Chemist Health Dictionary

A collection of disorders in which some part of the body’s internal chemistry (see METABOLISM; CATABOLISM) is disrupted. Some of these disorders arise from inherited de?ciencies in which a speci?c ENZYME is absent or abnormal, or does not function properly. Other metabolic disorders occur because of malfunctions in the endocrine system (see ENDOCRINE GLANDS). There may be over- or underproduction of a hormone involved in the control of metabolic activities: a prime example is DIABETES MELLITUS – a disorder of sugar metabolism; others include CUSHING’S SYNDROME; hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism (see THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF); and insulinoma (an insulin-producing tumour of the pancreas). The bones can be affected by metabolic disorders such as osteoporosis, osteomalacia (rickets) and Paget’s disease (see under BONE, DISORDERS OF). PORPHYRIAS, HYPERLIPIDAEMIA, HYPERCALCAEMIA and gout are other examples of disordered metabolism.

There are also more than 200 identi?ed disorders described as inborn errors of metabolism. Some cause few problems; others are serious threats to an individual’s life. Individual disorders are, fortunately, rare – probably one child in 10,000 or 100,000; overall these inborn errors affect around one child in 1,000. Examples include GALACTOSAEMIA, PHENYLKETONURIA, porphyrias, TAY SACHS DISEASE and varieties of mucopolysaccharidosis, HOMOCYSTINURIA and hereditary fructose (a type of sugar) intolerance.... metabolic disorders

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate Protein: Moderate Fat: Low to moderate Saturated fat: Low to high Cholesterol: Low to high Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Moderate to high Sodium: Moderate to high Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins Major mineral contribution: Calcium, iron, potassium

About the Nutrients in This Food All commercially made yeast breads are approximately equal in nutri- tional value. Enriched white bread contains virtually the same amounts of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates as whole wheat bread, although it may contain only half the dietary fiber (see flour). Bread is a high-carbohydrate food with lots of starch. The exact amount of fiber, fat, and cholesterol in the loaf varies with the recipe. Bread’s proteins, from grain, are low in the essential amino acid lysine. The most important carbohydrate in bread is starch; all breads contain some sugar. Depending on the recipe, the fats may be highly saturated (butter or hydrogenated vegetable fats) or primarily unsaturated (vegetable fat). All bread is a good source of B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin), and in 1998, the Food and Drug Administration ordered food manufactur- ers to add folates—which protect against birth defects of the spinal cord and against heart disease—to flour, rice, and other grain products. One year later, data from the Framingham Heart Study, which has followed heart health among residents of a Boston suburb for nearly half a cen- tury, showed a dramatic increase in blood levels of folic acid. Before the fortification of foods, 22 percent of the study participants had a folic acid deficiency; after, the number fell to 2 percent. Bread is a moderately good source of calcium, magnesium, and phos- phorus. (Breads made with milk contain more calcium than breads made without milk.) Although bread is made from grains and grains contain phytic acid, a natural antinutrient that binds calcium ions into insoluble, indigestible compounds, the phytic acid is inactivated by enzyme action during leavening. Bread does not bind calcium. All commercially made breads are moderately high in sodium; some contain more sugar than others. Grains are not usually considered a good source of iodine, but commer- cially made breads often pick up iodine from the iodophors and iodates used to clean the plants and machines in which they are made. Homemade breads share the basic nutritional characteristics of commercially made breads, but you can vary the recipe to suit your own taste, lowering the salt, sugar, or fat and raising the fiber content, as you prefer.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food As sandwiches, with cheese, milk, eggs, meat, fish, or poultry. These foods supply the essen- tial amino acid lysine to “complete” the proteins in grains. With beans or peas. The proteins in grains are deficient in the essential amino acids lysine and isoleucine and rich in the essential amino acids tryptophan, methionine, and cystine. The proteins in legumes (beans and peas) are exactly the opposite.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Gluten-free diet (excludes breads made with wheat, oats, rye, buckwheat and barley flour) Lactose-free diet Low-fiber diet (excludes coarse whole-grain breads) Low-sodium diet

Buying This Food Look for: Fresh bread. Check the date on closed packages of commercial bread.

Storing This Food Store bread at room temperature, in a tightly closed plastic bag (the best protection) or in a breadbox. How long bread stays fresh depends to a great extent on how much fat it contains. Bread made with some butter or other fat will keep for about three days at room tempera- ture. Bread made without fat (Italian bread, French bread) will dry out in just a few hours; for longer storage, wrap it in foil, put it inside a plastic bag, and freeze it. When you are ready to serve the French or Italian bread, you can remove it from the plastic bag and put the foil- wrapped loaf directly into the oven. Throw away moldy bread. The molds that grow on bread may produce carcinogenic toxins. Do not store fresh bread in the refrigerator; bread stales most quickly at temperatures just above freezing. The one exception: In warm, humid weather, refrigerating bread slows the growth of molds.

When You Are Ready to Serve This Food Use a serrated knife to cut bread easily.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Toasting is a chemical process that caramelizes sugars and amino acids (proteins) on the surface of the bread, turning the bread a golden brown. This chemical reaction, known both as the browning reaction and the Maillard reaction (after the French chemist who first identified it), alters the structure of the surface sugars, starches, and amino acids. The sugars become indigestible food fiber; the amino acids break into smaller fragments that are no longer nutritionally useful. Thus toast has more fiber and less protein than plain bread. How- ever, the role of heat-generated fibers in the human diet is poorly understood. Some experts consider them inert and harmless; others believe they may be hazardous.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Freezing. Frozen bread releases moisture that collects inside the paper, foil, or plastic bag in which it is wrapped. If you unwrap the bread before defrosting it, the moisture will be lost and the bread will be dry. Always defrost bread in its wrappings so that it can reabsorb the moisture that keeps it tasting fresh. Drying. Since molds require moisture, the less moisture a food contains, the less likely it is support mold growth. That is why bread crumbs and Melba toast, which are relatively mois- ture-free, keep better than fresh bread. Both can be ground fine and used as a toasty-flavored thickener in place of flour or cornstarch.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits A lower risk of some kinds of cancer. In 1998, scientists at Wayne State University in Detroit conducted a meta-analysis of data from more than 30 well-designed animal studies mea- suring the anti-cancer effects of wheat bran, the part of grain with highest amount of the insoluble dietary fibers cellulose and lignin. They found a 32 percent reduction in the risk of colon cancer among animals fed wheat bran; now they plan to conduct a similar meta- analysis of human studies. Breads made with whole grain wheat are a good source of wheat bran. NOTE : The amount of fiber per serving listed on a food package label shows the total amount of fiber (insoluble and soluble). Early in 1999, however, new data from the long-running Nurses Health Study at Brigham Women’s Hospital/Harvard University School of Public Health showed that women who ate a high-fiber diet had a risk of colon cancer similar to that of women who ate a low fiber diet. Because this study contradicts literally hundreds of others conducted over the past 30 years, researchers are awaiting confirming evidence before changing dietary recommendations. Calming effect. Mood is affected by naturally occurring chemicals called neurotransmitters that facilitate transmission of impulses between brain cells. The amino acid tryptophan amino acid is the most important constituent of serotonin, a “calming” neurotransmitter. Foods such as bread, which are high in complex carbohydrates, help move tryptophan into your brain, increasing the availability of serotonin.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Allergic reactions and/or gastric distress. Bread contains several ingredients that may trigger allergic reactions, aggravate digestive problems, or upset a specific diet, among them gluten (prohibited on gluten-free diets); milk (prohibited on a lactose- and galactose-free diet or for people who are sensitive to milk proteins); sugar (prohibited on a sucrose-free diet); salt (controlled on a sodium-restricted diet); and fats (restricted or prohibited on a controlled-fat, low-cholesterol diet).... bread

The several blood factors that enable the acid waste products of metabolism to be carried in the alkaline blood without disrupting its chemistry. These include carbolic acid, carbonates, phosphates, electrolytes, blood proteins, and erythrocyte membranes.... buffering system

