Chills Health Dictionary

A zoonosis. It is an acute, febrile, septicaemic disease caused by the Leptospira interrogans which has more than 200 serovars. The disease is characterised by a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations including fever, chills, headache, conjunctivitis and muscular pains. The disease may be subclinical in mild cases but jaundice and renal failure are observed in severe cases. Includes Weil’s Disease. Can result in an aseptic meningitis.... leptospirosis

In?ammation of the kidney (see KIDNEYS), usually the result of bacterial infection. The in?ammation may be acute or chronic. Acute pyelonephritis comes on suddenly, is commoner in women, and tends to occur when they are pregnant. Infection usually spreads up the URETER from the URINARY BLADDER which has become infected (CYSTITIS). Fevers, chills and backache are the usual presenting symptoms. ANTIBIOTICS should be given, and in severe cases the intravenous route may be necessary. SEPTICAEMIA is an occasional complication.

Chronic pyelonephritis may start in childhood, and the usual cause is back ?ow of urine from the bladder into one of the ureters – perhaps because of a congenital deformity of the valve where the ureter drains into the bladder. Constant urine re?ux results in recurrent infection of the kidney and damage to its tissue. Full investigation of the urinary tract is essential and, if an abnormality is detected, surgery may well be required to remedy it. HYPERTENSION and renal failure may be serious complications of pyelonephritis (see also KIDNEYS, DISEASES OF).... pyelonephritis

Gum Benzoin. Styrax benzoin. Dry. Part used: gum.

Action: astringent, carminative, expectorant, preservative, genito-urinary antiseptic, anti-fungal. Stimulates phagocytes.

Uses: Chronic bronchitis, coughs, affections of the respiratory organs (as part of Friar’s balsam). Mouth ulcers, as a mouth wash: 2 drops tincture in glass of water. Infective cystitis. Tears used as incense. Tincture in dentistry for oral herpes and Candida and as an anti-inflammatory after extraction. Preparations. Tincture Benzoin BPC: 5-15 drops in water. An ingredient of Whitfield’s ointment and Friar’s balsam. Poultice: for suppurating ulcers and wounds.

Aromatherapy. 3-5 drops in hot water as an inhalant for colds, influenza, chills. ... benzoin

Two types – simple and ulcerative. Inflammation of the membrane lining of the heart with the appearance of small fibrin accumulations on the valves. These may form during a specific fever – rheumatic, scarlet, etc, due to bacterial infection. In Bacterial Endocarditis, fragments of tissue may be shed from the main seat of infection and borne to other parts of the body, promoting inflammation or ischaemia elsewhere.

Affects more women than men, ages 20 to 40 years. Most cases have a history of rheumatic fever as a child. Thickening of the valves renders them less efficient in regulating the flow of blood through the heart thus allowing leakage by improper closure. Increased effort is required from the heart muscle to pump blood through the narrowed valves giving rise to fatigue and possible heart failure.

Prolapsus of the mitral valve is now recognised as predisposing to bacterial endocarditis. It is concluded that herbal antibiotic prophylaxis is justified in heart patients undergoing dental extraction, or other surgery where there is exposure to infection.

Symptoms: Breathlessness on exertion. Swelling of legs and ankles, palpitations, fainting, blue tinge to the skin and a permanent pink flush over the cheek bones. Clubbing of fingers. Enlarged spleen. Stethoscope reveals valvular regurgitation. The most common organism remains streptococcus viridans, by mouth. It may reach the heart by teeth extraction, scaling and intensive cleaning which may draw blood, posing a risk by bacteria.

Treatment. Acute conditions should be under the authority of a heart specialist in an Intensive Care Unit.

Absolute bedrest to relieve stress on the heart’s valves. For acute infection: Penicillin (or other essential antibiotics). Alternatives, of limited efficacy: Echinacea, Myrrh, Wild Indigo, Nasturtium, Holy Thistle. Avoid: excitement, chills, colds, fatigue and anything requiring extra cardiac effort. Convalescence will be long (weeks to months) during which resumption to normal activity should be gradual.

Aconite. With full bounding pulse and restless fever. Five drops Tincture Aconite to half a glass (100ml) water. 2 teaspoons hourly until temperature falls.

To sustain heart. Tincture Convallaria (Lily of the Valley), 5-15 drops, thrice daily.

To stimulate secretion of urine. Tincture Bearberry, 1-2 teaspoons, thrice daily.

Rheumatic conditions. Tincture Colchicum, 10-15 drops, thrice daily.

Various conventional treatments of the past can still be used with good effect: Tincture Strophanthus, 5 to 15 drops. Liquid Extract Black Cohosh, 15 to 30 drops. Spirits of Camphor, 5 to 10 drops. Bugleweed (American), 10 to 30 drops. To increase body strength: Echinacea. To sustain heart muscle: Hawthorn. Endocarditis with severe headache: Black Cohosh.

Teas: single or in combination (equal parts) – Nettles, Motherwort, Red Clover flowers, Lime flowers. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup 2-3 times daily.

Decoction: equal parts: Hawthorn berries, Echinacea root, Lily of the Valley leaves. Mix. 2 teaspoons to each 2 cups water in a non-aluminium vessel, gently simmer 10 minutes. Dose: 1 cup 2-3 times daily. Formula. Echinacea 20; Cactus 10; Hawthorn 10; Goldenseal 2. Mix. Dose: Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 1-3 teaspoons. Thrice daily.

Diet. See entry: DIET – HEART AND CIRCULATION. Pineapple juice. Treatment by or in liaison with general medical practitioner or cardiologist. ... endocarditis

Notifiable disease. The world’s No 1 public health enemy. Affects 108 nations. Still kills millions of people each year. Probably has claimed more lives than all the wars of history. In the 1960s was believed to have been eradicated but has made a dramatic reappearance due to the malaria-carrying mosquito’s resistance to insecticides. Few modern drugs have proved a match for malaria; quinine drugs of proven reliability still used. Quinine (Peruvian bark) has a history of safety and efficacy.

The disease is transmitted by the anopheles protozoa. Old cases present with fever, jaundice, diarrhoea and confusion.

Symptoms: incubation 2-5 weeks. Onset sudden, with shivering and high fever (104°F), headache, vomiting. Symptoms recur every 2-3 days. Blood sample examination confirms.

