Bronchioles Health Dictionary

Bronchus, or bronchial tube, is the name applied to tubes into which the TRACHEA divides, one going to either lung. The name is also applied to the divisions of these tubes distributed throughout the lungs, the smallest being called bronchioles.... bronchus

All the organs and tissues associated with the act of RESPIRATION or breathing. The term includes the nasal cavity (see NOSE) and PHARYNX, along with the LARYNX, TRACHEA, bronchi (see BRONCHUS), BRONCHIOLES and LUNGS. The DIAPHRAGM and other muscles, such as those between the RIBS, are also part of the respiratory system which is responsible for oxygenating the blood and removing carbon dioxide from it.... respiratory system

One of many small airways of the lungs.

Bronchioles branch from larger airways (bronchi) and subdivide into progressively smaller tubes before reaching the alveoli (see alveolus, pulmonary), where gases are exchanged.... bronchiole

An acute viral infection of the lungs, mainly affecting babies and young children, in which the bronchioles (the smaller airways branching off from the bronchi in the lungs) become inflamed. The most common cause is the respiratory syncytial virus (MSV).

Symptoms include rapid breathing, a cough, and fever. Sometimes no treatment is necessary but, in more severe cases, hospital admission is needed so that oxygen therapy and physiotherapy (to clear the mucus) can be given. With prompt treatment, sufferers usually recover within a few days. Antibiotic drugs may be prescribed to prevent any secondary bacterial infection.... bronchiolitis

One of the 2 main organs of the respiratory system. The lungs supply the body with the oxygen needed for aerobic metabolism and eliminate the waste product carbon dioxide. Air is delivered to the lungs via the trachea (windpipe); this branches into 2 main bronchi (air passages), with 1 bronchus supplying each lung. The main bronchi divide again into smaller bronchi and then into bronchioles, which lead to air passages that open out into grape-like air sacs called alveoli (see alveolus, pulmonary). Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse into or out of the blood through the thin walls of the alveoli. Each lung is enclosed in a double membrane called the pleura; thetwo layers of the pleura secrete a lubricating fluid that enables the lungs to move freely as they expand and contract during breathing. (See also respiration.) lung cancer The most common form of cancer in the. Tobacco-smoking is the main cause. Passive smoking (the inhalation of tobacco smoke by nonsmokers) and environmental pollution (for example, with radioactive minerals or asbestos) are also risk factors.

The first and most common symptom is a cough. Other symptoms include coughing up blood, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Lung cancer can spread to other parts of the body, especially the liver, brain, and bones. In most cases, the cancer is revealed in a chest X-ray. To confirm the diagnosis, tissue must be examined microscopically for the presence of cancerous cells (see cytology). If lung cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, pneumonectomy (removal of the lung) or lobectomy (removal of part of the lung) may be possible. Anticancer drugs and radiotherapy may also be used. lung, collapse of See atelectasis; pneumothorax.... lung

A term generally used to describe an adverse reaction by the body to any substance ingested by the affected individual. Strictly, allergy refers to any reactions incited by an abnormal immunological response to an ALLERGEN, and susceptibility has a strong genetic component. Most allergic disorders are linked to ATOPY, the predisposition to generate the allergic antibody immunoglobulin E (IgE) to common environmental agents (see ANTIBODIES; IMMUNOGLOBULINS). Because IgE is able to sensitise MAST CELLS (which play a part in in?ammatory and allergic reactions) anywhere in the body, atopic individuals often have disease in more than one organ. Since the allergic disorder HAY FEVER was ?rst described in 1819, allergy has moved from being a rare condition to one a?icting almost one in two people in the developed world, with substances such as grass and tree pollen, house-dust mite, bee and wasp venom, egg and milk proteins, peanuts, antibiotics, and other airborne environmental pollutants among the triggering factors. Increasing prevalence of allergic reactions has been noticeable during the past two decades, especially in young people with western lifestyles.

A severe or life-threatening reaction is often termed ANAPHYLAXIS. Many immune mechanisms also contribute to allergic disorders; however, adverse reactions to drugs, diagnostic materials and other substances often do not involve recognised immunological mechanisms and the term ‘hypersensitivity’ is preferable. (See also IMMUNITY.)

