a normal variant of crawling in which babies sit upright and move on their bottoms, usually by pulling forward on their heels. Babies who bottom-shuffle tend to walk slightly later. There is often a family history of bottom shuffling.
Habitat: Central and South India.
English: Rotang, Rattan, Chair Bottom Cane.Ayurvedic: Vetra, Abhrapushpa.Siddha/Tamil: Pirambu.Action: Astringent, antidiarrhoeal, anti-inflammatory (used in chronic fevers, piles, abdominal tumours, strangury), antibilious, spasmolytic. Wood—vermifuge.
The plant is used in convulsions and cramps. The presence of a saponin in the stem, an alkaloid in the leaves and a flavonoid in the root is reported.... calamus rotangContents The trachea divides into right and left main bronchi which go to the two LUNGS. The left lung is slightly smaller than the right. The right has three lobes (upper, middle and lower) and the left lung has two lobes (upper and lower). Each lung is covered by two thin membranes lubricated by a thin layer of ?uid. These are the pleura; similar structures cover the heart (pericardium). The heart lies in the middle, displaced slightly to the left. The oesophagus passes right through the chest to enter the stomach just below the diaphragm. Various nerves, blood vessels and lymph channels run through the thorax. The thoracic duct is the main lymphatic drainage channel emptying into a vein on the left side of the root of the neck. (For diseases affecting the chest and its contents, see HEART, DISEASES OF; LUNGS, DISEASES OF; CHEST, DEFORMITIES OF.)... chest
– the corpus callosum. Other clefts or ?ssures (sulci) make deep impressions, dividing the cerebrum into lobes. The lobes of the cerebrum are the frontal lobe in the forehead region, the parietal lobe on the side and upper part of the brain, the occipital lobe to the back, and the temporal lobe lying just above the region of the ear. The outer 3 mm of the cerebrum is called the cortex, which consists of grey matter with the nerve cells arranged in six layers. This region is concerned with conscious thought, sensation and movement, operating in a similar manner to the more primitive areas of the brain except that incoming information is subject to much greater analysis.
Numbers of shallower infoldings of the surface, called furrows or sulci, separate raised areas called convolutions or gyri. In the deeper part, the white matter consists of nerve ?bres connecting di?erent parts of the surface and passing down to the lower parts of the brain. Among the white matter lie several rounded masses of grey matter, the lentiform and caudate nuclei. In the centre of each cerebral hemisphere is an irregular cavity, the lateral ventricle, each of which communicates with that on the other side and behind with the third ventricle through a small opening, the inter-ventricular foramen, or foramen of Monro.
BASAL NUCLEI Two large masses of grey matter embedded in the base of the cerebral hemispheres in humans, but forming the chief part of the brain in many animals. Between these masses lies the third ventricle, from which the infundibulum, a funnel-shaped process, projects downwards into the pituitary body, and above lies the PINEAL GLAND. This region includes the important HYPOTHALAMUS.
MID-BRAIN or mesencephalon: a stalk about 20 mm long connecting the cerebrum with the hind-brain. Down its centre lies a tube, the cerebral aqueduct, or aqueduct of Sylvius, connecting the third and fourth ventricles. Above this aqueduct lie the corpora quadrigemina, and beneath it are the crura cerebri, strong bands of white matter in which important nerve ?bres pass downwards from the cerebrum. The pineal gland is sited on the upper part of the midbrain.
PONS A mass of nerve ?bres, some of which run crosswise and others are the continuation of the crura cerebri downwards.
CEREBELLUM This lies towards the back, underneath the occipital lobes of the cerebrum.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA The lowest part of the brain, in structure resembling the spinal cord, with white matter on the surface and grey matter in its interior. This is continuous through the large opening in the skull, the foramen magnum, with the spinal cord. Between the medulla, pons, and cerebellum lies the fourth ventricle of the brain.
Structure The grey matter consists mainly of billions of neurones (see NEURON(E)) in which all the activities of the brain begin. These cells vary considerably in size and shape in di?erent parts of the brain, though all give o? a number of processes, some of which form nerve ?bres. The cells in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, for example, are very numerous, being set in layers ?ve or six deep. In shape these cells are pyramidal, giving o? processes from the apex, from the centre of the base, and from various projections elsewhere on the cell. The grey matter is everywhere penetrated by a rich supply of blood vessels, and the nerve cells and blood vessels are supported in a ?ne network of ?bres known as neuroglia.
The white matter consists of nerve ?bres, each of which is attached, at one end, to a cell in the grey matter, while at the other end it splits up into a tree-like structure around another cell in another part of the grey matter in the brain or spinal cord. The ?bres have insulating sheaths of a fatty material which, in the mass, gives the white matter its colour; they convey messages from one part of the brain to the other (association ?bres), or, grouped into bundles, leave the brain as nerves, or pass down into the spinal cord where they end near, and exert a control upon, cells from which in turn spring the nerves to the body.