Treatment. Drugs once useful in the fight against malaria are losing their effectiveness. Drug resistance becomes a major problem; in which case the remedies of antiquity have something to offer.

Alternatives. Yarrow was once regarded as the Englishman’s Quinine. Nettle tea (Dr Compton Burnett). Prickly Ash (Ellingwood). Barberry, Chiretta, Peruvian bark BHP (1983). Mountain Grape (Berberis aquifolium) (Ellingwood). Wild Indigo, cases of extreme prostration (Dr Wm Boericke).

Sweet Wormwood. The Chinese Qing Hao (Artemisia annua) proved beneficial for millennia before Quinine arrived on the scene. Its re-discovery by Professor Nelson is declared ‘very effective’.

Formula. Liquid Extracts: Boneset 1; Yarrow 1; Barberry half; Valerian half. Few drops Tincture Capsicum. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons every 2 hours.

Malaria was rife in parts of America, especially Arkansus. During the Civil War it was difficult to obtain Quinine and various alternatives were tried. Where symptoms of chills and intermittent fever presented, Gelsemium gained considerable reputation as a substitute, also as a preventative. A favourite prescription was three drops tincture in a little brandy every 2-3 hours before the chill, and repeated every hour.

Dr M.H. Grannell, Sinaloa, Mexico. “I do not doubt that I treat more malaria than any other five physicians in the United States. My sole remedy, unless other indications present themselves, is Gelsemium. I give the following with never-failing results: 30 drops Tincture Gelsemium in 4oz water. Dose: 1 teaspoon hourly.” (Ellingwood, June 1920)

Thomas Nuttall, botanist. In 1819, when on tour in Arkansus, relieved a malarial attack with decoction of Boneset.

David Hoffman, MNIMH. 1 teaspoon Peruvian bark in each cup boiling water; infuse 30 minutes. Thrice daily.

Diet. 3-day fast.

Treatment by or in liaison with a general medical practitioner. ... malaria

Myrica cerifera. N.O. Myricaceae.

Synonym: Candleberry, Waxberry, Wax Myrtle.

Habitat: Near the sea in pastures and on stony soils.

Features ? The bark has a white, peeling epidermis covering a hard, reddish-brown layer beneath. It is slightly fibrous on the inner surface, and the fracture is granular. The taste is pungent, astringent and bitter, the odour faintly aromatic.

Part used ? The bark is the only part of the Bayberry shrub now used as a medicine.

Action: A powerful stimulant, astringent and tonic to the alimentary tract.

Bayberry bark is one of the most widely used agents in the herbal practice. It figures in many of the compound powders and is the base of the celebrated composition powder, a prescription of which will be found in the "Herbal Formulae" section of this volume. In cases of coldness of the extremities, chills and influenza, an infusion of 1 ounce of the powdered bark to 1 pint of water is taken warm. This assists circulation and promotes perspiration, especially when combined with Cayenne as in

the formula referred to above.

As an antiseptic the powder is added to poultices for application to ulcers, sores and wounds. It also makes an excellent snuff for nasal catarrh, and an ingredient in tooth powders, for which a prescription is given in the section previously mentioned.

The virtues of Bayberry bark were recognized and used beneficially by the herbalists of many generations ago. Indeed, their enthusiasm for this, as for certain other remedies also extremely efficacious within proper limits, led them to ascribe properties to the bark which it does not possess. Many affections of the uterine system, fistula, and even cancer were said to yield to its influence.

Even in these cases, however, Bayberry bark certainly did less harm than many of the methods employed by the more orthodox practitioners of that time !... bayberry

auct. non Linn.

Family: Rosaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at 3,0003,700 m Grows wild in Europe and Great Britain.

English: Avens Root, Herb Bennet, Wood Avens.

Action: Astringent, styptic, stomachic, febrifuge.

The herb and root was used in Europe in chronic dysentery, diarrhoea and intermittent fevers. In India, an infusion of the rootstock is used as sudorific in fevers, ague, chills and catarrh.

Eugenol is present in the root stock in combination with vacianose as phenolic glycoside gein. The rootstock contains tannins (30-40%).

A related species, G. elatum Wall., is found in the Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim It is used for dysentery and diarrhoea.... geum urbanum

Mill.

Synonym: Solanum lycopersicum Linn.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in many parts of India.

English: Tomato, Love Apple.

Unani: Tamaatar.

Action: Mild aperient, blood purifier, cholagogue, digestive. Used in homoeopathy for treating rheumatic conditions, colds, chills, digestive disorders, diabetes, obesity, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia.

Tomato is a powerful deobstruent. It promotes flow of bile; mildly laxative, especially when taken raw. Tomato stimulates torpid liver and kidneys and helps to wash away toxins. Tomato is recommended for diabetics. It is a major dietary source of carotenoid lycopene.

Tomato juice inhibits carcinogenic N-nitrosocompound formation chiefly in the stomach. Most of the inhibition of formation of N-nitrosomorpholine by phenolic fraction of tomato juice was due to chlorogenic acids. The ascorbate fraction of the juice also contains compounds that inhibit ni- trosation.

Consumption of tomato juice can significantly increase serum lycopene levels. (Decreased serum lycopene concentrations are associated with an increase risk of prostate cancer.) (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

The alcoholic extract of tomato possesses CNS depressant and analgesic properties.... lycopersicon esculentum

A vague feeling of feverishness, listlessness and languor, malaise sometimes precedes the onset of serious acute diseases, but more commonly accompanies passing illnesses such as DYSPEPSIA, chills and colds.... malaise

Parts: Bruised Cayenne pods 1; Cider Vinegar 20. Macerate for one month and filter. A hot stimulating condiment for use at table. 5-10 drops in tea or beverage for winter’s colds and chills. ... chillie vinegar

Peppermint and Composition Essence. Active ingredients: Each 10ml contains: Liquid extract Pleurisy root (1:1, 35 per cent alcohol) 0.15ml. Liquid extract Elecampane (1:1, 21 per cent alcohol) 0.15ml. Liquid extract Horehound (1:1, 20 per cent alcohol) 0.15ml. Liquid extract Skunk Cabbage (1:1, 21 per cent alcohol) 0.15ml. Tincture Lobelia (1:12.5, 5.8 per cent Acetic Acid) 0.225ml, in a syrup base. Chills and feverish colds. (Potter’s, UK) ... elderflowers

A bacterial infection of the skin and the tissues beneath it, usually affecting the face, neck, or legs. Cellulitis is most commonly caused by streptococci bacteria, which enter the skin via a wound. The affected area is hot, tender, and red, and there may be fever and chills. Untreated cellulitis at the site of a wound may progress to bacteraemia and septicaemia or, occasionally, to gangrene. Cellulitis is usually more severe in people with reduced immune response, such as those with diabetes mellitus or an immunodeficiency disorder. Treatment is with an antibiotic such as a penicillin drug or erythromycin. (See also erysipelas.)... cellulitis

Mentha pulegium. N.O. Labiateae.