Adverse reactions may manifest themselves as URTICARIA, wheezing or di?culty in breathing owing to spasm of the BRONCHIOLES, swollen joints, nausea, vomiting and headaches. Severe allergic reactions may cause a person to go into SHOCK. Although symptoms of an allergic reaction can usually be controlled, treatment of the underlying conditon is more problematic: hence, the best current approach is for susceptible individuals to ?nd out what it is they are allergic to and avoid those agents. For some people, such as those sensitive to insect venom, IMMUNOTHERAPY or desensitisation is often e?ective. If avoidance measures are unsuccessful and desensitisation ine?ective, the in?ammatory reactions can be controlled with CORTICOSTEROIDS, while the troublesome symptoms can be treated with ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS and SYMPATHOMIMETICS. All three types of drugs may be needed to treat severe allergic reactions.

One interesting hypothesis is that reduced exposure to infective agents, such as bacteria, in infancy may provoke the development of allergy in later life.

Predicted developments in tackling allergic disorders, according to Professor Stephen Holgate writing in the British Medical Journal (22 January 2000) include:

Identi?cation of the principal environmental factors underlying the increase in incidence, to enable preventive measures to be planned.

Safe and e?ective immunotherapy to prevent and reverse allergic disease.

Treatments that target the protein reactions activated by antigens.

Identi?cation of how IgE is produced in the body, and thus of possible ways to inhibit this process.

Identi?cation of genes affecting people’s susceptibility to allergic disease.... allergy

This type of drug reduces the tone of smooth muscle in the lungs’ BRONCHIOLES and therefore increases their diameter. Such drugs are used in the treatment of diseases that cause bronchoconstriction, such as ASTHMA and BRONCHITIS. As bronchiolar tone is a balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity, most bronchodilators are either B2 receptor agonists or cholinergic receptor antagonists – although theophyllines are also useful.... bronchodilator

Linn.

Synonym: D. tatula Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: The Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim up to 2,700 m, hilly districts of Central and South India.English: Thornapple, Jimsonweed, Stramonium.Ayurvedic: Krishnadhattuura, Dhuurta (black seed var.), Unmatta, Kitav, Tuuri, Maatul, Madan.

Unani: Dhaturaa.

Action: Spasmolytic, antiasthmatic, anticholinergic, cerebral depressant, nerve-sedative. Controls spasms of bronchioles in asthma. Anticholinergic. Effects of overdose are similar to those of atropine. Temporary relief from Parkinsonian tremor recorded. (Contraindicated with depressant drugs.) Applied locally, stramonium palliates the pain of muscular rheumatism, neuralgia, also pain due to haemorrhoids, fistula, abscesses and similar inflammations. Prevents motion sickness.

Key application: In diseases of the autonomic nervous system. (Included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported antispasmodic action of the leaf; Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia accepted it as expectorant and antispasmodic. Whole plant contains 0.26% alkaloids (seeds 0.98% and stem 0.08%); also flavonoids, withanolides, cou- marins and tannins; the major alkaloid is hyoscyamine (44-67%), hyoscine (13.2-25.3%) and atropine (0.01-0.1%). The tropane alkaloids are similar to those found in Atropa belladonna. Hyoscine is five times as active as atropine in producing mydriasis, but its main use is as antimotion sickness drug; and in combination as a sedative.Toxic constituents include anti- cholinergic alkaloids.

Dosage: Leaf—60-185 mg powder; seed—60-120 mg powder (CCRAS.)

... datura stramonium

Gas exchange only occurs in the terminal parts of the pulmonary airways (see LUNGS). That portion of each breath that is taken into the lungs but does not take part in gas exchange is known as dead space. Anatomical dead space describes air in the airways up to the terminal BRONCHIOLES. Physiological dead space also includes gas in alveoli (air sacs) which are unable to take part in gas exchange because of structural abnormalities or disease.... dead space

The defense substance responsible for most inflammation. It is synthesized from the amino acid histidine and is secreted by mast cells, basophils, and blood platelets. It stimulates vasodilation, capillary permeability, muscle contraction of the bronchioles, secretions of a number of glands, and attracts eosinophils, the white blood cells that are capable of moderating the inflammation. Mast cell histamine release is what usually causes allergies.... histamine

This is a term encompassing chronic BRONCHITIS, EMPHYSEMA, and chronic ASTHMA where the air?ow into the lungs is obstructed.