A diagnostic procedure in which a tube is inserted into a blood vessel under local anaesthetic and threaded through to the chambers of the heart to monitor blood ?ow, blood pressure, blood chemistry and the output of the heart, and to take a sample of heart tissue. The technique is used to diagnose congenital heart disease and coronary artery disease. Another application is in the diagnosis and treatment of valvular disease in the heart.... cardiac catheterisation

(Cocoa, milk chocolate, sweet chocolate)

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate Protein: Low (cocoa powder) High (chocolate) Fat: Moderate Saturated fat: High Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: Low (chocolate) High (cocoa powder) Fiber: Moderate (chocolate) High (cocoa powder) Sodium: Moderate Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins Major mineral contribution: Calcium, iron, copper

About the Nutrients in This Food Cocoa beans are high-carbohydrate, high-protein food, with less dietary fiber and more fat than all other beans, excepting soy beans. The cocoa bean’s dietary fiber includes pectins and gums. Its proteins are limited in the essential amino acids lysine and isoleucine. Cocoa butter, the fat in cocoa beans, is the second most highly saturated vegetable fat (coconut oil is number one), but it has two redeeming nutritional qualities. First, it rarely turns rancid. Second, it melts at 95°F, the temperature of the human tongue. Cocoa butter has no cholesterol; neither does plain cocoa powder or plain dark chocolate. Cocoa beans have B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin) plus min- erals (iron, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and copper). All chocolate candy is made from chocolate liquor, a thick paste pro- duce by roasting and grinding cocoa beans. Dark (sweet) chocolate is made of chocolate liquor, cocoa butter, and sugar. Milk chocolate is made of choc- olate liquor, cocoa butter, sugar, milk or milk powder, and vanilla. White * These values apply to plain cocoa powder and plain unsweetened chocolate. Add- ing other foods, such as milk or sugar, changes these values. For example, there is no cholesterol in plain bitter chocolate, but there is cholesterol in milk chocolate. chocolate is made of cocoa butter, sugar, and milk powder. Baking chocolate is unsweetened dark chocolate. The most prominent nutrient in chocolate is its fat. Fat Content in One Ounce of Chocolate

	Saturated fat (g)	Monounsaturated fat (g)	Polyunsaturated fat (g)	Cholesterol (mg)
Dark (sweet)
chocolate	5.6	3.2	0.3	0
Milk chocolate	5.9	4.5	0.4	6.6
Baking chocolate	9	5.6	0.3	0
White chocolate	5.5	2.6	0.3	0

  Source: USDA Nut rient Data Laborator y. Nat ional Nut rient Database for Standard Reference. Available online. UR L : http://w w w.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search /. Because chocolate is made from a bean, it also contains dietary fiber and measurable amounts of certain minerals. For example, one ounce of dark chocolate, the most nutritious “eating” chocolate, has 1.6 g dietary fiber, 0.78 mg iron (4 percent of the R DA for a woman, 10 percent of the R DA for a man), 32 mg magnesium (11 percent of the R DA for a woman, 8 percent of the R DA for a man), and .43 mg zinc (5 percent of the R DA for a woman, 4 percent of the R DA for a man). Cocoa beans, cocoa, and chocolate contain caffeine, the muscle stimulant theobro- mine, and the mood-altering chemicals phenylethylalanine and anandamide (see below).

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food With low-fat milk to complete the proteins without adding saturated fat and cholesterol. NOTE : Both cocoa and chocolate contain oxalic acid, which binds with calcium to form cal- cium oxalate, an insoluble compound, but milk has so much calcium that the small amount bound to cocoa and chocolate hardly matters. Chocolate skim milk is a source of calcium.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Antiflatulence diet Low-calcium and low-oxalate diet (to prevent the formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones) Low-calorie diet Low-carbohydrate diet Low-fat diet Low-fat, controlled-cholesterol diet (milk chocolates) Low-fiber diet Potassium-regulated (low-potassium) diet

Buying This Food Look for: Tightly sealed boxes or bars. When you open a box of chocolates or unwrap a candy bar, the chocolate should be glossy and shiny. Chocolate that looks dull may be stale, or it may be inexpensively made candy without enough cocoa butter to make it gleam and give it the rich creamy mouthfeel we associate with the best chocolate. (Fine chocolate melts evenly on the tongue.) Chocolate should also smell fresh, not dry and powdery, and when you break a bar or piece of chocolate it should break cleanly, not crumble. One exception: If you have stored a bar of chocolate in the refrigerator, it may splinter if you break it without bringing it to room temperature first.

Storing This Food Store chocolate at a constant temperature, preferably below 78°F. At higher temperatures, the fat in the chocolate will rise to the surface and, when the chocolate is cooled, the fat will solidif y into a whitish powdery bloom. Bloom is unsightly but doesn’t change the chocolate’s taste or nutritional value. To get rid of bloom, melt the chocolate. The chocolate will turn dark, rich brown again when its fat recombines with the other ingredients. Chocolate with bloom makes a perfectly satisfactory chocolate sauce. Dark chocolate (bitter chocolate, semisweet chocolate) ages for at least six months after it is made, as its flavor becomes deeper and more intense. Wrapped tightly and stored in a cool, dry cabinet, it can stay fresh for a year or more. Milk chocolate ages only for about a month after it is made and holds its peak flavor for about three to six months, depending on how carefully it is stored. Plain cocoa, with no added milk powder or sugar, will stay fresh for up to a year if you keep it tightly sealed and cool.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Chocolate burns easily. To melt it without mishap, stir the chocolate in a bowl over a pot of hot water or in the top of a double boiler or put the chocolate in a covered dish and melt it in the microwave (which does not get as hot as a pot on the store). Simple chemistry dictates that chocolate cakes be leavened with baking soda rather than baking powder. Chocolate is so acidic that it will upset the delicate balance of acid (cream of tartar) and base (alkali = sodium bicarbonate = baking soda) in baking powder. But it is not acidic enough to balance plain sodium bicarbonate. That’s why we add an acidic sour-milk product such as buttermilk or sour cream or yogurt to a chocolate cake. Without the sour milk, the batter would be so basic that the chocolate would look red, not brown, and taste very bitter.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Freezing. Chocolate freezes and thaws well. Pack it in a moistureproof container and defrost it in the same package to let it reabsorb moisture it gave off while frozen.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Mood elevator. Chocolate’s reputation for making people feel good is based not only on its caffeine content—19 mg caffeine per ounce of dark (sweet) chocolate, which is one-third the amount of caffeine in a five-ounce cup of brewed coffee—but also on its naturally occurring mood altering chemicals phenylethylalanine and anandamide. Phenylethylalanine is found in the blood of people in love. Anandamide stimulates areas of your brain also affected by the active ingredients in marijuana. (NOTE : As noted by the researchers at the Neurosci- ences Institute in San Diego who identified anandamide in chocolate in 1996, to get even the faintest hint of marijuana-like effects from chocolate you would have to eat more than 25 pounds of the candy all at once.) Possible heart health benefits. Chocolate is rich in catechins, the antioxidant chemicals that give tea its reputation as a heart-protective anticancer beverage (see tea). In addition, a series of studies beginning with those at the USDA Agricultural Research Center in Peoria, Illinois, suggest that consuming foods rich in stearic acid like chocolate may reduce rather than raise the risk of a blood clot leading to a heart attack. Possible slowing of the aging process. Chocolate is a relatively good source of copper, a mineral that may play a role in slowing the aging process by decreasing the incidence of “protein glycation,” a reaction in which sugar molecules ( gly = sugar) hook up with protein molecules in the bloodstream, twisting the protein molecules out of shape and rendering them unusable. This can lead to bone loss, rising cholesterol, cardiac abnormalities, and a slew of other unpleasantries. In people with diabetes, excess protein glycation may be one factor involved in complications such as loss of vision. Ordinarily, increased protein glyca- tion is age-related. But at the USDA Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center in North Dakota, agricultural research scientist Jack T. Saari has found that rats on copper-deficient diets experience more protein glycation at any age than other rats. A recent USDA survey of American eating patterns says that most of us get about 1.2 mg copper a day, considerably less than the Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intake (ESADDI) or 1.5 mg to 3 mg a day. Vegetarians are less likely to be copper deficient because, as Saari notes, the foods highest in copper are whole grains, nuts, seeds, and beans, including the cocoa bean. One ounce of dark chocolate has .25 mg copper (8 –17 percent of the ESADDI).