Synonym: European Pennyroyal.

Habitat: Not common as a wild plant, except on damp heaths and commons. Frequently seen in cottage gardens. Indigenous to Britain and Europe.

Features ? This member of the mint family grows up to twelve inches high, the stem

being bluntly quadrangular. The one to one and a half inch long, egg-shaped leaves are opposite, on short stalks ; they are slightly serrate and nearly smooth. Purple flowers appear in August. The odour is rather pungent, mint-like but characteristic.

Part used ? The whole herb.

Action: Carminative, emmenagogue, diaphoretic and stimulant.

An infusion of 1 ounce to 1 pint of boiling water, taken warm in teacupful doses frequently repeated, is helpful in hysteria, flatulence and sickness. For children's ailments such as feverish colds, disordered stomach and measles, Pennyroyal infusion may be given in appropriate doses with confidence. Its diaphoretic and stimulant action recommends it for chills and incipient fevers, and the infusion works as an emmenagogue when such ailments retard and obstruct menstruation. The oil of Pennyroyal is a first-rate protection against the bites of mosquitoes, gnats, and similar winged pests. The herb is used to some extent as a flavouring. Although not so popular as other herbs for this purpose, the mint-like flavour and carminative virtues of Pennyroyal should recommend it to cooks as adding to both palatability and digestibility of various dishes.

American or Mock Pennyroyal are the names given to the dried leaves and flowering tops of Hedeoma pulegioides. This plant, although quite different in appearance from the European Pennyroyal, has similar medicinal values.... pennyroyal

Desv.

Synonym: Hedysarum pictum Jacq.

Family: Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India, in dry grasslands. Ayurvedic: Prishniparni, Prithak- parni, Simhapushpi, Kalashi, Dhaavani, Guhaa, Chitraparni.

Siddha/Tamil: Oripai.

Action: Root—prescribed for cough, chills and fevers. Leaves—antiseptic, used for urinary discharges and genitourinary infections.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends a decoction of whole plant in alcoholism, insanity, psychosis; cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea; diseases due to vitiated blood; gout; bleeding piles; blood dysentery, acute diarrhoea.

The plant is credited with fracture- healing properties. Its total extract exhibits better and quicker healing of fractures in experimental animals due to early accumulation of phosphorus and more deposition of calcium.

Dosage: Whole plant—20-50 g powder for decoction. (API, Vol. IV.)... uraria picta

Teucrium scorodonia. N.O. Labiateae.

Synonym: Garlic Sage, Wood Germander.

Habitat: Heaths, commons, woods.

Features ? Very similar in appearance to the ordinary garden, or culinary sage. Part used ? Herb.

Action: Diaphoretic, astringent, emmenagogue, tonic.

In feverish colds and faulty menstruation due to chills. Wineglass doses of the 1 ounce to 1 pint infusions are taken warm. Hool tells us that Wood Sage "combined with Comfrey and Ragwort, freely influences the bladder," and that it is "an appetiser of the first order, and as a tonic will be found equal to Gentian."... wood sage

A form of pneumonia that is caused by LEGIONELLA PNEUMOPHILA, a bacterium that breeds in warm, moist conditions. The source of infection is often an air-conditioning system in a large, public building.

The first symptoms include headache, muscular and abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and a dry cough.

Over the next few days, pneumonia develops, resulting in a high fever, shaking chills, coughing up of thick sputum (phlegm), drowsiness, and sometimes delirium.

Treatment is with the antibiotic drug erythromycin.... legionnaires’ disease

n. an osmotic *diuretic administered mainly to reduce intracranial pressure in brain injuries and also in the emergency treatment of glaucoma. Side-effects include fever and chills. Mannitol powder is inhaled to treat cystic fibrosis.... mannitol

a disease of mice caused by the bacterium Rickettsia akari and transmitted to humans by mites: it produces chills, fever, muscular pain, and a rash similar to that of *chickenpox. The disease is mild and runs its course in 2–3 weeks. See also typhus.... rickettsial pox

(tsutsugamushi disease) a disease, widely distributed in SE Asia, caused by the parasitic bacterium Rickettsia tsutsugamushi and transmitted to humans through the bite of mites. Only larval mites of the genus *Trombicula are involved as vectors. Symptoms include headache, chills, high temperature (104°F), a red rash over most of the body, a cough, and delirium. A small ulcer forms at the site of the bite. Scrub typhus is treated with tetracycline and other broad-spectrum antibiotics. See also rickettsiae; typhus.... scrub typhus

An acute arbovirus (see ARBOVIRUSES) infection caused by a ?avivirus of the togavirus family, transmitted from animals to humans by various species of forest mosquito (jungle/sylvan yellow fever), and from human to human by Aëdes aegypti (urban yellow fever). Mosquito transmission was shown by Walter Reed and his colleagues in 1900. It is ENDEMIC in much of tropical Africa and Central and South America but does not occur in Asia. In the urban cycle, humans constitute the reservoir of infection, and in the jungle/sylvan variety, mammals – especially subhuman primates – are involved in transmission. Historically, yellow fever was enormously important, causing devastating epidemics (see EPIDEMIC); it also carried a high mortality rate in travellers and explorers. Differentiation from other infections associated with JAUNDICE was often impossible.

Clinically, yellow fever is characterised by jaundice, fever, chills, headache, gastrointestinal haemorrhage(s), and ALBUMINURIA. The incubation period is 3–6 (up to 10) days. Differentiation from viral hepatitides, other viral haemorrhagic fevers, severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria, and several other infections is often impossible without sophisticated investigative techniques. Infection carries a high mortality rate. Liver histology (biopsy is contraindicated due to the haemorrhagic diathesis) shows characteristic changes; a fulminating hepatic infection is often present. Acute in?ammation of the kidneys and an in?amed, congested gastric mucosa, often accompanied by haemorrhage, are also demonstrable; myocardial involvement often occurs. Diagnosis is primarily based on virological techniques; serological tests are also of value. Yellow fever should be suspected in any travellers from an endemic area.