Chronic bronchitis is typi?ed by chronic productive cough for at least three months in two successive years (provided other causes such as TUBERCULOSIS, lung cancer and chronic heart failure have been excluded). The characteristics of emphysema are abnormal and permanent enlargement of the airspaces (alveoli) at the furthermost parts of the lung tissue. Rupture of alveoli occurs, resulting in the creation of air spaces with a gradual breakdown in the lung’s ability to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide from it (see LUNGS). Asthma results in in?ammation of the airways with the lining of the BRONCHIOLES becoming hypersensitive, causing them to constrict. The obstruction may spontaneously improve or do so in response to bronchodilator drugs. If an asthmatic patient’s airway-obstruction is characterised by incomplete reversibility, he or she is deemed to have a form of COPD called asthmatic bronchitis; sufferers from this disorder cannot always be readily distinguished from those people who have chronic bronchitis and/ or emphysema. Symptoms and signs of emphysema, chronic bronchitis and asthmatic bronchitis overlap, making it di?cult sometimes to make a precise diagnosis. Patients with completely reversible air?ow obstruction without the features of chronic bronchitis or emphysema, however, are considered to be suffering from asthma but not from COPD.

The incidence of COPD has been increasing, as has the death rate. In the UK around 30,000 people with COPD die annually and the disorder makes up 10 per cent of all admissions to hospital medical wards, making it a serious cause of illness and disability. The prevalence, incidence and mortality rates increase with age, and more men than women have the disorder, which is also more common in those who are socially disadvantaged.

Causes The most important cause of COPD is cigarette smoking, though only 15 per cent of smokers are likely to develop clinically signi?cant symptoms of the disorder. Smoking is believed to cause persistent airway in?ammation and upset the normal metabolic activity in the lung. Exposure to chemical impurities and dust in the atmosphere may also cause COPD.

Signs and symptoms Most patients develop in?ammation of the airways, excessive growth of mucus-secreting glands in the airways, and changes to other cells in the airways. The result is that mucus is transported less e?ectively along the airways to eventual evacuation as sputum. Small airways become obstructed and the alveoli lose their elasticity. COPD usually starts with repeated attacks of productive cough, commonly following winter colds; these attacks progressively worsen and eventually the patient develops a permanent cough. Recurrent respiratory infections, breathlessness on exertion, wheezing and tightness of the chest follow. Bloodstained and/or infected sputum are also indicative of established disease. Among the symptoms and signs of patients with advanced obstruction of air?ow in the lungs are:

RHONCHI (abnormal musical sounds heard through a STETHOSCOPE when the patient breathes out).

marked indrawing of the muscles between the ribs and development of a barrel-shaped chest.

loss of weight.

CYANOSIS in which the skin develops a blue tinge because of reduced oxygenation of blood in the blood vessels in the skin.

bounding pulse with changes in heart rhythm.

OEDEMA of the legs and arms.

decreasing mobility.

Some patients with COPD have increased ventilation of the alveoli in their lungs, but the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide are normal so their skin colour is normal. They are, however, breathless so are dubbed ‘pink pu?ers’. Other patients have reduced alveolar ventilation which lowers their oxygen levels causing cyanosis; they also develop COR PULMONALE, a form of heart failure, and become oedematous, so are called ‘blue bloaters’.

Investigations include various tests of lung function, including the patient’s response to bronchodilator drugs. Exercise tests may help, but radiological assessment is not usually of great diagnostic value in the early stages of the disorder.

Treatment depends on how far COPD has progressed. Smoking must be stopped – also an essential preventive step in healthy individuals. Early stages are treated with bronchodilator drugs to relieve breathing symptoms. The next stage is to introduce steroids (given by inhalation). If symptoms worsen, physiotherapy – breathing exercises and postural drainage – is valuable and annual vaccination against INFLUENZA is strongly advised. If the patient develops breathlessness on mild exertion, has cyanosis, wheezing and permanent cough and tends to HYPERVENTILATION, then oxygen therapy should be considered. Antibiotic treatment is necessary if overt infection of the lungs develops.