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Possible loss of bone density. In 2008, a team of Australian researchers at Royal Perth Hos- pital, and Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital published a report in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition suggesting that women who consume chocolate daily had 3.1 percent lower bone density than women who consume chocolate no more than once a week. No explanation for the reaction was proposed; the finding remains to be confirmed. Possible increase in the risk of heart disease. Cocoa beans, cocoa powder, and plain dark chocolate are high in saturated fats. Milk chocolate is high in saturated fats and cholesterol. Eating foods high in saturated fats and cholesterol increases the amount of cholesterol in your blood and raises your risk of heart disease. NOTE : Plain cocoa powder and plain dark chocolate may be exceptions to this rule. In studies at the USDA Agricultural Research Center in Peoria, Illinois, volunteers who consumed foods high in stearic acid, the saturated fat in cocoa beans, cocoa powder, and chocolate, had a lower risk of blood clots. In addition, chocolate is high in flavonoids, the antioxidant chemicals that give red wine its heart-healthy reputation. Mild jitters. There is less caffeine in chocolate than in an equal size serving of coffee: A five- ounce cup of drip-brewed coffee has 110 to 150 mg caffeine; a five-ounce cup of cocoa made with a tablespoon of plain cocoa powder ( 1/3 oz.) has about 18 mg caffeine. Nonetheless, people who are very sensitive to caffeine may find even these small amounts problematic. Allergic reaction. According to the Merck Manual, chocolate is one of the 12 foods most likely to trigger the classic food allergy symptoms: hives, swelling of the lips and eyes, and upset stomach.* The others are berries (blackberries, blueberries, raspberries, strawberries), corn, eggs, fish, legumes (green peas, lima beans, peanuts, soybeans), milk, nuts, peaches, pork, shellfish, and wheat (see wheat cer ea ls).

Food/Drug Interactions Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are drugs used to treat depression. They inactivate naturally occurring enzymes in your body that metabolize tyra- mine, a substance found in many fermented or aged foods. Tyramine constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure. Caffeine is a substance similar to tyramine. If you consume excessive amounts of a caffeinated food, such as cocoa or chocolate, while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, the result may be a hypertensive crisis. False-positive test for pheochromocytoma. Pheochromocytoma, a tumor of the adrenal gland, secretes adrenalin, which the body converts to VM A (vanillylmandelic acid). VM A is excreted in urine, and, until recently, the test for this tumor measured the level of VM A in the urine. In the past, chocolate and cocoa, both of which contain VM A, were eliminated from the patient’s diet prior to the test lest they elevate the level of VM A in the urine and produce a false-positive result. Today, more finely drawn tests usually make this unnecessary. * The evidence link ing chocolate to allergic or migraine headaches is inconsistent. In some people, phenylet hylamine (PEA) seems to cause headaches similar to t hose induced by t yramine, anot her pressor amine. The PEA-induced headache is unusual in t hat it is a delayed react ion t hat usually occurs 12 or more hours after t he chocolate is eaten.... chocolate

A nitrogenous substance, methyl-guanidineacetic acid. The adult human body contains about 120 grams – 98 per cent of which is in the muscles. Much of the creatine in muscles is combined with phosphoric acid as phosphocreatine, which plays an important part in the chemistry of muscular contraction.... creatine

Sometimes called an intensive care unit, this is a hospital unit in which seriously ill patients undergo resuscitation, monitoring and treatment. The units are sta?ed by doctors and nurses trained in INTENSIVE CARE MEDICINE, and patients receive 24-hour, one-to-one care with continuous monitoring of their condition with highly specialised electronic equipment that assesses vital body functions such as heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, temperature and blood chemistry. The average ITU in Britain has four to six beds, although units in larger hospitals, especially those dealing with tertiary-care referrals – for example, neurosurgical or organ transplant cases – are bigger, but 15 beds is usually the maximum. Annual throughput of patients ranges from fewer than 200 to more than 1,500 patients a year. As well as general ITUs, specialty units are provided for neonatal, paediatric, cardiothoracic and neurological patients in regional centres. The UK has 1–2 per cent of its hospital beds allocated to intensive care, a ?gure far below the average of 20 per cent provided in the United States. Thus patients undergoing intensive care in the UK are usually more seriously ill than those in the US. This is re?ected in the shortage of available ITU beds in Britain, especially in the winter. (See CORONARY CARE UNIT (CCU); HIGH DEPENDENCY UNIT.)... intensive therapy unit (itu)

Linn.

Family: Salicaceae.

Habitat: North-western Himalayas, up to an altitude of 2,400 m.

English: White Willow, European Willow.

Ayurvedic: Jalavetasa.

Unani: Bed Saadaa.

Folk: Vivir (Kashmir).

Action: Analgesic, antiinflammatory, febrifuge. Used for rheumatic inflammation, painful muscles, spondylitis, lumbago, sciatica, neuralgia, gout and fever. (In 1838, chemists identified salicylic acid in the bark. Afterwards, synthesized it as acetylsalicylic acid, aspirin, in 1899.)

Key application: In diseases accompanied by fever, headache, rheumatic ailments. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported anti- inflammatory action. The British Herbal Compendium additionally reported analgesic, antipyretic, antirheumatic and astringent actions of the willow bark.

The bark contains phenolic glyco- sides; salicin, picein and triandrin with esters of salicylic acid and salicyl alcohol, acetylated salicin, salicortin and salireposide; tannins; catechin; p- coumaric acid; flavonoids and polysac- charides.

Salicylic acid inhibits prostaglandin production, relives pain and brings down fever.... salix alba

The term applied to the material formed by a GLAND as the result of its activity. For example, saliva is the secretion of the salivary glands; gastric juice that of the glands in the stomach wall; bile that of the liver. Some secretions consist apparently of waste material which is of no further use in the chemistry of the body. These secretions are often spoken of as excretions: for example, the URINE and the sweat – see PERSPIRATION. (For further details, see ENDOCRINE GLANDS, and also under the headings of the various organs.)... secretion

Environmental medicine. Treatment of allergies by natural medicines. The science that endeavours to bridge physics and chemistry; including such disciplines as homoeopathy, acupuncture, herbalism, etc. ... clinical ecology

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: Moderate Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: High Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin C (low) Major mineral contribution: Potassium (low)

About the Nutrients in This Food Eggplant is a high-fiber food with only minimum amounts of vitamins and minerals. One cup (100 g/3.5 ounces) boiled eggplant has 2.5 mg dietary fiber and 1.3 mg vitamin C (2 percent of the R DA for a woman, 1 percent of the R DA for a man). In 1992, food scientists at the Autonomous University of Madrid studying the chemistry of the eggplant discovered that the vegetable’s sugar content rises through the end of the sixth week of growth and then falls dramatically over the next 10 days. The same thing happens with other flavor chemicals in the vegetable and with vitamin C, so the researchers concluded that eggplants taste best and are most nutritious after 42 days of growth. NOTE : Eggplants are members of the nightshade family, Solanacea. Other members of this family are potatoes, tomatoes, and red and green peppers. These plants produce natural neurotoxins (nerve poisons) called glycoalkaloids. It is estimated that an adult would have to eat 4.5 pounds of eggplant at one sitting to get a toxic amount of solanine, the glycoalkaloid in eggplant.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food The eggplant’s two culinary virtues are its meaty texture and its ability to assume the flavor of sauces in which it is cooked. As a result, it is often used as a vegetarian, no-cholesterol substitute for veal or chicken in Italian cuisine, specifically dishes ala parmigiana and spaghetti sauces. However, in cooking, the egg- plant absorbs very large amounts of oil. To keep eggplant parmigiana low in fat, use non-fat cheese and ration the olive oil.