Management consists of instituting techniques for acute hepatocellular (liver-cell) failure. The affected individual should be kept in an isolation unit, away from mosquitoes which could transmit the disease to a healthy individual. Formerly, laboratory infections were occasionally acquired from infected blood samples. Prophylactically, a satisfactory attenuated VACCINE (17D) has been available for around 60 years; this is given subcutaneously and provides an individual with excellent protection for ten years; international certi?cates are valid for this length of time. Every traveller to an endemic area should be immunised; this is mandatory for entry to countries where the infection is endemic.... yellow fever

Black Elder. Sambucus nigra L. Flowers, bark, berries. German: Holunder. French: Sureau. Spanish: Sauco. Italian: Sambreo.

Constituents: flavonoids, oil, tannins.

Berries contain Vitamin C and iron. Elderblossom works well with Peppermint or Yarrow, as a tea. Action: anti-inflammatory, laxative (especially berries and bark), anticatarrhal, relaxing diaphoretic, hydragogue (inner bark), cathartic (inner bark). Elderblossom is an emollient skin care product. Emetic (inner bark). Diuretic (urinary antiseptic). An ancient household remedy for promoting flow of urine (cold infusion). Expectorant (hot infusion).

Uses: the common cold, influenza, winter’s chills, early stages of fevers with dry skin and raised body temperature. Nasal catarrh, sinusitis. Tonsillitis, inflammation of mouth, throat and trachea (mouth wash and gargle). Night sweats (cold infusion). Chilblains (local).

“The inner bark of Elder has been used with success in epilepsy by taking suckers or branches 1-2 years old. The grey outer bark is scraped off and 2oz of it steeped in 5oz boiling water for 48 hours. Strain. Give a wineglassful every 15 minutes when a fit is threatening. Have the patient fast. Resume every 6 to 8 days.” (Dr F. Brown (1875))

Croup (combined with Coltsfoot – equal parts). Eyestrain, conjunctivitis, twitching: cotton wool pads soaked in cold Elder tea applied to the closed lids, patient lying down.

Preparations: Tea (flowers) 2 teaspoons (2-4g) in each cup boiling water; infuse 5 minutes. Half-1 cup two-hourly for acute conditions. Cold tea is laxative and sedative. Hot tea excites and stimulates. Cold tea soothes and heals chapped hands and useful for sunbathing.

Distilled Elderflower water: for inflamed eyes.

Liquid Extract. 1 teaspoon in water, thrice daily.

Home tincture (traditional). Chippings of inner green bark macerated in white wine for 8 days, strain; for dropsy and constipation.

Ointment. 3 parts fresh Elder leaves. Heat with 6 parts Vaseline until leaves are crisp; strain and store. (David Hoffmann)

Elderberry wine: traditional.

Powder: dose, 3-5g.

Veterinary. “If sheep or farm animals with foot-rot have access to the bark and young leaves, they soon cure themselves.” (Dr John Clarke, Dictionary of Materia Medica) ... elder

n. a *monoclonal antibody used to treat types of breast cancer and metastatic stomach cancer that are positive for *HER2: the drug binds to these receptors on the tumour. Side-effects include damage to the heart, chills, fever, and allergic reactions.... trastuzumab

an infection of the digestive system by the bacterium Salmonella typhi, causing general weakness, headache, high fever, a rash (rose spots) on the chest and abdomen, chills, and sweating. In serious cases inflammation of the spleen and bones, delirium, and intestinal haemorrhage may occur. It is transmitted through food or drinking water contaminated by the faeces or urine of patients or carriers. Often recovery occurs naturally but relapses are common. Treatment is usually with antibiotics, such as ciprofloxacin or ceftriaxone. Vaccines that provide temporary immunity are available. Compare paratyphoid fever.... typhoid fever

Hyssopus officinalis L. German: Ysop. French: Hyssope officinale. Spanish: Hisopo. Iranian: Ush-naz-daoud. Indian: Jupha?. Arabian: Zupho. Herb. Keynote: lungs.

Constituents: volatile oil, flavonoids, terpenoids, Mucilage, Resin.

Action: to induce heavy sweating in fevers, hypertensive to increase blood pressure, expectorant, emmenagogue, mild analgesic, diuretic. Antispasmodic. (Mills) External antiseptic.

Antiviral action against herpes simplex virus reported. (E.C. Herrmann, Jr., & L.S. Kucera, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 124, 874, 1967)

Uses: Bronchitis, colds, chills, catarrh, sore throat. Has been used in hysteria, anxiety states and petil mal BHP (1983). Respiratory disorders of nervous background in children.

Externally: eczema, bruises.

Combinations: with Betony (tea: equal parts) for tendency to epileptic episodes.

Preparations: Average dose: 2-4 grams. Thrice daily.

Tea: 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water: infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup freely in acute conditions; childrens’ fevers.

Liquid Extract: 30-60 drops, in water.

Tincture BHP (1983) 1:5 in 45 per cent alcohol; dose 2-4ml.

Essential oil. 1-2 drops in water or honey after meals (digestive). 5-6 drops in 2 teaspoons Almond oil (chest rub for congested bronchi). 1-2 drops in honey between meals for worms in children. ... hyssop

 Now usually termed VIRAL HEPATITIS. Swelling of liver cells obstructs drainage. Plugged mucus in the bile duct; often caused by gluten foods. Aftermath of chills and colds or from excess milky or starchy foods. Congestion may be dispersed by speeding elimination of waste products of metabolism via the bowel (Blue Flag), the kidneys (Dandelion), and the skin (Devil’s Claw). Anti-catarrhals with special reference to the liver: Gotu Kola, Plantain, Goldenseal, Mountain Grape, Barberry.

Alternatives. Teas. Agrimony, Boldo, Balmony, Dandelion, Plantain, Gotu Kola.

Cold infusion. 2 teaspoons Barberry bark to each cup cold water; steep overnight. Half-1 cup every 3 hours.

Tablets/capsules. Goldenseal, Dandelion, Blue Flag, Devil’s Claw.