Complications Sometimes rupture of the pulmonary bullae (thin-walled airspaces produced by the breakdown of the walls of the alveoli) may cause PNEUMOTHORAX and also exert pressure on functioning lung tissue. Respiratory failure and failure of the right side of the heart (which controls blood supply to the lungs), known as cor pulmonale, are late complications in patients whose primary problem is emphysema.

Prognosis This is related to age and to the extent of the patient’s response to bronchodilator drugs. Patients with COPD who develop raised pressure in the heart/lung circulation and subsequent heart failure (cor pulmonale) have a bad prognosis.... chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (copd)

An ANTICHOLINESTERASE drug which enhances neuromuscular transmission – the passage of chemical messages between nerve and muscle cells – in voluntary and involuntary muscles in patients with the disorder MYASTHENIA GRAVIS. Its e?ect lasts for about four hours. A disadvantage is that it has a marked cholinergic action – affecting heart rhythm, causing excessive salivation and tear secretion, constricting the BRONCHIOLES and stimulating the gastrointestinal tract.... neostigmine

A form of ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (ARDS) found in premature infants and some of those born by CAESAREAN SECTION, characterised by the onset of di?culty in breathing a few hours after birth. Most require extra oxygen and many need mechanical ventilation for a few days or even weeks. Recovery is the rule, although the most severely affected may die or suffer damage from oxygen lack. In this condition the ALVEOLITIS and the ?ner BRONCHIOLES of the lungs are lined with a dense membrane. The cause of the condition is a de?ciency of SURFACTANT in the lung passages which adversely affects gas exchanges in the alveoli.

Treatment includes the full gamut of neonatal intensive care, as well as speci?c therapy with PULMONARY SURFACTANT.... hyaline membrane disease

Positioned in the chest, the lungs serve primarily as respiratory organs (see RESPIRATION), also acting as a ?lter for the blood.

Form and position Each lung is a sponge-like cone, pink in children and grey in adults. Its apex projects into the neck, with the base resting on the DIAPHRAGM. Each lung is enveloped by a closed cavity, the pleural cavity, consisting of two layers of pleural membrane separated by a thin layer of ?uid. In healthy states this allows expansion and retraction as breathing occurs.

Heart/lung connections The HEART lies in contact with the two lungs, so that changes in lung volume inevitably affect the pumping action of the heart. Furthermore, both lungs are connected by blood vessels to the heart. The pulmonary artery passes from the right ventricle and divides into two branches, one of which runs straight outwards to each lung, entering its substance along with the bronchial tube at the hilum or root of the lung. From this point also emerge the pulmonary veins, which carry the blood oxygenated in the lungs back to the left atrium.

Fine structure of lungs Each main bronchial tube, entering the lung at the root, divides into branches. These subdivide again and again, to be distributed all through the substance of the lung until the ?nest tubes, known as respiratory bronchioles, have a width of only 0·25 mm (1/100 inch). All these tubes consist of a mucous membrane surrounded by a ?brous sheath. The surface of the mucous membrane comprises columnar cells provided with cilia (hair-like structures) which sweep mucus and unwanted matter such as bacteria to the exterior.

The smallest divisions of the bronchial tubes, or bronchioles, divide into a number of tortuous tubes known as alveolar ducts terminating eventually in minute sacs, known as alveoli, of which there are around 300 million.

The branches of the pulmonary artery accompany the bronchial tubes to the furthest recesses of the lung, dividing like the latter into ?ner and ?ner branches, and ending in a dense network of capillaries. The air in the air-vesicles is separated therefore from the blood only by two delicate membranes: the wall of the air-vesicle, and the capillary wall, through which exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) readily takes place. The essential oxygenated blood from the capillaries is collected by the pulmonary veins, which also accompany the bronchi to the root of the lung.

The lungs also contain an important system of lymph vessels, which start in spaces situated between the air-vesicles and eventually leave the lung along with the blood vessels, and are connected with a chain of bronchial glands lying near the end of the TRACHEA.... lungs

Auct. Non Linn.