Buying This Food Look for: Firm, purple to purple-black or umblemished white eggplants that are heavy for their size. Avoid: Withered, soft, bruised, or damaged eggplants. Withered eggplants will be bitter; damaged ones will be dark inside.

Storing This Food Handle eggplants carefully. If you bruise an eggplant, its damaged cells will release polyphe- noloxidase, an enzyme that hastens the oxidation of phenols in the eggplant’s flesh, produc- ing brown compounds that darken the vegetable. Refrigerate fresh eggplant to keep it from losing moisture and wilting.

Preparing This Food Do not slice or peel an eggplant until you are ready to use it, since the polyphenoloxidase in the eggplant will begin to convert phenols to brown compounds as soon as you tear the vegetable’s cells. You can slow this chemical reaction (but not stop it completely) by soaking sliced egg- plant in ice water—which will reduce the eggplant’s already slim supply of water-soluble vita- min C and B vitamins—or by painting the slices with a solution of lemon juice or vinegar. To remove the liquid that can make a cooked eggplant taste bitter, slice the eggplant, salt the slices, pile them on a plate, and put a second plate on top to weight the slices down. Discard the liquid that results.

What Happens When You Cook This Food A fresh eggplant’s cells are full of air that escapes when you heat the vegetable. If you cook an eggplant with oil, the empty cells will soak it up. Eventually, however, the cell walls will collapse and the oil will leak out, which is why eggplant parmigiana often seems to be served in a pool of olive oil. Eggplant should never be cooked in an aluminum pot, which will discolor the eggplant. If you cook the eggplant in its skin, adding lemon juice or vinegar to the dish will turn the skin, which is colored with red anthocyanin pigments, a deeper red-purple. Red anthocyanin pigments get redder in acids and turn bluish in basic (alkaline) solutions. Cooking reduces the eggplant’s supply of water-soluble vitamins, but you can save the Bs if you serve the eggplant with its juices.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Nitrate/nitrite reactions. Eggplant—like beets, celery, lettuce, radish, spinach, and collard and turnip greens—contains nitrates that convert naturally into nitrites in your stomach, and then react with the amino acids in proteins to form nitrosamines. Although some nitrosamines are known or suspected carcinogens, this natural chemical conversion presents no known problems for a healthy adult. However, when these nitrate-rich vegetables are cooked and left to stand at room temperature, bacterial enzyme action (and perhaps some enzymes in the plants) convert the nitrates to nitrites at a much faster rate than normal. These higer-nitrite foods may be hazardous for infants; several cases of “spinach poisoning” have been reported among children who ate cooked spinach that had been left standing at room temperature.

Food/Drug Interactions MAO inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase (M AO) inhibitors are drugs used as antidepressants or antihypertensives. They inhibit the action of enzymes that break down tyramine, a natu- ral by-product of protein metabolism, so that it can be eliminated from the body. Tyramine is a pressor amine, a chemical that constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. If you eat a food rich in tyramine while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, the pressor amine can- not be eliminated from your body, and the result may be a hypertensive crisis (sustained elevated blood pressure). Eggplants contain small amounts of tyramine. False-positive urine test for carcinoid tumors. Carcinoid tumors (tumors that may arise in tis- sues of the endocrine and gastrointestinal systems) secrete serotonin, which is excreted in urine. The test for these tumors measures the level of serotonin in your urine. Eating egg- plant, which is rich in serotonin, in the 72 hours before a test for a carcinoid tumor might raise the serotonin levels in your urine high enough to cause a false-positive test result. (Other fruits and vegetables rich in serotonin are bananas, tomatoes, plums, pineapple, avo- cados, and walnuts.)... eggplant

A term used in several di?erent senses. Generally speaking, it is applied to anything which agrees with the regular and established type. In chemistry, the term is applied to solutions of acids or bases of such strength that each litre contains the number of grams corresponding to the molecular weight of the substance in question. In physiology the term ‘normal’ is applied to solutions of such strength that, when mixed with a body ?uid, they are ISOTONIC and cause no disturbance: for example, normal saline solution.... normal

Those which are obtained from animal or vegetable bodies, or which resemble in chemical composition those derived from this source. Organic chemistry has come to mean the chemistry of the carbon compounds.... organic substances

Ammi majus

Apiaceae

Importance: Greater Ammi, also known as Bishop’s weed or Honey plant is an annual or biennial herb which is extensively used in the treatment of leucoderma (vitiligo) and psoriasis. The compounds responsible for this are reported to be furocoumarins like ammoidin (xanthotoxin), ammidin (imperatorin) and majudin (bergapten) present in the seed. Xanthotoxin is marketed under the trade name “Ox soralen” which is administered orally in doses of 50 mg t.d. or applied externally as 1% liniment followed by exposure of affected areas to sunlight or UV light for 2 hours. It is also used in “Suntan lotion”. Meladinine is a by-product of Ammi majus processing, containing both xanthotoxin and imperatorin sold in various formulations increases pigmentation of normal skin and induces repigmentation in vitiligo. Imperatorin has antitumour activity. Fruit or seed causes photosensitization in fouls and sheep.

Distribution: The plant is indigenous to Egypt and it grows in the Nile Valley, especially in Behira and Fayoom. It is also found in the basin of the Mediterranean Sea, in Syria, Palestine, Abyssinia, West Africa, in some regions of Iran and the mountains of Kohaz (Ramadan, 1982). It grows wild in the wild state in Abbottabad, Mainwali, Mahran and is cultivated in Pakistan. The crop was introduced to India in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, in 1955 through the courtesy of UNESCO. Since then, the crop has been grown for its medicinal fruit in several places in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Kashmir and Tamil Nadu.

Botany: Ammi majus Linn. belongs to the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae). A. visnaga is another related species of medicinal importance. A. majus is an annual or beinnial herb growing to a height of 80 to 120 cm. It has a long tap root, solid erect stem, decompound leaves, light green alternate, variously pinnately divided, having lanceolate to oval segments. Inflorescence is axillary and terminal compound umbels with white flowers. The fruits are ribbed, ellipsoid, green to greenish brown when immature, turning reddish brown at maturity and having a characteristic terebinthinate odour becoming strong on crushing with extremely pungent and slightly bitter taste.

Agrotechnology: Ammi is relatively cold loving and it comes up well under subtropical and temperate conditions. It does not prefer heavy rainfall. Though the plant is biennial it behaves as an annual under cultivation in India. A mild cool climate in the early stages of crop growth and a warm dry weather at maturity is ideal. It is cultivated as a winter annual crop in rabi season. A wide variety of soils from sandy loam to clay loam are suitable. However, a well drained loamy soil is the best. Waterlogged soils are not good. Being a hardy crop, it thrives on poor and degraded soils.

The plant is seed propagated. Seeds germinate within 10-12 days of sowing. The best time of sowing is October and the crop duration is 160-170 days in north India. Crop sown later gives lower yield. The crop can be raised either by direct sowing of seed or by raising a nursery and then transplanting the crop. Seed rate is 2 kg/ha. The land is brought to a fine tilth by repeated ploughing and harrowing. Ridges and furrows are then formed at 45-60 cm spacing. Well decomposed FYM at 10-15 t/ha and basal fertilisers are incorporated in the furrows. Seeds being very small are mixed with fine sand or soil, sown in furrows and covered lightly with a thin layer of soil. A fertilizer dose of 80:30:30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha is generally recommended for the crop while 150:40:40 kg/ha is suggested in poor soils for better yields. The furocoumarin content of Ammi majus is increased by N fertiliser and the N use efficiency increases with split application of N at sowing, branching and at flowering. For obtaining high yields it is essential to give one or two hoeings during November to February which keeps down the weeds. If winter rains fail, one irrigation is essential during November to January. As the harvesting season is spread over a long period of time, two irrigations during March and April meets the requirements of the crop (Chadha and Gupta, 1995).