Formula. Equal parts: Dandelion, Devil’s Claw, Barberry. Dose – Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid Extracts: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: two 5ml teaspoons. Every 3 hours. ... jaundice, catarrhal

A combination of tinctures devised to stimulate a healthy reaction from the major organs of the body. For promoting body warmth in winter; mobilising resources to fight off colds, chills, or threatening infection. When the fires of life burn low, a few drops in a cup of tea has power to revive and rouse the vital force.

Ingredients: Tincture Capsicum fort 70 per cent, (general stimulant). Ess Menth Pip 20 per cent (stomach and intestines). Tincture Elder flowers 5 per cent (to promote vigorous peripheral circulation). Tincture Cola vera 2 per cent (to activate brain cells). Tincture Hawthorn (or Cactus grand) 3 per cent (to sustain the heart).

Formula: Edgar G. Jones MNIMH ... life drops

Abnormally heavy menstrual bleeding; more than normal flow and lasting longer. Causes: iron deficiency, shock, thyroid gland disturbance, ovarian insufficiency, prolapse, polypi, fibroids, congestion of the womb, or failure of the blood to coagulate – for which coagulants and Vitamin K are indicated. Hormone imbalance. Use of intra uterine devices (IUD).

Symptoms: legs and hands cold, pale face, alternate heats and chills, loss of appetite, nervous exhaustion, pain in the back and loins.

General use. Uterine astringents.

Alternatives. Bayberry bark, Beth root, Black Haw, Blue Cohosh, Broom, Cranesbill (American), Goldenseal, Lady’s Mantle, Life root, Periwinkle (greater), Raspberry leaves, Rhatany root, Shepherd’s Purse, Yarrow. For reduction of menstrual flow without arrest.

Raspberry leaves. A gentle astringent tea for mild cases.

Agnus Castus. Heavy bleeding between periods.

Formula. Tea. Equal parts: Lady’s Mantle, Raspberry leaves, Shepherd’s Purse. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. 1 cup freely.

Formula. Powders. Black Haw 3; Bayberry bark 3; Cinnamon 1. Dose: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon) 3-4 times daily.

For the severe case. Formula. Bur-marigold 2; Lady’s Mantle 2; Beth root 1. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1-2 teaspoons; Tinctures: 2-3 teaspoons; every 2 hours.

Prophylactic: Mistletoe, taken at least 14 days before period. For prolonged heavy loss, refer patient to a gynaecologist.

Diet. Vitamin K foods. Iron foods. Prunes. Kelp. Irish Moss.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamin A, 7,500iu, Vitamin C, 1g. Vitamin E, 200iu. Vitamin K, 5mcg. Bioflavonoids. Calcium. Iodine. Iron – Floradix.

Sitz bath. Has a toning effect upon the pelvic organs, arresting high blood loss. See: SITZ BATH. ... menorrhagia

An infection caused by the amoeba ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA, a tiny single-celled parasite that lives in the human large intestine. Amoebiasis is spread through drinking water or eating food contaminated by human excreta containing cysts of the amoeba.

Some people carry the amoeba in their intestines and excrete cysts but have no symptoms.

However, some strains invade and ulcerate the intestinal wall, causing diarrhoea and abdominal pain, which may develop into full-blown dysentery.

The amoebae may spread via the bloodstream to the liver, or, rarely, the brain or lung, where they cause abscesses.

Symptoms of an amoebic liver abscess are chills, fever, weight loss, and painful enlargement of the liver.

Treatment of all forms of amoebiasis is with drugs such as metronidazole or diloxanide, which kill the parasite within a few weeks, leading to full recovery.... amoebiasis

An uncommon form of liver cirrhosis that results from problems with the bile ducts, either due to an autoimmune disorder known as primary biliary cirrhosis, or a longstanding blockage. Primary biliary cirrhosis affects mainly middle-aged women and seems to be linked with a malfunction of the immune system. Secondary biliary cirrhosis results from prolonged bile duct obstruction or biliary atresia. In both types, liver function is impaired due to cholestasis (accumulation of bile in the liver). In primary biliary cirrhosis, the bile ducts within the liver become inflamed and are destroyed. Symptoms include itching, jaundice, an enlarged liver, and sometimes abdominal pain, fatty diarrhoea, and xanthomatosis. Osteoporosis may develop. Symptoms of liver cirrhosis and liver failure may occur after several years. Drugs can minimize complications and relieve symptoms such as itching. A liver transplant is the only long-term cure.

The symptoms and signs of secondary biliary cirrhosis include abdominal pain and tenderness, liver enlargement, fevers and chills, and sometimes blood abnormalities. Treatment is the same as for bile duct obstruction.... biliary cirrhosis

Analysis of a sample of blood to give information on its cells and proteins and any of the chemicals, antigens, antibodies, and gases that it carries. Such tests can be used to check on the health of major organs, as well as on respiratory function, hormonal balance, the immune system, and metabolism. Blood tests may look at numbers, shape, size, and appearance of blood cells and assess the function of clotting factors. The most important tests are blood count and blood group tests if transfusion is needed. Biochemical tests measure chemicals in the blood (see acid–base balance; kidney function tests; liver function tests). Microbiological tests (see immunoassay) look for microorganisms that are in the blood, as

in septicaemia. Microbiology also looks for antibodies in the blood, which may confirm immunity to an infection. blood transfusion The infusion of large volumes of blood or blood products directly into the bloodstream to remedy severe blood loss or to correct chronic anaemia. In an exchange transfusion, nearly all of the recipient’s blood is replaced by donor blood. Before a transfusion, a sample of the recipient’s blood is taken to identify the blood groups, and it is matched with suitable donor blood. The donor blood is transfused into an arm vein through a plastic cannula. Usually, each unit (about 500 ml) of blood is given over 1–4 hours; in an emergency, 500 ml may be given in a couple of minutes. The blood pressure, temperature, and pulse are monitored during the procedure.

If mismatched blood is accidentally introduced into the circulation, antibodies in the recipient’s blood may cause donor cells to burst, leading to shock or kidney failure. Less severe reactions can produce fever, chills, or a rash. Reactions can also occur as a result of an allergy to transfused blood components. All

blood used for transfusion is carefully screened for a number of infectious agents, including HIV (the AIDS virus) and hepatitis B and hepatitis C.