Synonym: P. arvensis Willd.

Family: Polygalaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India and the Andamans.

English: Senega.

Folk: Meradu, Maraad, Negali (Maharashtra). Maraad (Nepal).

Action: Root—antiasthmatic; used as a substitute for Senega obtained from the American plant Polygala senega. (In Chinese medicine Senega refers to P. tenuifolia Willd.)

Key application: Senega Root— in productive cough, catarrh of the respiratory tract and chronic bronchitis. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.)

Senega yielded lactonic lignans, their glycosides and flavonol glycosides. The root gave arctiin, afzelin, myricitrin and rutin. A triterpenic saponin was also obtained from the plant. The root contains salicylic acid, methyl salicylate and senegin (a sapo- nin mixture).

Senega is used for chronic bronchitis, catarrh, asthma and croup, as an infusion.

Related species are: P. chinesis Linn., synonym P. glomerata Lour; P. tele- phioides Willd., synonym P. brachys- tachya DC. non-Bl., found throughout the plains of India. Both the plants are used as expectorant, antiasthmatic and anticatarrhal.

Toxic constituents of Polygala senega root are: triterpene saponins—6- 16% senegasaponins A-D with agly- cone presenegenin or senegin. Sapo- nins irritate GI tract mucosa and cause reflex secretion of mucous in the bronchioles.

A French patent is used against graft rejection, eczema and multiple sclerosis as an anti-inflammatory drug.... polygala chinensis

a branching system of tubes conducting air from the trachea (windpipe) to the lungs: includes the bronchi (see bronchus) and their subdivisions and the *bronchioles.... bronchial tree

(Decne) Sch.-Bip.

Synonym: S. costus (Falc.) Lipsch.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Garhwal at 25003,000 m; cultivated in Kashmir and neighbouring regions.

English: Kuth, Costus.

Ayurvedic: Kushtha, Kusht, Vaapya, Kaashmira, Gada, Rug, Ruk, Aamaya, Paalaka. (Substitute: Pushkara Muula, Inula racemosa.)

Unani: Qust.

Siddha/Tamil: Kostum, Kottam.

Folk: Sugandha-Kuutth.

Action: Root—antispasmodic, expectorant, carminative, astringent, antiseptic. An ingredient of prescriptions for dyspepsia, asthma, cough, chronic rheumatism, skin diseases. Applied locally to wounds and ulcerations. Powdered root, mixed with mustard oil, is applied to scalp in prurigo.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the root in cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea; erysipelas and gout.

The root (containing both the essential oil and alkaloid, saussurine) is used for asthma, particularly of vagotonic type. It produces a definite relaxtion of the bronchioles. The relief obtained is comparable to that of conventional bronchodilators without side effects, like a rise in blood pressure, sweating or headache even on repeated administration.

Saussurine depresses parasympa- thetic nervous system. The aminoacid- sesquiterpene adducts, saussureami- nes A, B and C show antiulcer effect. The aqueous extract of the root exhibits antianginal activity.

Essential oil inhibits peristalic movement of the gut. It is absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract and partly excreted by lungs producing an expectorant action and partly by the kidneys producing diuretic effect. (In Western herbal, Kuth essential oil is not prescribed internally.)

Kuth roots contain resinoids (6%), and essential oil (1.5%), alkaloid (0.05%) inulin (18%), saussurea lactone (20-25%), a fixed oil and minor constituents like tannin and sugars. Roots obtained from Kashmir are, in general, richer in essential oil content than roots obtained from Garhwal and Nepal. The roots of Punjab variety gave cos- tunolide, dehydrocostuslactone, costic acid, palmitic and linoleic acids, beta- sitosterol and alpha-cyclocostunolide. The Kashmir variety, in addition, gave alantolactone, beta-cyclocostunolide and iso-alantolactone.

The essential oil of the roots exhibit strong antiseptic and disinfectant activity against Streptococcus and Staphy- lococcus.

Costus speciosus Sm. synonym Banksea speciosa, also known as Kush- tha, is a different herb of Zingiberaceae family. Rhizomes and stems yield dios- genin.