White ants and cut worms are reported to attack the crop which can be controlled by spraying the crop with 40g carbaryl in 10 l of water. Damping off and powdery mildew are the common diseases of the crop. Seed treatment with organomercuric compounds is recommended for damping off. To control powdery mildew the crop is to be sprayed with 30g wettable sulphur in 10 l of water whenever noticed.

The crop flowers in February. Flowering and maturity of seed is spread over a long period of two months. The primary umbels and the early maturing secondary umbels are the major contributors to yield. A little delay in harvesting results in the shattering of the seed which is the main constraint in the commercial cultivation of the crop and the main reason for low yields in India. Sobti et al (1978) have reported increased yield by 50 - 60% by the application of planofix at 5 ppm at flower initiation and fruit formation stages. The optimum time of harvest is the mature green stage of the fruit in view of the reduced losses due to shattering and maximum contents of furocoumarins. The primary umbels mature first within 35-45 days. These are harvested at an interval of 2-4 days. Later, the early appearing secondary umbels are harvested. Afterwards, the entire crop is harvested, stored for a couple of days and then threshed to separate the seeds. The seed yield is 900-1200 kg/ha.

Postharvest technology: The processing of seed involves solvent extraction of powdered seeds, followed by chilling and liquid extraction and chromatographic separation after treatment with alcoholic HCl. Bergapten, xanthotoxin and xanthotoxol can be separated. Xanthotoxol can be methylated and the total xanthotoxin can be purified by charcoal treatment in acetone or alcohol.

Properties and activity: Ammi majus fruit contains amorphous glucoside 1%, tannin 0.45%, oleoresin 4.76%, acrid oil 3.2%, fixed oil 12.92%, proteins 13.83% and cellulose 22.4%. This is one of the richest sources of linear furocoumarins. Ivie (1978) evaluated the furocoumarin chemistry of taxa Ammi majus and reported the presence of xanthotoxin, bergapten, imperatorin, oxypencedanin, heraclenin, sexalin, pabulenol and many other compounds. Furocoumarins have bactericidal, fungicidal, insecticidal, larvicidal, moluscicidal, nematicidal, ovicidal, viricidal and herbicidal activities (Duke, 1988).... greater ammi

Chemical substances manufactured by the endocrine glands and secreted directly into the bloodstream. As the heart pumps blood through the body they are borne to cells remote from their point of origin where they have a specific effect. Hormones are to physiology what radium is to chemistry. ... hormones

Drugs that are used to slow or halt the spread of viruses in people with HIV infection and AIDS. There are 3 main groups: reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Drugs from different groups are often used in combination. Antiretroviral drugs can have a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, tiredness, and a range of effects on blood chemistry, particularly involving fats.... antiretroviral drugs

(1) The name given to a gastric-function test, involving injection of HISTAMINE – a powerful stimulator of gastric juice, or pentagastin. After the stimulant has been injected, the digestive juices are withdrawn through a stomach tube (inserted through the nose and throat) and their volume and chemistry measured. A similar test is used to assess the working of the PANCREAS.

(2) The second meaning (also called test feed) applies to a diagnostic procedure for congenital PYLORIC STENOSIS, whereby a paediatrician feels over the baby’s abdomen while he or she is feeding. The pyloric mass can be felt as a ?rm swelling with the consistency of a squash ball, which comes and goes under the examiner’s ?ngers.... test meal

A general term for a number of conditions arising from an abnormal breakdown of fats with rapid consumption of carbohydrates. Diabetic, oxybutyric acids and other allied bodies appear in the urine. Diagnosis may be confirmed by a smell of acetone on the breath.

Causes. Diet too rich in fats, inability to digest fats. May be associated with diabetes, starvation wasting diseases and liverish attacks; when followed by coma, situation is serious.

Symptoms. Physical weakness, pallor, lethargy, acid stools, constant yawning, constipation, diarrhoea – in severe cases, jaundice. A liver tonic would be an ingredient of a prescription (Barberry, Balmony, Dandelion, Mulberry, Wahoo).

A reduced alkalinity of the blood allows acidosis to take over. Symptoms of diabetic coma when due to salt deficiency profoundly affects the chemistry of the blood.

Alternatives. Teas: Agrimony, Balm (lemon), Bogbean, Boldo, Centuary, Chamomile, Cleavers, Dandelion, Fumitory, Hyssop, Meadowsweet, Motherwort, Wormwood.

Tea. Formula: equal parts, Balm, Chamomile and Dandelion. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water, infuse 10 minutes; dose – 1 cup thrice daily.

Tablets/capsules. Seaweed and Sarsaparilla, Blue Flag, Goldenseal, Wild Yam, Yellow Dock.

Potter’s Acidosis tablets: Anise oil, Caraway oil, Cinnamon, Meadowsweet, Rhubarb, Medicinal Charcoal.

Formula. Equal parts: Dandelion, Blue Flag, Meadowsweet. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg; Liquid extracts: 30-60 drops; Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily.

Goldenseal tincture: 1-2ml thrice daily.

Diet. Vigorous cutback in food-fats, especially dairy products. Readily assimilable form of carbohydrate (honey), replenishing stores in the liver without working that organ too hard. Restore body chemistry. Kelp instead of salt. Powdered skimmed milk, yoghurt, plantmilk made from Soya bean. Pectin foods: raw apples help solidify the stool. Bananas, carrots, carob flour products. Vitamin B complex, B6, Folic ac., Niacin, Pantothenic acid. See: CAROB BEAN. ... acidosis

A normaliser. A remedy that serves to harmonise the function of an organ (liver, endocrine gland) in such a way as to “improve apparently contradictory symptoms” (Simon Mills). A plant that acts in two different ways, having two different characters. In chemistry, an amphoteric affects both red and blue litmus, acting both as an acid and an alkali. Some plants have opposite effects, notably Lily of the Valley, according to the condition of the heart.

Thus, a plant may normalise glandular secretions, build up cell protein and enable the body to recover from exertion. This important group includes Gotu Kola, Sarsaparilla and Ginseng. ... amphoteric

Each passing year sees encapsulated herbal powders gaining in popularity. Arkopharm Laboratories, leaders in the field, are located at Nice on the French Riviera, and offer a wide range of powders in capsules (Arkocaps) under the authority of a highly qualified team of pharmacists, chemists and doctors.

After the usual stringent tests of raw material on receipt from the suppliers, plants are pulverised and sieved until granulometry is down to 300 micrograms. This size particle ensures a good digestive assimilation without damaging the plant cells. Such material is then subjected to another series of quality control tests for proper potency, purity and cleanliness. This is followed by a further examination for bacteriological cleanliness before shipment. Arkopharma: Head Office: BP 28 06511 Carros (Nice) France. Marketed in the UK by Arkopharma (UK) Ltd. ... arkopharma

A state of acute mental confusion, commonly brought on by physical illness.

Symptoms vary according to personality, environment, and the severity of illness.

They may include failure to understand events or remember what has been happening, physical restlessness, mood swings, hallucinations, and terrified panic.

High fever and disturbances of body chemistry are commonly present.

Children and older people are most susceptible to delirium, particularly during infection, after surgery, or when there is a pre-existing brain disturbance such as dementia.

Drugs, poisons, and alcohol are common precipitants.... delirium

A rare kidney disorder that occurs most commonly in childhood. Various important chemicals, such as amino acids, phosphate, calcium, and potassium, are lost in the urine, leading to failure to thrive, stunting of growth, and bone disorders such as rickets. Possible causes of the syndrome include several rare inherited abnormalities of body chemistry and an adverse reaction to certain drugs.

The child may resume normal growth if an underlying chemical abnormality can be corrected. Alternatively, a kidney transplant may be possible.... fanconi’s syndrome

Tests of blood chemistry that can detect changes in the way the liver is making new substances and breaking down and/or excreting old ones.

The tests can also show whether liver cells are healthy or being damaged.... liver function tests

Related to a body organ; having organs or an organized structure; or related to organisms or to substances from them.

In chemistry, “organic” refers to certain compounds that contain carbon.

In medicine, the term indicates the presence of disease.