In elderly or severely anaemic patients, transfusion can overload the circulation, leading to heart failure.

In patients with chronic anaemia who need regular transfusion over many years, excess iron may accumulate (haemosiderosis) and damage organs such as the heart, liver, and pancreas.

Treatment with desferrioxamine to remove excess iron may be needed.... blood tests

Inflammation of the common bile duct (see biliary system). There are 2 types: acute ascending cholangitis and sclerosing cholangitis. Acute ascending cholangitis is usually due to bacterial infection of the duct and its bile, generally as a result of blockage of the duct by, for example, a gallstone (see bile duct obstruction). The infection spreads up the duct and may affect the liver. The main symptoms are recurrent bouts of jaundice, abdominal pain, chills, and fever. Mild attacks are treated with antibiotics and a high intake of fluids. In severe, life-threatening attacks, which may be accompanied by septicaemia and kidney failure, the infected material may be drained from the bile duct by surgery or endoscopy.

Sclerosing cholangitis is a rare condition in which all the bile ducts within and outside the liver become narrowed.

The condition causes cholestasis, chronic jaundice, and itching of the skin.

The liver is progressively damaged.

Colestyramine may relieve itching.

The only other treatment available is a liver transplant.... cholangitis

Inflammation of the bladder lining, usually due to a bacterial infection. The main symptoms are a frequent urge to pass urine and burning pain on urinating. Urine may be foul-smelling or contain blood. There may be fever and chills, and lower abdominal discomfort.

Cystitis is common in women because the urethra is short, making it easier for bacteria to pass into the bladder. A bladder calculus (stone), a bladder tumour, or a urethral stricture can obstruct urine flow and increase the risk of infection. In men, cystitis is rare; it usually occurs when an obstruction, such as an enslarged prostate gland (see prostate, enlarged), compresses the urethra. Cystitis is children is often associated with a structural abnormality of the ureters, which allows reflux (backward flow) of urine. The use of catheters (see catheterization, urinary) also carries the risk of infection. Diabetics are especially susceptible to urinary tract infections.

Symptoms of mild cystitis may be relieved by drinking 1 pint (1?2 liter) of fluid every 4 hours. Any infection is treated with antibiotic drugs.... cystitis

Inflammation of the lungs due to infection. There are 2 main types: lobar pneumonia and bronchopneumonia. Lobar pneumonia initially affects 1 lobe of a lung. In bronchopneumonia, inflammation initially starts in the bronchi and bronchioles (airways).

Pneumonia can be caused by any type of microorganism, but most cases are due to viruses, such as adenovirus, or bacteria, such as STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE, HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE, and STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS. Symptoms are usually fever, chills, shortness of breath, and a cough that produces yellow-green sputum and occasionally blood. Potential complications include pleural effusion, pleurisy, and a lung abscess.

Diagnosis is made by physical examination, chest X-ray, and examining sputum and blood for microorganisms.

Treatment depends on the cause, and may include antibiotic drugs or antifungal drugs.

Aspirin or paracetamol may be given to reduce fever, and, in severe cases, oxygen therapy and artificial ventilation may be needed.

In most cases, recovery usually occurs within 2 weeks.... pneumonia

A potentially life-threatening condition in which there is rapid multiplication of bacteria and in which bacterial toxins are present in the blood. (See also bacteraemia.)

Septicaemia usually arises through escape of bacteria from a focus of infection, such as an abscess, and is more likely to occur in people with an immunodeficiency disorder, cancer, or diabetes mellitus; in those who take immunosuppressant drugs; and in drug addicts who inject.

Symptoms include a fever, chills, rapid breathing, headache, and clouding of consciousness. The sufferer may go into life-threatening septic shock.

Glucose and/or saline are given by intravenous infusion, and antibiotics by injection or infusion.

Surgery may be necessary to remove the original infection.

If treatment is given before septic shock develops, the outlook is good.... septicaemia

n. inflammation of the liver caused by viruses, toxic substances (including alcohol), autoimmune disease, metabolic disease, or the excess deposition of fat (see nonalcoholic fatty liver disease). Infectious hepatitis is caused by viruses, several types of which have been isolated. These include hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, hepatitis D, and hepatitis E. Other viral causes of hepatitis include *Epstein-Barr virus, *cytomegalovirus, and rarely *herpes simplex virus. Hepatitis A is transmitted by food or drink contaminated by a carrier or patient and commonly occurs where sanitation is poor. After an incubation period of 15–40 days, the patient develops fatigue, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, arthralgia, and fever. Yellow discoloration of the skin (see jaundice) appears about a week later and persists for up to three weeks. The patient may be infectious throughout this period. Serious complications are unusual and an attack often confers immunity. Injection of *gammaglobulin provides temporary protection, but active immunization is preferable.

Hepatitis B (formerly known as serum hepatitis) is transmitted by infected blood or blood products contaminating hypodermic needles, blood transfusions, or tattooing needles, by unprotected sexual contact, or (rarely) by contact with any other body fluid. It often occurs in drug users. Symptoms, which develop suddenly after an incubation period of 1–6 months, include headache, fever, chills, general weakness, and jaundice. Treatment includes *interferon alfa and other oral antivirals (e.g. *lamivudine, *adefovir dipivoxil, entecavir). Most patients make a gradual recovery but the mortality rate is 5–20%. A vaccine is available.

Hepatitis C (formerly known as non-A, non-B hepatitis) has a mode of transmission similar to that of hepatitis B (predominantly intravenous drug abuse). Treatment is with interferon alfa, peginterferon alfa, ribavirin, telaprevir, and boceprevir.

Hepatitis D is a defective virus that can only proliferate when there is infection with hepatitis B. Patients with D virus usually have severe chronic hepatitis.

Hepatitis E is transmitted by infected food or drink and can cause acute hepatitis; it is especially severe in a pregnant patient.