Both grey and white matter are bound together by a network of cells called GLIA which make up 60 per cent of the brain’s weight. These have traditionally been seen as simple structures whose main function was to glue the constituents of the brain together. Recent research, however, suggests that glia are vital for growing synapses between the neurons as they trigger these cells to communicate with each other. So they probably participate in the task of laying down memories, for which synapses are an essential key. The research points to the likelihood that glial cells are as complex as neurons, functioning biochemically in a similar way. Glial cells also absorb potassium pumped out by active neurons and prevent levels of GLUTAMATE – the most common chemical messenger in the brain – from becoming too high.
The general arrangement of ?bres can be best understood by describing the course of a motor nerve-?bre. Arising in a cell on the surface in front of the central sulcus, such a ?bre passes inwards towards the centre of the cerebral hemisphere, the collected mass of ?bres as they lie between the lentiform nucleus and optic thalamus being known as the internal capsule. Hence the ?bre passes down through the crus cerebri, giving o? various small connecting ?bres as it passes downwards. After passing through the pons it reaches the medulla, and at this point crosses to the opposite side (decussation of the pyramids). Entering the spinal cord, it passes downwards to end ?nally in a series of branches (arborisation) which meet and touch (synapse) similar branches from one or more of the cells in the grey matter of the cord (see SPINAL CORD).
BLOOD VESSELS Four vessels carry blood to the brain: two internal carotid arteries in front, and two vertebral arteries behind. These communicate to form a circle (circle of Willis) inside the skull, so that if one is blocked, the others, by dilating, take its place. The chief branch of the internal carotid artery on each side is the middle cerebral, and this gives o? a small but very important branch which pierces the base of the brain and supplies the region of the internal capsule with blood. The chief importance of this vessel lies in the fact that the blood in it is under especially high pressure, owing to its close connection with the carotid artery, so that haemorrhage from it is liable to occur and thus give rise to stroke. Two veins, the internal cerebral veins, bring the blood away from the interior of the brain, but most of the small veins come to the surface and open into large venous sinuses, which run in grooves in the skull, and ?nally pass their blood into the internal jugular vein that accompanies the carotid artery on each side of the neck.
MEMBRANES The brain is separated from the skull by three membranes: the dura mater, a thick ?brous membrane; the arachnoid mater, a more delicate structure; and the pia mater, adhering to the surface of the brain and containing the blood vessels which nourish it. Between each pair is a space containing ?uid on which the brain ?oats as on a water-bed. The ?uid beneath the arachnoid membrane mixes with that inside the ventricles through a small opening in the fourth ventricle, called the median aperture, or foramen of Magendie.
These ?uid arrangements have a great in?uence in preserving the brain from injury.... divisions
(1) the external ear, consisting of the auricle on the surface of the head, and the tube which leads inwards to the drum; (2) the middle ear, separated from the former by the tympanic membrane or drum, and from the internal ear by two other membranes, but communicating with the throat by the Eustachian tube; and (3) the internal ear, comprising the complicated labyrinth from which runs the vestibulocochlear nerve into the brain.
External ear The auricle or pinna consists of a framework of elastic cartilage covered by skin, the lobule at the lower end being a small mass of fat. From the bottom of the concha the external auditory (or acoustic) meatus runs inwards for 25 mm (1 inch), to end blindly at the drum. The outer half of the passage is surrounded by cartilage, lined by skin, on which are placed ?ne hairs pointing outwards, and glands secreting a small amount of wax. In the inner half, the skin is smooth and lies directly upon the temporal bone, in the substance of which the whole hearing apparatus is enclosed.
Middle ear The tympanic membrane, forming the drum, is stretched completely across the end of the passage. It is about 8 mm (one-third of an inch) across, very thin, and white or pale pink in colour, so that it is partly transparent and some of the contents of the middle ear shine through it. The cavity of the middle ear is about 8 mm (one-third of an inch) wide and 4 mm (one-sixth of an inch) in depth from the tympanic membrane to the inner wall of bone. Its important contents are three small bones – the malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup) – collectively known as the auditory ossicles, with two minute muscles which regulate their movements, and the chorda tympani nerve which runs across the cavity. These three bones form a chain across the middle ear, connecting the drum with the internal ear. Their function is to convert the air-waves, which strike upon the drum, into mechanical movements which can affect the ?uid in the inner ear.
