardy grindelia, gum plant, scaly grindelia, rosin weed, curlytop gumweed, curlycup gumweed, tarweed, resin-weed, sticky-heads.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A biennial or short-lived perennial up to one metre high with yellow, daisy-like flower heads, each with overlapping rows of backward-curling, bracts: squarrosa is Latin for ‘scaly or rough’, referring to these curling bracts. The leaves are dotted with resinous glands: thus many common names for Grindelia squarrosa, such as gumweed, refer to the gooey resin that they exude, which has a sweet incense-like scent. This white viscous gum may cover the entire bud top and flowers, which bloom in late summer from July to September. However, the dried flowering heads may persist for several years due to the preservative action of the gummy resin!

DISTRIBUTION: This plant is native to western North America and Mexico. It is naturalized in eastern North America and the Pacific Coast states: several species are also cultivated as ornamentals in Europe.

OTHER SPECIES: Grindelia comprises about 60 species: the name of the genus honours the Russian botanist, David Grindel. All are native to North and Central America and chiefly distributed in warm-temperate regions. Several species are used to produce essential oils, including G. oregana and G. robusta as well as G. squarrosa. All these oils were found to contain alpha-pinene, ?-pinene, limonene, borneol, bornyl acetate trans-pinocarveol and germacrene D as the main constituents and only showed small differences in chemical composition. However, menthol, menthone and pulegone were detected only in the essential oil of G. oregano.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Grindelia has been used as a traditional herbal remedy by indigenous cultures all over the Americas for centuries. The plant was harvested when in full bloom and used fresh as a poultice or herbal extract or dried for infusions etc. The herb was used by Great Plains Tribes mainly to treat respiratory problems, such as asthma, colic, coughs and bronchitis, especially among the aged; the leaves were smoked to relieve spasmodic asthma. Externally, the crushed flowers were used to make poultices, which was applied to burns, rashes, poison ivy, blisters, dermatitis, eczema, saddle sores and raw skin. The leaves and flowering tops was used to make an herbal tea used to relieve coughs and dizziness. The sticky sap was chewed as gum and herbal extracts were also used to treat rheumatic conditions. Spanish New Mexicans would also drink a tea made from boiling the flower buds in water, for treating kidney problems. The Eclectic School of Medicine used Grindelia externally to promote skin regrowth and to heal reluctant, persistent ulcers.

The medicinal value of this plant was not recognized by the orthodox practitioners of medicine in the US till the middle of the nineteenth century, after which it came into prominence as a major medicinal plant. Official recognition of Grindelia came with the introduction of the herb in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States in 1882. It is still listed in the U.S. Dispensatory, and is currently used by modern Americans in the treatment of colds, hay fever, nasal congestion, whooping cough, bronchial catarrh, asthma etc. It is current in the German Commission E for catarrh of the upper respiratory tract and the British Pharmacopoeia also lists the antispasmodic, expectorant and cardiac depressant properties of this herb. The positive effects of this herb on the relief of symptoms of common cold have been recognized empirically. Indeed recent studies have shown it to have good expectorant and antispasmodic as well as moderate anti-inflammatory and antibiotic effects. It also appears to aid allergenic attacks, not only by relieving the symptoms but in creating anti-bodies to reduce episodes and their severity. Secondary uses include the treatment of cystitis and fever, usually in combinations with other herbs. It is also indicated externally in lotion form for the treatment of eczema, dermatitis and rashes due to poison ivy, hives etc.

ACTIONS: Anti-asthmatic, antibacterial, antidepressant, antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, cooling, decongestant, emetic, expectorant, immune support, mucolytic, regenerative, sedative.

EXTRACTION: The essential oil is steam distilled from the flowering plant.

CHARACTERISTICS: A mobile liquid with a strong, earthy-herbaceous, medicinal and slightly camphoraceous odour. It blends well with eucalyptus, ravintsara, myrtle, pine, cypress and peru balsam.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Alpha-pinene (aprox. 25 per cent) is the major constituent, with ?-pinene, limonene, borneol, bornyl acetate and germacrene D. Data is lacking regarding the interaction of the chemistry of the aromatic resin and the volatile oils.

SAFETY DATA: No adverse effects have been reported in the literature regarding the safety of Grindelia in the case of therapeutic application. However, data is lacking regarding the essential oil specifically.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, blisters, cuts, eczema, dermatitis, rashes (hives etc), stretch marks, scars, ulcers, wounds and skin care generally.

Respiratory System: Aids breathing, asthma, catarrh, chronic colds, bronchitis, congestion, hay fever, fever, ’flu, sinusitis, sore throat, whooping cough.

Immune System: Supports the immune system.

Nervous System: Nervous tension, stress.

OTHER USES: A homeopathic remedy is prepared from the leaves and flowering stems. It is used by pharmaceutical companies in whooping cough and asthma drugs; also available as a tincture.... grindelia