(See also inorganic.)... organic

(OTC) drug A drug that can be bought without a prescription at a chemist’s or other store.... over-the-counter

A genetic condition in children in which a defective gene is responsible for altered body chemistry, with excess secretion from the mucous glands. Thick mucus in the lungs may cause breathing distress; in the liver it may block ducts and inhibit function. Liver, pancreatic and salivary glands may be involved. Selenium and Vitamin E levels low (supplementation advised).

Symptoms. Respiratory difficulties and irritating cough. Thick sputum changes colour with infection. Sweat is high in salt. Evil-smelling stool. Treatment by or in liaison with general medical practitioner only.

Until recent years the condition was fatal by death from pneumonia. Carriers may be symptomless. Survival is largely in the hands of physiotherapists and osteopaths who give postural drainage. Differential diagnosis. Infant’s asthma, bronchitis, coeliac disease.

Having regards to missing enzymes (digestive and others) a hard look at food proves rewarding. Individuals may lack the necessary enzymes to break down wheat; one reason why wheat products should be avoided. Production of mucous is reduced considerably by the gluten diet in which oats, wheat, rye and barley are avoided. See: GLUTEN-SENSITIVE DISEASE.

To avoid infection, herbal antibiotics: Wild Yam, Echinacea, Wild Indigo, Goldenseal, Myrrh. Alternatives. To stimulate production of pancreatic enzymes, and peristalsis. Daily physiotherapy to prevent retention of viscid secretions.

Supportive treatment. To liquefy mucus.

Teas: Hyssop, White Horehound, Gotu Kola. Fenugreek seed. Alfalfa.

Tablets/capsules. Lobelia. Iceland Moss. Goldenseal. Echinacea. Wild Yam.

Powders. Formula: equal parts: Elecampane, White Horehound, Dandelion; pinch Cayenne. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.

Tinctures. Formula: equal parts: Elecampane, Lobelia, Dandelion. Few drops Tincture Capsicum. One to two 5ml teaspoons in water 3-4 times daily.

Friar’s Balsam. Inhalation helps to thin mucus from the bronchi.

Supplementation. In addition to Selenium and Vitamin E: Vitamins A, B-complex, C, D. Pancreatic enzymes. High calorie intake. ... cystic fibrosis

The Exeter Traditional Medicines, Pharmacology and Chemistry Project. An expert data- base system that integrates on a cumulative basis annotated information about the chemistry, pharmacology and therapeutics of medicinal plants and their constituents from a range of sources. The conventional phytochemical literature, often exhaustively searched and assessed, is augmented by evidence from the areas of clinical pharmacology and ethnopharmacology, and the personal and recorded experience of practicing phytotherapists and herbalists. The material is entered into a knowledge base which is programmed to provide intelligent integration and weighting of the data. Director: Simon Y. Mills MA FNIMH, Centre of Complementary Health Studies, University of Exeter, Devon EX4 4PU. ... extract

Distinguished herbal authority. President Emeritus both of the National Institute of Medical Herbalists and of the British Herbal Medicine Association. Degree in Chemistry and a first class honours degree in the special examination in Botany granted in 1932 at London University. Founder of the Education Fund and the School of Herbal Medicine. Former member of the Commitee on Review of Medicines and other government bodies. He gave herbal medicine a place on the Statute Book (Medicines Act 1968) after 400 years. For 16 years, chairman of the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia Committee. Entered the National Institute of Medical Herbalists (then NAMH) in 1931, and directed the Research and Analytical Department for 50 years.

Hyde organised the fight for the survival of herbal medicine endangered by the Medicines Bill and was able to modify some clauses that would have put an end to herbal medicine under the Medicines Act, 1968. The BHP is indebted to his expertise and clinical experience. As a consultant and teacher he inspired many students and practitioners. A Doctorate of Botanic Medicine was conferred on him by the School of Botanic Medicine, London. ... fletcher-hyde, frederick

130-200 AD. Greek physician and philosopher. Born in what is now known as Turkey, (129- 199 AD). Prolific writer on medical subjects, gathering recorded knowledge up to his time and confirming it on such a foundation of truth that his works were studied up to the 17th century. He gained such a reputation in Rome that he received, but declined, an offer of the post to Physician to the Emperor. He attended Marcus Aurelius and his son, heir to the throne. He was an accurate observer, especially of muscles and bones, and demonstrated that arteries carry blood and not air.

In his diagnosis he laid great stress on the pulse, which is observed today. He believed in ‘critical days’ when men and women are more accident-prone and gave diminished performance due, he believed, to the moon.

Galenist physicians who followed him did not deviate from his ancient formulae, for better or worse, largely of herbs of the whole plant given in tincture or extract form. Apothecaries and chemists departed from the tradition when they isolated what they believed to be the active principles of the plant – often in a form of extreme concentration and small bulk. ... galen

Another name for clinical biochemistry, the study of abnormalities in the chemistry of body tissues in disease.... pathology, chemical

(chemo-) combining form denoting chemical or chemistry.... chem

(protanopia) n. red-blindness: a defect in colour vision in which a person cannot distinguish between reds and greens. The term has been used to refer to *colour blindness in general. [J. Dalton (1766–1844), British chemist]... daltonism

(dextro-) combining form denoting 1. the right side. Example: dextroposition (displacement to the right). 2. (in chemistry) dextrorotation.... dextr

a test for detecting the presence of sugar in urine, which has now been replaced by better and easier methods. [H. von Fehling (1812–85), German chemist]... fehling’s test

Hyperkinesis. Physically over-active. “Like a human jet engine at top velocity.” Excessive motor-nerve activity.

Causes: considerable evidence implicates side-effects of sugar, caffeine, mercurials and other mineral salts that find their way into the body in food additives, dental fillings, etc. Other related factors: exposure to television radiation, fluorescent lighting, environmental toxins, stress, genetic. Studies show a lack of zinc to be a factor.

Symptoms. Always thirsty yet urine is highly concentrated, revealing a deficiency of essential fatty acids (for which Evening Primrose is indicated). Impulsive disposition, nasal congestion, pallor, dark circles under eyes. Insomnia. Difficulty concentrating, clumsiness, low tolerance to failure.

Alternatives. Since an individual’s chemistry is unique, it may be necessary to experiment with one or two agents before concentrating on ones more effective.

To normalise motor activity: Passion flower, St John’s Wort, Xia ku cao (Chinese).

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Passion flower, Skullcap, Valerian. Mix. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup water brought to boil and simmered one minute. Infuse 15 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup thrice daily.

Powders, liquid extracts, tinctures. Formula: Valerian 1; Hops (Lupulin) 1; Wild Lettuce 2. Dose: Powders, 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid Extracts, 30-60 drops. Tinctures, 1-2 teaspoons, thrice daily.

Evening Primrose oil capsules. One 500mg capsule morning and evening.

Diet. Wholefoods, raw-food days, reformed dietary pattern.

Aromatherapy. Oil of Lavender.

Supplementation. Daily: Vitamin B-complex; Vitamin C 500mg; Vitamin B6 50mg; Vitamin E 500iu; Niacin; Magnesium, Zinc. ... hyperactivity

A wide variety of physical and mental disorders associated with heavy, prolonged consumption of alcohol.

High alcohol consumption increases the risk of cancers of the mouth, tongue, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), and oesophagus, especially if combined with smoking. Incidence of liver cancer, as well as the liver diseases alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis, is higher among alcoholics. High alcohol consumption increases the risk of cardiomyopathy, hypertension, and stroke. Alcohol irritates the digestive tract and may cause gastritis. Heavy drinking in pregnancy increases the risk of miscarriage and fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcoholics are more likely to suffer from anxiety and depression and to develop dementia.

Many alcoholics have a poor diet and are prone to diseases caused by nutritional deficiency, particularly of thiamine (see vitamin B complex). Severe thiamine deficiency, called beriberi, disturbs nerve function, causing cramps, numbness, and weakness in the legs and hands. Its effects on the brain can cause confusion, disturbances of speech and gait, and eventual coma (see Wernicke– Korsakoff syndrome). Severe thiamine deficiency can also cause heart failure.