The middle ear has two connections which are of great importance as regards disease (see EAR, DISEASES OF). In front, it communicates by a passage 37 mm (1.5 inches) long – the Eustachian (or auditory) tube – with the upper part of the throat, behind the nose; behind and above, it opens into a cavity known as the mastoid antrum. The Eustachian tube admits air from the throat, and so keeps the pressure on both sides of the drum fairly equal.
Internal ear This consists of a complex system of hollows in the substance of the temporal bone enclosing a membranous duplicate. Between the membrane and the bone is a ?uid known as perilymph, while the membrane is distended by another collection of ?uid known as endolymph. This membranous labyrinth, as it is called, consists of two parts. The hinder part, comprising a sac (the utricle) and three short semicircular canals opening at each end into it, is the part concerned with the balancing sense; the forward part consists of another small bag (the saccule), and of a still more important part, the cochlear duct, and is the part concerned with hearing. In the cochlear duct is placed the spiral organ of Corti, on which sound-waves are ?nally received and by which the sounds are communicated to the cochlear nerve, a branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve, which ends in ?laments to this organ of Corti. The essential parts in the organ of Corti are a double row of rods and several rows of cells furnished with ?ne hairs of varying length which respond to di?ering sound frequencies.
The act of hearing When sound-waves in the air reach the ear, the drum is alternately pressed in and pulled out, in consequence of which a to-and-fro movement is communicated to the chain of ossicles. The foot of the stapes communicates these movements to the perilymph. Finally these motions reach the delicate ?laments placed in the organ of Corti, and so affect the auditory nerve, which conveys impressions to the centre in the brain.... ear
Method: Place Hops and Ginger in a muslin bag. Immerse bag in water and boil until it sinks to bottom of the vessel. Remove bag. Add sugar. Bring to boil and simmer two minutes. Strain when warm. Spread yeast on piece of well toasted bread and float on surface of the liquor. Allow to stand 3 days. Bottle. Ready for use in 2-3 weeks. ... beer
Malpresentation includes breech presentation (in which the baby’s bottom appears first), face presentation, and shoulder presentation (in which the baby is lying across the uterus).
Breech presentations are the most common.
A breech baby may be born by breech delivery or caesarean section.
A shoulder presentation baby usually requires a caesarean section.... malpresentation
Structure Each tooth is composed of enamel, dentine, cement, pulp and periodontal membrane. ENAMEL is the almost translucent material which covers the crown of a tooth. It is the most highly calci?ed material in the body, 96–97 per cent being composed of calci?ed salts. It is arranged from millions of long, six-sided prisms set on end on the dentine (see below), and is thickest over the biting surface of the tooth. With increasing age or the ingestion of abrasive foods the teeth may be worn away on the surface, so that the dentine becomes visible. The outer sides of some teeth may be worn away by bad tooth-brushing technique. DENTINE is a dense yellowish-white material from which the bulk and the basic shape of a tooth are formed. It is like ivory and is harder than bone but softer than enamel. The crown of the tooth is covered by the hard protective enamel and the root is covered by a bone-like substance called cement. Decay can erode dentine faster than enamel (see TEETH, DISORDERS OF – Caries of the teeth). CEMENT or cementum is a thin bone-like material which covers the roots of teeth and helps hold them in the bone. Fibres of the periodontal membrane (see below) are embedded in the cement and the bone. When the gums recede, part of the cement may be exposed and the cells die. Once this has happened, the periodontal membrane can no longer be attached to the tooth and, if su?cient cement is destroyed, the tooth-support will be so weakened that the tooth will become loose. PULP This is the inner core of the tooth and is
composed of a highly vascular, delicate ?brous tissue with many ?ne nerve-?bres. The pulp is very sensitive to temperature variation and to touch. If the pulp becomes exposed it will become infected and usually cannot overcome this. Root-canal treatment or extraction of the tooth may be necessary. PERIODONTAL MEMBRANE This is a layer of ?brous tissue arranged in groups of ?bres which surround and support the root of a tooth in a bone socket. The ?bres are interspersed with blood vessels and nerves. Loss of the membrane leads to loss of the tooth. The membrane can release and re-attach the ?bres to allow the tooth to move when it erupts, or (to correct dental deformities) is being moved by orthodontic springs.
Arrangement and form Teeth are present in most mammals and nearly all have two sets: a temporary or milk set, followed by a permanent or adult set. In some animals, like the toothed whale, all the teeth are similar; but in humans there are four di?erent shapes: incisors, canines (eye-teeth), premolars (bicuspids), and molars. The incisors are chisel-shaped and the canine is pointed. Premolars have two cusps on the crown (one medial to the other) and molars have at least four cusps. They are arranged together in an arch in each jaw and the
cusps of opposing teeth interdigitate. Some herbivores have no upper anterior teeth but use a pad of gum instead. As each arch is symmetrical, the teeth in an upper and lower quadrant can be used to identify the animal. In humans, the quadrants are the same: in other words, in the child there are two incisors, one canine and two molars (total teeth 20); in the adult there are two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three molars (total 32). This mixture of tooth-form suggests that humans are omnivorous. Anatomically the crown of the tooth has mesial and distal surfaces which touch the tooth next to it. The mesial surface is the one nearer to the centre line and the distal is the further away. The biting surface is called the incisal edge for the anterior teeth and the occlusal surface for the posteriors.