Chronic hepatitis continues for months or years, eventually leading to *cirrhosis and possibly to malignancy (see hepatoma). It is usually caused by chronic viral hepatitis, alcohol, or autoimmune disease.... hepatitis

(African trypanosomiasis) a disease of tropical Africa caused by the presence in the blood of the parasitic protozoans *Trypanosoma gambiense or T. rhodesiense. The parasites are transmitted through the bite of *tsetse flies. Initial symptoms include fever, headache, and chills, followed later by enlargement of the lymph nodes, anaemia, and pains in the limbs and joints. After a period of several months or even years, the parasites invade the minute blood vessels supplying the central nervous system. This causes drowsiness and lethargy, and ultimately – if untreated – the patient dies. Rhodesian sleeping sickness is the more virulent form of the disease. Drugs used to treat the acute stage of the disease include eflornithine, pentamidine, and suramin; melarsoprol (a drug containing arsenic) is used after the brain is affected. Eradication of tsetse flies helps prevent spread of the infection.... sleeping sickness

Pimenta dioica

FAMILY: Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS: P. officinalis, pimento, pimenta, Jamaica pepper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree which reaches about 10 metres high and begins to produce fruit in its third year. Each fruit contains two kidney-shaped green seeds which turn glossy black upon ripening.

DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the West Indies and South America, it is cultivated extensively in Jamaica, Cuba and, to a lesser degree, in Central America. Imported berries are distilled in Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES: Four other varieties of pimento are found in Venezuela, Guyana and the West Indies which are used locally as spices.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used for flatulent indigestion and externally for neuralgic or rheumatic pain. Pimento water is used as a vehicle for medicines which ease dyspepsia and constipation since it helps prevent griping pains. It is used extensively as a domestic spice – allspice is so called because it tastes like a combination of cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon and pepper.

ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, carminative, muscle relaxant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the leaves, and 2. the fruit. The green unripe berries contain more oil than the ripe berries, but the largest percentage of oil is contained in the shell of the fruit. An oleoresin from the berries is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pimenta leaf oil is a yellowish-red or brownish liquid with a powerful sweet-spicy scent, similar to cloves. 2. Pimenta berry oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet warm balsamic-spicy bodynote (middle note) and fresh, clean top note. It blends well with ginger, geranium, lavender, opopanax, labdanum, ylang ylang, patchouli, neroli, oriental and spicy bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly eugenol, less in the fruit (60–80 per cent) than in the leaves (up to 96 per cent), also methyl eugenol, cineol, phellandrene and cryophyllene among others.

SAFETY DATA: Eugenol irritates the mucous membranes, and has been found to cause dermal irritation. Pimenta leaf and berry oil should therefore be used with care in low dilutions only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:

Circulation, muscles and joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscle cramp, rheumatism, stiffness etc. ‘Used in tiny amounts … in a massage oil for chest infections, for severe muscle spasm to restore mobility quickly, or where extreme cold is experienced.’1

Respiratory System: Chills, congested coughs, bronchitis.

Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion, nausea.

Nervous System: Depression, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, tension and stress.

OTHER USES: Used in aromatic carminative medicines; as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially soaps, aftershaves, spicy and oriental fragrances. Both leaf and berry oil are used extensively for flavouring foods, especially savoury and frozen foods, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... allspice

Copaifera officinalis

FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS: Copahu balsam, copaiba, copaiva, Jesuit’s balsam, Maracaibo balsam, para balsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Wild-growing tropical tree up to 18 metres high, with thick foliage and many branches. The natural oleoresin occurs as a physiological product from various Copaifera species. Not a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to north east and central South America. Mainly produced in Brazil; also Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and Colombia.

OTHER SPECIES: Several Copaifera speices yield an oleoresin: the Venezuelan type ‘Maracaibo balsam’ has a low oil content, the Brazilian type ‘para balsam’ has a high oil content. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used for centuries in Europe in the treatment of chronic cystitis and bronchitis; also for treating piles, chronic diarrhoea and intestinal problems.

ACTIONS: Batericidal, balsamic, disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: 1. The crude balsam is collected by drilling holes into the tree trunks; it is one of the most plentiful naturally occurring perfume materials. 2. An essential oil is obtained by dry distillation from the crude balsam. It is mainly the ‘para balsams’ with a high oil content (60–80 per cent), which are used for distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The crude balsam is a viscous, yellowy-brown or greenish-grey liquid which hardens upon exposure to air with a mild, woody, slightly spicy odour. It blends well with styrax, amyris, lavandin, cedarwood, lavender, oakmoss, woods and spices. 2. The oil is a pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a mild, sweet, balsamic-peppery odour. It blends well with cananga, ylang ylang, vanilla, jasmine, violet and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly caryophyllene.

SAFETY DATA: Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Large doses cause vomiting and diarrhoea.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Intestinal infections, piles.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, colds, coughs, etc.

Genito-Rinary System: Cystitis.

Nervous System: Stress-related conditons.

OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in pharmaceutical products especially cough medicines and iuretics. The oil and crude balsam are extensively used as a fixative and fragrance component in all types of perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and detergents. The crude is also used in porcelain painting.

BALSAM, PERU... balsam, copaiba

Myrocarpus Fastigiatus

FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS: Cabureicica, ‘Baume de Perou brun’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful, tall tropical tree, 12–15 metres high, with a very hard wood, extremely resistant to moisture and mould growth. It yields a balsam when the trunk is damaged, like many other South American trees.

DISTRIBUTION: Found in Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and north Argentina.

OTHER SPECIES: Many varieties of Myrocarpus yield cabreuva oil, such as M. frondosus. It is also botanically related to the trees which yield copaiba, Peru and Tolu balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The wood is highly appreciated for carving and furniture making. It is used by the natives to heal wounds, ulcers and obviate scars. It was once listed in old European pharmocopoeias for its antiseptic qualities.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from wood chippings (waste from the timber mills).

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, viscous liquid with a sweet, woody-floral scent, very delicate but having great tenacity. It blends well with rose, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, rich woody and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly nerolidol (80 per cent approx.), farnesol, bisabolol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Cuts, scars, wounds.

Respiratory System: Chills, coughs.

Immune System: Colds.