A prolonged high level of alcohol in the blood and tissues can disturb body chemistry, resulting in hypoglycaemia (reduced glucose in the blood) and hyperlipidaemia (increased fat in the blood).

These may damage the heart, liver, blood vessels, and brain; irreversible damage may cause premature death.... alcohol-related disorders

A science that studies the chemistry of living organisms. It includes the chemical processes involved in the maintenance and reproduction of body cells and the chemical reactions carried out inside cells that make up the metabolism of the body. Overall regulation of these chemical processes is a function of hormones, whereas regulation of individual reactions is carried out by enzymes. A constant interchange occurs between cell fluids and blood and urine. Biochemists can therefore learn about the chemical changes going on inside cells from measurements of the various minerals, gases, enzymes, hormones, and proteins in blood, urine, and other body fluids. Such tests are used to make diagnoses and to screen for a disease and to monitor its progress. The most common biochemical tests are performed on blood, and they include liver function tests and kidney function tests. Biochemical tests can also be performed on urine (see urinalysis) and other body fluids.... biochemistry

A condition in which a person’s water content is at a dangerously low level. Water accounts for about 60 per cent of a man’s weight and 50 per cent of a woman’s. The total water (and mineral salts and other substances dissolved in the body’s fluids) content must be kept within fairly narrow limits for healthy functioning of cells and tissues.

Dehydration occurs due to inadequate intake of fluids or excessive fluid loss. The latter may occur with severe or prolonged vomiting or diarrhoea or with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, and some types of kidney failure. Children are especially susceptible to dehydration by diarrhoea.

Severe dehydration causes extreme thirst, dry lips and tongue, an increase in heart rate and breathing rate, dizziness, confusion, lethargy, and eventual coma. The skin looks dry and loses its elasticity. Any urine passed is small in quantity and dark-coloured. If there is also salt depletion, there may also be headaches, cramps, and pallor.

Bottled mineral water can help maintain the intake of salts. For vomiting and diarrhoea, rehydration therapy is needed; salt and glucose rehydration mixtures are available from chemists.

In severe cases of dehydration, fluids are given intravenously.

The water/salt balance is carefully monitored by blood tests and adjusted if necessary.... dehydration

a method of demonstrating the presence of DNA in cell nuclei. The tissue section under investigation is first hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid and then treated with *Schiff’s reagent. A purple coloration develops in the presence of DNA. [R. Feulgen (1884–1955), German chemist]... feulgen reaction

a mixture of *methylene blue and *eosin, used for distinguishing different types of white blood cell and for detecting parasitic microorganisms in blood smears. It is one of the *Romanowsky stains. [G. Giemsa (1867–1948), German chemist]... giemsa’s stain

n. the study of the chemistry, biochemistry, and other aspects of carbohydrates and carbohydrate complexes, especially *glycoproteins. Elucidation of the structure and role of the sugar molecules of glycoproteins has important medical implications and has led to the development of new drugs, such as *tissue-type plasminogen activators, drugs that affect the immune system, and antiviral drugs.... glycobiology

A filtering technique used to remove waste products from the blood and excess fluid from the body as a treatment for kidney failure. The kidneys normally filter about 1,500 litres of blood daily. They maintain the fluid and electrolyte balance of the body and excrete wastes in the urine. Important elements, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, amino acids, glucose, and water are reabsorbed. Urea, excess minerals, toxins, and drugs are excreted. Dialysis is used to perform this function in people whose kidneys have been damaged due to acute kidney failure or chronic kidney failure. Without dialysis, wastes accumulate in the blood. In chronic kidney failure, patients may need to have dialysis several times a week for the rest of their lives or until they can be given a kidney transplant. In acute kidney failure, dialysis is carried out more intensively until the kidneys are working normally.

There are 2 methods of dialysis: haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. In both methods, excess water and wastes in the blood pass across a membrane into a solution (dialysate), which is then discarded. Haemodialysis filters out wastes by

passing blood through an artificial kidney machine.

The process takes 2–6 hours.

Peritoneal dialysis makes use of the peritoneum (the membrane that lines the abdomen) as a filter.

The procedure is often carried out overnight or continuously during the day and night.

Both types of dialysis carry the risk of upsetting body chemistry and fluid balance.

There is also a risk of infection within the peritoneum in peritoneal dialysis.... dialysis

A chemical substance that alters the function of one or more body organs or the process of a disease. Drugs include prescribed medicines, over-thecounter remedies, and substances (such as alcohol, tobacco, and drugs of abuse) that are used for nonmedical purposes. Drugs normally have a chemical name, an officially approved generic name (see generic drug), and often a brand name. Drugs for medical use are either licensed for prescription by a doctor only or can be bought over the counter at a chemist’s or supermarket.

Most drugs are artificially produced to ensure a pure preparation with a predictable potency (strength). Some drugs are genetically engineered. A drug is classified according to its chemical make-up or the disorder it treats or, according to its specific effect on the body. All new drugs are tested for their efficiency and safety. In the UK, drugs are licensed by the Medicines Control Agency (MCA). A licence may be withdrawn if toxic effects are reported or if the drugs causes serious illness.

Drugs can be used to relieve physical or mental symptoms, to replace a deficient natural substance, or to stop the excessive production of a hormone or other body chemical. Some drugs are given to destroy foreign organisms, such as bacteria. Others, known as vaccines, are given to stimulate the body’s immune system to form antibodies.

Drugs are given by mouth, by injection, or applied directly to the affected site via transdermal, nasal, and other direct routes (for example, to the lungs through an inhaler). Injected drugs have a more rapid effect than drugs taken by mouth because they enter the bloodstream without passing first through the digestive system. Unabsorbed drugs taken by mouth are excreted in the faeces. Drugs that have entered the bloodstream are eliminated in urine. Some drugs interact with food or alcohol or other drugs. Most drugs can produce adverse effects. These effects may wear off as the body adapts to the drug. Adverse effects are more likely if there is a change in the absorption, breakdown, or elimination of a drug (caused, for example, by liver disease). Unexpected reactions sometimes occur due to a genetic disorder, an allergic reaction, or the formation of antibodies that damage tissue.

Many drugs cross the placenta; some affect growth and development of the fetus. Most drugs pass into the breast milk of a nursing mother, and some will have adverse effects on the baby.... drug

A type of antibiotic drug. used to treat bacterial infections that are resistant to penicillin drugs. Fusidic acid is commonly used in preparations applied to the skin, eye, and ear.

G6PD G6PD deficiency An X-linked disorder that affects the chemistry of red blood cells, making them prone to damage by infectious illness or certain drugs or foods. Red blood cells are missing G6PD (the enzyme glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase). The disorder most often affects southern European and black men. Women are unaffected but can carry the abnormal gene.

Some antimalarial drugs and antibiotics can precipitate destruction of red cells in affected people. In one form of G6PD deficiency called favism, affected people are sensitive to a chemical in broad beans, which they must avoid eating. After taking a precipitating drug or food, or during an infectious illness, a person with G6PD deficiency develops the symptoms (see anaemia, haemolytic).

G6PD deficiency is diagnosed with a blood test. There is no particular treatment but symptoms caused by a drug or food can be relieved by avoiding it.... fusidic acid

(laevo-) combining form denoting 1. the left side. 2. (in chemistry) levorotation.... levo

aqueous *fuchsin solution decolourized with sulphur dioxide. A blue coloration develops in the presence of aldehydes. [H. Schiff (1834–1915), German chemist]... schiff’s reagent

Constant close monitoring and treatment of seriously ill patients that enables treatment to be tailored to the patient’s condition on an hour-by-hour basis. Intensive care units (ICUs), sometimes known as intensive treatment units (ITUs), contain electronic equipment to monitor vital functions such as blood pressure and heart-rate and rhythm. Frequently, patients in these units require mechanical ventilation, in which a machine takes over or assists with breathing. Urine output, fluid balance, and blood chemistry are recorded regularly. Fluids are given intravenously. If nutrients are required, they are supplied to the stomach through a tube. There is a high ratio of specially trained nursing and medical staff to patients.