Development The ?rst stage in the formation of the teeth is the appearance of a down-growth of EPITHELIUM into the underlying mesoderm. This is the dental lamina, and from it ten smaller swellings in each jaw appear. These become bell-shaped and enclose a part of the mesoderm, the cells of which become specialised and are called the dental papillae. The epithelial cells produce enamel and the dental papilla forms the dentine, cement and pulp. At a ?xed time the teeth start to erupt and a root is formed. Before the deciduous teeth erupt, the permanent teeth form, medial to them. In due course the deciduous roots resorb and the permanent teeth are then able to push the crowns out and erupt themselves. If this process is disturbed, the permanent teeth may be displaced and appear in an abnormal position or be impacted.
Eruption of teeth is in a de?nite order and at a ?xed time, although there may be a few months’ leeway in either direction which is of no signi?cance. Excessive delay is found in some congenital disorders such as CRETINISM. It may also be associated with local abnormalities of the jaws such as cysts, malformed teeth and supernumerary teeth.
The usual order of eruption of deciduous teeth is:
Middle incisors 6–8 months Lateral incisors 8–10 months First molars 12–16 months Canines (eye-teeth) 16–20 months Second molars 20–30 months
The usual order of eruption of permanent teeth is:
First molars 6–7 years Middle incisors 6–8 years Lateral incisors 7–9 years Canines 9–12 years First and second premolars 10–12 years Second molars 11–13 years Third molars (wisdom teeth) 17–21 years
The permanent teeth of the upper (top) and lower (bottom) jaws.
Teeth, Disorders of
Teething, or the process of eruption of the teeth in infants, may be accompanied by irritability, salivation and loss of sleep. The child will tend to rub or touch the painful area. Relief may be obtained in the child by allowing it to chew on a hard object such as a toy or rusk. Mild ANALGESICS may be given if the child is restless and wakens in the night. A serious pitfall is to assume that an infant’s symptoms of ill-health are due to teething, as the cause may be more serious. Fever and ?ts (see SEIZURE) are not due to teething.
Toothache is the pain felt when there is in?ammation of the pulp or periodontal membrane of a tooth (see TEETH – Structure). It can vary in intensity and may be recurring. The commonest cause is caries (see below) when the cavity is close to the pulp. Once the pulp has become infected, this is likely to spread from the apex of the tooth into the bone to form an abscess (gumboil – see below). A lesser but more long-lasting pain is felt when the dentine is unprotected. This can occur when the enamel is lost due to decay or trauma or because the gums have receded. This pain is often associated with temperature-change or sweet foods. Expert dental advice should be sought early, before the decay is extensive. If a large cavity is accessible, temporary relief may be obtained by inserting a small piece of cotton wool soaked, for example, in oil of cloves.
Alveolar abscess, dental abscess or gumboil This is an ABSCESS caused by an infected tooth. It may be present as a large swelling or cause trismus (inability to open the mouth). Treatment is drainage of the PUS, extraction of the tooth and/or ANTIBIOTICS.
Caries of the teeth or dental decay is very common in the more a?uent countries and is most common in children and young adults. Increasing awareness of the causes has resulted in a considerable improvement in dental health, particularly in recent years; this has coincided with a rise in general health. Now more than half of ?ve-year-old children are caries-free and of the others, 10 per cent have half of the remaining carious cavities. Since the start of the National Health Service, the emphasis has been on preventive dentistry, and now edentulous patients are mainly found among the elderly who had their teeth removed before 1948.
The cause of caries is probably acid produced by oral bacteria from dietary carbohydrates, particularly re?ned sugar, and this dissolves part of the enamel; the dentine is eroded more quickly as it is softer (see TEETH – Structure). The exposed smooth surfaces are usually protected as they are easily cleaned during normal eating and by brushing. Irregular and overcrowded teeth are more at risk from decay as they are di?cult to clean. Primitive people who chew coarse foods rarely get caries. Fluoride in the drinking water at about one part per million is associated with a reduction in the caries rate.