Dosage: Root—0.2-1.0 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... saussurea lappa

Herbs containing essential oils are sometimes used as inhalations. 1oz (30g) herb is infused in 2 pints (one and a quarter litres) boiling water for 15 minutes, strained, and the steam inhaled with the aid of a towel above the head. Soothing to irritable and sensitive mucous surfaces. Anti- microbial effects on colds, whooping cough, croup, laryngitis, coryza, asthma and early stages of fevers. To relieve spasm of bronchioles: Lobelia, Stramonium, Eucalyptus, Aloe Vera.

Important inhalants: Eucalyptus, Thyme, Hyssop, Rosemary, Lavender, Chamomile, Mint, Tea Tree. Aromatherapy offers oils of the above herbs: 6-12 drops floated on the surface of 2 pints boiling water after being allowed to stand 3 minutes. See: FRIAR’S BALSAM. TEA TREE.

Alternative method. In place of a basin use an aluminium hot water bottle into which boiling water is poured. Add few drops Friar’s Balsam, Olbas, or essential oil. Insert a large funnel into which the mouth and nose are placed to breathe the vapour. Stop up any free space in the neck of the bottle with a tissue. Camphorated oil. 4 teaspoons to litre boiling water. Inhale steam with aid of a towel over head.

Inhalant Salve for nasal congestion and frontal sinusitis. Oil Pine 1ml; Oil Eucalyptus 2ml; Oil Peppermint 2ml; Vaseline to 30 grams. Melt the Vaseline. Add oils. Stir until cold. For direct use or inhaled from boiling water. (F. Fletcher Hyde, FNIMH)

Note: Inhalation: also through a tissue, steam or air-diffuser. Odours act upon the sense of smell and influence mucous secretion of the respiratory organs. ... inhalations

There is no reason why lung weakness of childhood should not, in later life, resolve into vigorous respiration. However, some cases present a life-long hazard, arresting full development and reducing the body’s ability to defend itself. To strengthen alveolar tissue, allay infection and enhance respiratory function a good pectoral may ensure against future disorders of lungs, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.

Tablets/capsules. Iceland Moss.

Decoction. Irish Moss.

Tea. Combine equal parts, Comfrey, White Horehound, Liquorice. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup water simmered gently 1 minute. Dose: half-1 cup morning and evening. Pinch Cayenne improves.

Potential benefits of Comfrey for this condition outweigh risk. ... lung weakness

A group of drugs that widen the bronchioles (small airways in the lungs) to increase air flow and improve breathing, especially in the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (see pulmonary disease, chronic obstructive). There are 3 main types of bronchodilator: sympathomimetic drugs (such as salbutamol), anticholinergic drugs, and xanthine drugs (such as aminophylline). Sympathomimetic drugs are used primarily for the rapid relief of breathing difficulty. Anticholinergic and xanthine drugs are more often used for the long-term prevention of attacks of breathing difficulty. Drugs can be given by inhaler, in tablet form, or, in severe cases, by nebulizer or injection.

The main side effects of sympathomimetics are palpitations and trembling.

Anticholinergics may cause dry mouth, blurred vision, and, rarely, difficulty in passing urine.

Xanthines may cause headaches, nausea and palpitations.... bronchodilator drugs

Inflammation of the lungs due to infection. There are 2 main types: lobar pneumonia and bronchopneumonia. Lobar pneumonia initially affects 1 lobe of a lung. In bronchopneumonia, inflammation initially starts in the bronchi and bronchioles (airways).

Pneumonia can be caused by any type of microorganism, but most cases are due to viruses, such as adenovirus, or bacteria, such as STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE, HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE, and STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS. Symptoms are usually fever, chills, shortness of breath, and a cough that produces yellow-green sputum and occasionally blood. Potential complications include pleural effusion, pleurisy, and a lung abscess.

Diagnosis is made by physical examination, chest X-ray, and examining sputum and blood for microorganisms.

Treatment depends on the cause, and may include antibiotic drugs or antifungal drugs.

Aspirin or paracetamol may be given to reduce fever, and, in severe cases, oxygen therapy and artificial ventilation may be needed.

In most cases, recovery usually occurs within 2 weeks.... pneumonia