(See also coronary care unit.)... intensive care

An element essential for formation of the thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which control the rate of metabolism (internal chemistry) and growth and development. Dietary shortage may lead to goitre or hypothyroidism. Deficiency in the newborn can, if left untreated, lead to cretinism. Shortages are very rare in developed countries due to bread and table salt being fortified with iodide or iodate. Radioactive iodine is sometimes used to reduce thyroid gland activity in cases of thyrotoxicosis and in the treatment of thyroid cancer. Iodine compounds are used as antiseptics, in radiopaque contrast media in some X-ray procedures (see imaging techniques), and in some cough remedies.... iodine

Inherited defects of body chemistry. Inborn errors of metabolism are caused by single gene defects, which lead to abnormal functioning of an enzyme.

Some of these gene defects are harmless, but others are severe enough to result in death or physical or mental handicap. Examples include Tay–Sachs disease, phenylketonuria, Hurler’s syndrome, and Lesch–Nyhan syndrome. Collectively, inborn errors of metabolism affect around 1 child in 5,000.

Symptoms are usually present at or soon after birth. They may include unexplained illness or failure to thrive, developmental delay, floppiness, persistent vomiting, or seizures.

Routine tests are performed on newborn babies for some genetic disorders, such as phenylketonuria.

Treatment is not needed for some inborn errors of metabolism. For others, avoidance of a specific environmental factor may be sufficient. In some cases, the missing enzyme or the protein that it produces can be manufactured using genetic engineering techniques, or a vitamin supplement can help compensate for the defective enzyme. If the enzyme is made in blood cells, a bone marrow transplant may provide a cure.

People with a child or a close relative who is affected may benefit from genetic counselling before planning a pregnancy.... metabolism, inborn errors of

A change in a cell’s DNA. Many mutations are harmless; however, some are harmful, giving rise to cancers, birth defects, and hereditary diseases. Very rarely, a mutation may be beneficial.

A mutation results from a fault in the replication of when a cell divides. A daughter cell inherits some faulty , and the fault is copied each time the new cell divides, creating a cell population containing the altered.

Some mutations occur by chance. Any agent that makes mutations more likely is called a mutagen.

There are several types of mutation. Point mutations affect only one gene and may lead to the production of defective enzymes or other proteins. In other mutations, chromosomes (or parts of them) are deleted, added, or rearranged. This type may produce greater disruptive effects than point mutations.

If a mutated cell is a somatic (body) cell, it can, at worst, multiply to form a group of abnormal cells. These cells often die out, are destroyed by the body’s immune system, or have only a minor effect. Sometimes, however, they may become a tumour.

A mutation in a germ cell (immature egg or sperm) may be passed on to a child, who then has the mutation in all of his or her cells.

This may cause an obvious birth defect or an abnormality in body chemistry.

The mutation may also be passed on to the child’s descendants.

Genetic disorders (such as haemophilia and achondroplasia) stem from point mutations that occurred in the germ cell of a parent, grandparent, or more distant ancestor.

Chromosomal abnormalities (such as Down’s syndrome) are generally due to mutations in the formation of parental eggs or sperm.... mutation

Grindelia squarrosa

FAMILY: Asteraceae

SYNONYMS: Gumweed, hardy grindelia, gum plant, scaly grindelia, rosin weed, curlytop gumweed, curlycup gumweed, tarweed, resin-weed, sticky-heads.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A biennial or short-lived perennial up to one metre high with yellow, daisy-like flower heads, each with overlapping rows of backward-curling, bracts: squarrosa is Latin for ‘scaly or rough’, referring to these curling bracts. The leaves are dotted with resinous glands: thus many common names for Grindelia squarrosa, such as gumweed, refer to the gooey resin that they exude, which has a sweet incense-like scent. This white viscous gum may cover the entire bud top and flowers, which bloom in late summer from July to September. However, the dried flowering heads may persist for several years due to the preservative action of the gummy resin!

DISTRIBUTION: This plant is native to western North America and Mexico. It is naturalized in eastern North America and the Pacific Coast states: several species are also cultivated as ornamentals in Europe.

OTHER SPECIES: Grindelia comprises about 60 species: the name of the genus honours the Russian botanist, David Grindel. All are native to North and Central America and chiefly distributed in warm-temperate regions. Several species are used to produce essential oils, including G. oregana and G. robusta as well as G. squarrosa. All these oils were found to contain alpha-pinene, ?-pinene, limonene, borneol, bornyl acetate trans-pinocarveol and germacrene D as the main constituents and only showed small differences in chemical composition. However, menthol, menthone and pulegone were detected only in the essential oil of G. oregano.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Grindelia has been used as a traditional herbal remedy by indigenous cultures all over the Americas for centuries. The plant was harvested when in full bloom and used fresh as a poultice or herbal extract or dried for infusions etc. The herb was used by Great Plains Tribes mainly to treat respiratory problems, such as asthma, colic, coughs and bronchitis, especially among the aged; the leaves were smoked to relieve spasmodic asthma. Externally, the crushed flowers were used to make poultices, which was applied to burns, rashes, poison ivy, blisters, dermatitis, eczema, saddle sores and raw skin. The leaves and flowering tops was used to make an herbal tea used to relieve coughs and dizziness. The sticky sap was chewed as gum and herbal extracts were also used to treat rheumatic conditions. Spanish New Mexicans would also drink a tea made from boiling the flower buds in water, for treating kidney problems. The Eclectic School of Medicine used Grindelia externally to promote skin regrowth and to heal reluctant, persistent ulcers.

The medicinal value of this plant was not recognized by the orthodox practitioners of medicine in the US till the middle of the nineteenth century, after which it came into prominence as a major medicinal plant. Official recognition of Grindelia came with the introduction of the herb in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States in 1882. It is still listed in the U.S. Dispensatory, and is currently used by modern Americans in the treatment of colds, hay fever, nasal congestion, whooping cough, bronchial catarrh, asthma etc. It is current in the German Commission E for catarrh of the upper respiratory tract and the British Pharmacopoeia also lists the antispasmodic, expectorant and cardiac depressant properties of this herb. The positive effects of this herb on the relief of symptoms of common cold have been recognized empirically. Indeed recent studies have shown it to have good expectorant and antispasmodic as well as moderate anti-inflammatory and antibiotic effects. It also appears to aid allergenic attacks, not only by relieving the symptoms but in creating anti-bodies to reduce episodes and their severity. Secondary uses include the treatment of cystitis and fever, usually in combinations with other herbs. It is also indicated externally in lotion form for the treatment of eczema, dermatitis and rashes due to poison ivy, hives etc.

ACTIONS: Anti-asthmatic, antibacterial, antidepressant, antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, cooling, decongestant, emetic, expectorant, immune support, mucolytic, regenerative, sedative.

EXTRACTION: The essential oil is steam distilled from the flowering plant.

CHARACTERISTICS: A mobile liquid with a strong, earthy-herbaceous, medicinal and slightly camphoraceous odour. It blends well with eucalyptus, ravintsara, myrtle, pine, cypress and peru balsam.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Alpha-pinene (aprox. 25 per cent) is the major constituent, with ?-pinene, limonene, borneol, bornyl acetate and germacrene D. Data is lacking regarding the interaction of the chemistry of the aromatic resin and the volatile oils.

SAFETY DATA: No adverse effects have been reported in the literature regarding the safety of Grindelia in the case of therapeutic application. However, data is lacking regarding the essential oil specifically.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, blisters, cuts, eczema, dermatitis, rashes (hives etc), stretch marks, scars, ulcers, wounds and skin care generally.

Respiratory System: Aids breathing, asthma, catarrh, chronic colds, bronchitis, congestion, hay fever, fever, ’flu, sinusitis, sore throat, whooping cough.

Immune System: Supports the immune system.

Nervous System: Nervous tension, stress.

OTHER USES: A homeopathic remedy is prepared from the leaves and flowering stems. It is used by pharmaceutical companies in whooping cough and asthma drugs; also available as a tincture.... grindelia