Prolonged severe disease in infancy is associated with poor calci?cation of the teeth, making them more vulnerable to decay. As the teeth are formed and partly calci?ed by the time of birth, the diet and health of the mother are also important to the teeth of the child. Pregnant mothers and children should have a good balanced diet with su?cient calcium and vitamin
D. A ?brous diet will also aid cleansing of the teeth and stimulate the circulation in the teeth and jaws. The caries rate can be reduced by regular brushing with a ?uoride toothpaste two or three times per day and certainly before going to sleep. The provision of sweet or sugary juices in an infant’s bottle should be avoided.
Irregularity of the permanent teeth may be due to an abnormality in the growth of the jaws or to the early or late loss of the deciduous set (see TEETH – Development). Most frequently it is due to an imbalance in the size of the teeth and the length of the jaws. Some improvement may take place with age, but many will require the help of an orthodontist (specialist dentist) who can correct many malocclusions by removing a few teeth to allow the others to be moved into a good position by means of springs and elastics on various appliances which are worn in the mouth.
Loosening of the teeth may be due to an accident or in?ammation of the GUM. Teeth loosened by trauma may be replaced and splinted in the socket, even if knocked right out. If the loosening is due to periodontal disease, the prognosis is less favourable.
Discoloration of the teeth may be intrinsic or extrinsic: in other words, the stain may be in the calci?ed structure or stuck on to it. Intrinsic staining may be due to JAUNDICE or the antibiotic tetracycline. Extrinsic stain may be due to tea, co?ee, tobacco, pan (a mixture of chuna and betel nuts wrapped in a leaf), iron-containing medicines or excess ?uoride.
Gingivitis or in?ammation of the gum may occur as an acute or chronic condition. In the acute form it is often part of a general infection of the mouth, and principally occurs in children or young adults – resolving after 10–14 days. The chronic form occurs later in life and tends to be progressive. Various microorganisms may be found on the lesions, including anaerobes. Antiseptic mouthwashes may help, and once the painful stage is past, the gums should be thoroughly cleaned and any calculus removed. In severe conditions an antibiotic may be required.
Periodontal disease is the spread of gingivitis (see above) to involve the periodontal membrane of the tooth; in its ?orid form it used to be called pyorrhoea. In this, the membrane becomes damaged by the in?ammatory process and a space or pocket is formed into which a probe can be easily passed. As the pocket becomes more extensive, the tooth loosens. The loss of the periodontal membrane also leads to the loss of supporting bone. Chronic in?ammation soon occurs and is di?cult to eradicate. Pain is not a feature of the disease but there is often an unpleasant odour (halitosis). The gums bleed easily and there may be DYSPEPSIA. Treatment is largely aimed at stabilising the condition rather than curing it.
Dental abscess is an infection that arises in or around a tooth and spreads to involve the bone. It may occur many years after a blow has killed the pulp of the tooth, or more quickly after caries has reached the pulp. At ?rst the pain may be mild and intermittent but eventually it will become severe and a swelling will develop in the gum over the apex of the tooth. A radiograph of the tooth will show a round clear area at the apex of the tooth. Treatment may be by painting the gum with a mild counter-irritant such as a tincture of aconite and iodine in the early stages, but later root-canal therapy or apicectomy may be required. If a swelling is present, it may need to be drained or the o?ending teeth extracted and antibiotics given.
Injuries to teeth are common. The more minor injuries include crazing and the loss of small chips of enamel, and the major ones include a broken root and avulsion of the entire tooth. A specialist dental opinion should be sought as soon as possible. A tooth that has been knocked out can be re-implanted if it is clean and replaced within a few hours. It will then require splinting in place for 4–6 weeks.
Prevention of dental disease As with other disorders, prevention is better than cure. Children should be taught at an early age to keep their teeth and gums clean and to avoid re?ned sugars between meals. It is better to ?nish a meal with a drink of water rather than a sweetened drink. Fluoride in some of its forms is useful in the reduction of dental caries; in some parts of the UK natural water contains ?uoride, and in some areas where ?uoride content is low, arti?cial ?uoridation of the water supply is carried out. Overcrowding of the teeth, obvious maldevelopment of the jaw and persistent thumbsucking into the teens are all indications for seeking the advice of an orthodontist. Generally, adults have less trouble with decay but more with periodontal disease and, as its onset is insidious, regular dental inspections are desirable.... teeth
The bladder lies in the anterior half of the PELVIS, bordered in front by the pubis bone and laterally by the side wall of the pelvis. Superiorly the bladder is covered by the peritoneal lining of the abdomen. The bottom or base of the bladder lies against the PROSTATE GLAND in the male and the UTERUS and VAGINA in the female.... urinary bladder
Blood pressure is recorded by two readings on a sphygmomanometer with the aid of the traditional inflatable cuff. The top pressure is known as the systolic, the bottom as the diastolic. The systolic pressure occurs when the heart contracts, the diastolic when the heart relaxes and the volume of blood is at its lowest. A practitioner interprets the pressure of blood against the wall of the brachial artery in terms of millimetres.
In a healthy young person or middle-aged adult, average systolic pressure is 120, diastolic 80. They are recorded as 120/80. A pressure of 140/90 requires investigation while one of 160/95 is high and demands treatment. Average pressure at 50 is 135/80, over 65 – 165/85. Defined hypertension is a raised pressure on three consecutive readings.
The highest pressure peak is reached in the evening after a day’s work and the lowest, at night. Pressure may rise with stress when the heart responds by beating faster, or fall with physical or mental exhaustion when the heart slows down. Persistent high or low pressure is usually associated with other conditions which may require their own specific treatments: i.e. low – anaemia, high – kidney disease. See: HYPERTENSION. HYPOTENSION. ... blood pressure
BURSITIS. Tendinitis. Inflammation of a bursa – a soft-tissue elastic sac between bones that glide over one another, as in elbow and shoulder. Contains a little fluid, its purpose being to form a cushion against friction. In the knee-joint it is known as ‘housemaid’s knee’; over the hips as ‘weaver’s bottom’, joints becoming red, hot and painful.
Deposits of calcium may thicken walls and form a focus of pressure, causing pain. Relief comes when the swelling disperses or bursts. In the 60-70 age group rupture of tendons is a frequent cause. Bursitis accounts for two-thirds of shoulder pains. Neglected, it may progress to ‘frozen shoulder’ in later life. Teas. Celery seeds, Comfrey leaf, Nettles, Wintergreen.
Tablets/capsules. Prickly Ash, Lobelia, Wild Yam, Helonias.
Alternative formulae:– Powders. Turmeric 2; Prickly Ash 1; Cayenne quarter. Mix. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Liquid extracts. Equal parts: Black Cohosh, Devil’s Claw, Turmeric. Mix. Dose: 30-60 drops thrice daily.
Tinctures. White Willow bark 2; Prickly Ash bark 1; Wild Yam 1; Capsicum quarter. Mix. Dose: 2 teaspoons thrice daily.
Cider vinegar. 2-3 teaspoons to glass of water 2-3 times daily.
Topical. Apply strapping plaster to arrest swelling. See: FOMENTATIONS. POTATO. BRAN OR COMFREY ROOT POULTICE.
Aromatherapy. Cajeput, Chamomile, Origans, Rosemary. 6 drops of any one oil in 2 teaspoons Almond oil for massage.
Diet. See: DIET – GENERAL.
Supplements. Vitamin A. Vitamin C (3-4g). Vitamin E (400iu). Zinc 15mg.
General. Cold packs. Compression bandages. Gentle massage under the knee where knee joint is involved. For septic bursa add Echinacea to internal medication or apply ointment. For drainage, aspiration is sometimes necessary. Protect knees with knee-pads. Turmeric acquires reputation for relief. ... bush tea
Internal. Restricted dose: 10mg. Maximum daily dose: 30mg.
Historical. 1-2 drops on sugar 2-3 times daily, internally, to reduce troublesome sex-urge: priapism or nymphomania. Hourly, such doses were once classical treatment for cholera.
Liniment. 10 drops oil of Camphor to egg-cup Olive oil. Massage for relief of lumbago, fibrositis, neuralgia, chest and muscle pain.
Inhalant: Inhale the fumes for respiratory oppression with difficult breathing, heart failure, collapse, shock from injury, hypothermia, tobacco habit.
Camphor locket. A small square is sometimes hung in a small linen bag round the neck for prevention of infection, colds.
Camphorated oil: 1oz (30g) Flowers of Camphor to 4oz (125g) peanut oil. Dissolve in gentle heat. Camphor lotion. Dissolve teaspoon (4-6g) Camphor flowers in 4oz Cider vinegar.
GSL as restricted dose above.
Camphor Drops. At one time a bottle brandy with a knob of Camphor at the bottom was kept in every pantry to restore vitality and warmth to those suffering from exposure to cold and damp. One drop of the mixture in honey rapidly invigorates, imparts energy, and sustains the heart. A reaction is evoked almost immediately; it is harmlessly repeated hourly. Camphor should be given alone as it antidotes many drugs and other remedies. ... camphor
Causes: nappies sealed in plastic pants for hours on end. Eggs.
Seborrhoea is a common type.
Treatment. After soiling, the nappy area should be washed in warm water and powdered with cornflour (cornstarch); this may be used as a substitute for talcum powder for reducing friction. Nappy rash is rare in Greece where it is a mother’s habit to clean a baby’s soiled bottom with a stream of warm water from a mixer tap, holding the infant over the left arm in the washbasin, and washing with the right hand. Topical. Emollient herbal creams: Comfrey, Marshmallow, Chickweed, Slippery Elm, Aloe Vera, Marigold (Calendula). Evening Primrose oil. Zinc and Castor oil ointment. A paste made from Slippery Elm and teaspoon Vitamin E oil. Fresh juice of Plantain or Comfrey.
Tea Tree oil: 10 drops in glass warm water. Saturate handkerchief or sterile dressing and apply.
Diet. Slippery Elm gruel. Avoid eggs. ... nappy rash
Parkinson’s disease A neurological disorder that causes muscle tremor, stiffness, and weakness. The characteristic signs are trembling, rigid posture, slow movements, and a shuffling, unbalanced walk. The disease is caused by degeneration of, or damage to, cells in the basal ganglia of the brain, reducing the amount of dopamine (which is needed for control of movement). It occurs mainly in elderly people and is more common in men.
The disease usually begins as a slight tremor of 1 hand, arm, or leg, which is worse when the hand or limb is at rest. Later, both sides of the body are affected, causing a stiff, shuffling, walk; constant trembling of the hands, sometimes accompanied by shaking of the head; a permanent rigid stoop; and an unblinking, fixed expression. The intellect is unaffected until late in the disease.
There is no cure.
Drug treatment is used to minimize symptoms in later stages.
Levodopa, which the body converts into dopamine, is usually the most effective drug.
It may be used in combination with benserazide or carbidopa.
The effects of levodopa gradually wear off.
Drugs that may be used in conjunction with it, or as substitutes for it, include amantadine and bromocriptine.
Surgical operations on the brain are occasionally performed.
Untreated, the disease progresses over 10 to 15 years, leading to severe weakness and incapacity.
About one third of sufferers eventually develop dementia.... parity
In this type of test, a device called a phoropter is used to hold different lenses in front of each eye.
The lenses in the phoropter are changed until the letters near the bottom of the Snellen chart can be read.
Tests of visual field may also be performed to assess disorders of the eye and the nervous system.
Refraction tests can detect hypermetropia, myopia, or astigmatism; the effect of lenses on movements of light reflected from the eye is observed to calculate the corrective glasses or contact lenses needed.
If presbyopia is suspected, close-reading tests are used to assess accommodation.... vision tests
FAMILY: Nelumbonaceae (Nymphaeaceae)
SYNONYMS: N. komarovii, N. nucifera var. macrorhizomata, Nelumbium speciosum, Nymphaea nelumbo, Indian lotus, sacred lotus, pink lotus, bean of India, kamala and padma (Sanskrit).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The sacred lotus is a perennial aquatic plant with rhizomes that grow in the mud at the bottom of shallow ponds, lakes and marshes. Its large leaves, which rise above the water surface, can be up to 60 cm in diameter, with a 3-metre horizontal spread, while the showy flowers can be up to 20 cm in diameter. The beautiful pink, fragrant flowers are solitary, borne at or above the leaf level, with a brilliant yellow centre and white sepals. The fruits form a conical pod, with seeds contained in holes in the pod.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Greater India, the sacred lotus now occurs in the wild in warm-temperate to tropical regions throughout Asia, the Middle East and tropical Australia. It is common in China, Japan, Iran, Bhutan, India, Indonesia (Java), Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, New Guinea, Pakistan, Philippines, Russia (Far East), Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and north-west Australia. Introduced to Europe in 1787 as a ‘stove house water lily’ by Joseph Banks, today it is cultivated as an ornamental plant worldwide.
OTHER SPECIES: The family Nelumbonaceae has two important genera having aquatic species with attractive flowers i.e. the lotus, Nelumbo and water lily, Nymphea. The genus Nelumbo has only two species, N. nucifera (Indian or sacred lotus) and N. lutea (American lotus or yellow lotus).
The Egyptian blue lotus (Nymphaea caerulea) and the white sacred lotus of Egypt (Nymphaea lotus) are both members of the water lily family. These water lilies are indigenous to Egypt and their flowers are often depicted in Egypt’s ancient art. Remains of both blue and white water lily petals were found in the burial tomb of Ramesses II and sprinkled on the mummified body of Tutankhamun. The blue lotus is also mentioned in numerous Egyptian historical texts, mainly for its aphrodisiac, narcotic and euphoric properties. Both species are still cultivated in Egypt as well as in India and Indonesia today and are both used to produce absolutes, although these are rare and costly. Egyptians refer to both these flowers as ‘lotus’ so these two species are often confused with the ‘true’ lotus species.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Nelumbo nucifera has been in cultivation for more than 3,000 years, and has been grown not only for its cultural and ornamental value, but also for medicinal uses and for its edible seeds and rhizomes. In China, Japan and India, for example, the rhizomes are roasted, pickled, candied or sliced and fried as chips. A paste made from the nutlets is used as a filling in mooncakes (traditional Chinese pastries). The young leaves, leaf stalks and flowers are eaten as vegetables in India. The petals of the flower are used as a wrap for foods in Asia and the rhizome is a common ingredient in soups and stir-fries.
The sacred lotus has also been used as a medicinal herb for generations in Asia and its uses in contemporary medicine are virtually unchanged. Many parts of the plant are used: the leaf juices are used for diarrhoea and sunstroke when mixed with licorice; the flower is used for abdominal cramps, bloody discharges, bleeding gastric ulcers, excessive menstruation and post-partum haemorrhage; the flower stamens are used in urinary frequency, premature ejaculation and uterine bleeding; the fruit is used for agitation and fever; the seed has been shown to lower cholesterol levels and to relax the smooth muscle of the uterus and is used for poor digestion, chronic diarrhoea, insomnia, and palpitations. Various parts of the flower, including the petals are used for diarrhoea, cholera, liver conditions, bronchitis, skin eruptions, snake bites, and scorpion stings. The dried flowers are prepared into a syrup to treat coughs and the stamens are dried and made into a fragrant herbal tea. Practitioners of Ayurvedic medicine use lotus flowers for their soothing, cooling properties and they are often employed in skin care to improve the complexion. Oils from the lotus flower are said to have a calming influence on those suffering from fear, anxiety, insomnia or tremors, according to the principles of Ayurveda. A recent study has shown that oil extracted from the lotus flower might be effective in preventing greying hair.
Several bioactive compounds have been derived from these various plant parts belonging to different chemical groups, including alkaloids, flavonoids and glycosides which all have their own therapeutic impact. Both Nelumbo nucifera and Nymphaea caerulea contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine, which have a sedative effect; studies using isolated neferine (found only in N. nucifera), indicates it has potent antidepressant and sedative properties. Sacred lotus is also nutritious, containing vitamins B and C, protein, fat, carbohydrate, starch, moisture, sucrose, calcium, phosphorus, iron and ascorbic acid.
The lotus is of great significance to many Asian cultures, and in particular to the Eastern religions. From ancestral times, the idea of enlightenment has been symbolized by the life cycle of the sacred lotus plant, whose life starts humbly in the mud yet eventually produces exquisite, untainted flowers, showing the path of spiritual enfoldment. Thus the sacred lotus has a deep ritual meaning to Hindus and Buddhists alike, to whom the lotus flower symbolizes beauty, purity and divinity. Most deities of Asian religions are depicted as seated on a lotus flower. In Buddhist temples, lotus is burned in powdered form as ceremonial incense and the flowers are given as a sacred offering in many Eastern temples. A thread made from the leaf stalks is used for making oil-wicks for lamps in temples. Cloth woven from this yarn is believed to cure many ailments and is used to make Buddhist robes; lotus seeds are also used to make malas (strings of prayer beads). The sacred lotus is the national flower of India and Vietnam.
ACTIONS: Antibacterial, antimicrobial, antidepressant, anti-oxidant, refrigerant, rejuvenating, sedative, tonic (heart, immune system, nervous system), vasodilator.
EXTRACTION: An absolute by solvent extraction from fresh flowers. The CO2 extraction process achieves a cleaner end product that is true to the oil and is thicker than other extraction methods. This product is often adulterated or blended with other oils (see other uses).
CHARACTERISTICS: A viscous liquid with an intense rich, sweet-floral scent and a spicy-leathery undertone. It blends well with tuberose, jasmine, neroli, rose, gardenia and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The absolute (and oil) was found to be comprised mainly of palmitic acid methyl ester (22.66 per cent), linoleic acid methyl ester (11.16 per cent), palmitoleic acid methyl ester (7.55 per cent) and linolenic acid methyl ester (5.16 per cent) with myristic acid and oleic acid.
SAFETY DATA: Generally considered a safe oil.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Damaged, sensitive and mature skin: to improve the condition of uneven or tired looking skin as it helps regulate, soothe, illuminate and rejuvenate the tissue.
Immune system: Weak immunity.
Nervous system: Anxiety, depression, fear, insomnia, nervous debility and tension, mood swings, poor libido, stress.
OTHER USES: Lotus flower oil and absolute are used in perfumery in high-class floral compositions, such as ‘White Lotus’ by Kenzo and in cosmetics. However, the ‘lotus’ perfume component commonly available in the trade is actually a blend of patchouli, benzoin and styrax with phenylethyl and cinnamic alcohols.... lotus
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