OTHER USES: Fragrance component and fixative in soaps and high-class perfumes, especially floral, woody or oriental types. Previously used for the isolation of nerolidol, now produced synthetically.... cabreuva

Calamintha officinalis

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: C. clinopodium, Melissa calaminta, calamint, common calamint, mill mountain, mountain balm, mountain mint, basil thyme, nepeta (oil), French marjoram (oil), wild basil (oil), catnip (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect, bushy, perennial plant not more than one metre high, with square stems, soft oval serrated leaves, greyish-green beneath, and rather inconspicuous pale purple flowers. The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent which is attractive to cats.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Himalayas), naturalized throughout North America and South Africa. Cultivated for its oil in the Mediterranean region, Yugoslavia, Poland and in the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous similar species found throughout the world, such as the lesser calamintha (C. nepeta) which has a stronger odour and is often used interchangeably with common calamint. It is also closely related to catmint or catnip (Nepeta cataria) also known as calamint, with which it shares similar properties. Not to be confused with winter and summer savory (Satureja montana and S. hortensis).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It has a long history of use as a herbal remedy mainly for nervous and digestive complaints, also menstrual pain, colds, chills and cramp. Catmint is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic in children and for the common cold.

ACTIONS: Anaesthetic (local), antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a herbaceous-woody, pungent odour, somewhat resembling pennyroyal.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Citral, nerol, citronellol, limonene and geraniol, among others. The active ingredient that attracts cats is metatabilacetone (3–5 percent). Constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing; possible toxic effects in concentration. (The Chinese shrub Actinidia polygama also contains metatabilacetone, which is responsible for its hallucinogenic and narcotic effects.) Use in moderation. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Chills, cold in the joints, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Digestive System: Colic, flatulence, nervous dyspepsia.

Nervous System: Insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Used as a wild cat lure in the USA. Occasionally used in perfumery work.... calamintha

Citrus x paradisi

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYMS: C. racemosa, C. maxima var. racemosa, shaddock (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A cultivated tree, often over 10 metres high with glossy leaves and large yellow fruits, believed to have derived from the shaddock (C. grandis).

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, and the West Indies; cultivated in California, Florida, Brazil and Israel. The oil is mainly produced in California.

OTHER SPECIES: C. paradisi is a recent hybrid of C. maxima and C. sinesis. There are many different cultivars; for example, ‘Duncan’ is standard in Florida.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It shares the nutritional qualities of other citrus species, being high in Vitamin C and a valuable protection against infectious illness.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antitoxic, astringent, bactericidal, diuretic, depurative, stimulant (lymphatic, digestive), tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by cold expression from the fresh peel. (Some oil is distilled from the peel and remains of the fruit after the juice has been utilized, but this is of inferior quality.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a fresh, sweet citrus aroma. It blends well with lemon, palmarosa, bergamot, neroli, rosemary, cypress, lavender, geranium, cardomon and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Limonene (90 per cent), cadinene, paradisiol, neral, geraniol, citronellal, sinensal, as well as esters, coumarins and furocoumarins.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing, non-phototoxic. It has a short shelf life – it oxidizes quickly.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

SKIN CARE: Acne, congested and oily skin, promotes hair growth, tones the skin and tissues.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, exercise preparation, muscle fatigue, obesity, stiffness, water retention.

Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu.

Nervous System: Depression, headaches, nervous exhaustion, performance stress.

OTHER USES: Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively used in desserts, soft drinks and alcoholic beverages.... grapefruit

Cinnamomum camphora

FAMILY: Lauraceae

SYNONYMS: Laurus camphora, true camphor, hon-sho, laurel camphor, gum camphor, Japanese camphor, Formosa camphor.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, handsome, evergreen tree, up to 30 metres high, not unlike the linden. It has many branches bearing clusters of small white flowers followed by red berries. It produces a white crystalline substance, the crude camphor, from the wood of mature trees over fifty years old.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Japan and Taiwan principally, also China; cultivated in India, Ceylon, Egypt, Madagascar, southern Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of camphor: the ho-sho variety produces ho leaf and ho wood oil; the Chinese variety produces apopin oil; the Japan and Taiwan type, known as hon-sho or true camphor, produces two chemotypes: camphor-safrol (Japan) and camphor-linalol (Taiwan). All these are to be distinguished from the Borneo camphor or borneol which is of different botanical origin.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A long-standing traditional preventative of infectious disease; a lump of camphor would be worn around the neck as a protection. In addition it was used for nervous and respiratory diseases in general, and for heart failure! However, in its crude form it is very poisonous in large doses, and has been removed from the British Pharmacopoeia.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, counter-irritant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, rubefacient, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Crude camphor is collected from the trees in crystalline form. The essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the wood, root stumps and branches and then rectified under vacuum and filter pressed to produce three fractions, known as white, brown and yellow camphor.

CHARACTERISTICS: White camphor is the lightest (lowest boiling) fraction, a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sharp, pungent camphoraceous odour. Brown camphor is the middle fraction. Yellow camphor, a blue-green or yellowish liquid, is the heaviest.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1 White camphor contains mainly cineol, with pinene, terpineol, menthol, thymol and no safrol. 2. Brown camphor contains up to 80 per cent safrol and some terpineol. 3. Yellow camphor contains mainly safrol, sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols.

SAFETY DATA: Brown and yellow camphor (containing safrol) are toxic and carcinogenic and ‘should not be used in therapy, either internally or externally.’. White camphor does not contain safrol and is relatively non-toxic, non-sensitizing and non-irritant. It is, however, an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE White camphor may be used with care for:

Skin care: Acne, inflammation, oily conditions, spots; also for insect prevention (flies, moths, etc).

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, etc.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, coughs.

Immune System: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious disease.

OTHER USES: White and brown camphor are used as the starting material for the isolation of many perfumery chemicals, for example safrol and cineol. White camphor is used as a solvent in the paint and lacquer industry, and for the production of celluloid. Fractions of white oil are used as fragrance and masking agents in detergents, soaps, disinfectants and household products.... camphor

Brassica nigra

FAMILY: Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)

SYNONYMS: Sinapsis nigra, B. sinapioides, black mustard.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect annual up to 3 metres high, with spear-shaped upper leaves, smooth flat pods containing about ten dark brown seeds, and bright yellow cabbage-like flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Common throughout south eastern Europe, southern Siberia, Asia Minor and North Africa; naturalized in North and South America. Cultivated for its seed and oil in England, Holland, Denmark, Germany and Italy.

OTHER SPECIES: The Russian variety is known as brown mustard or ‘sarepta’ (B. juncea); the white mustard (B. alba) does not contain any essential oil. Also closely related is rape (B. napus) and other local species which are used in India and China.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The seeds are highly esteemed as a condiment and for their medicinal qualities. They have been used in the East and West to aid the digestion, warm the stomach and promote the appetite, and for cold, stiff or feverish conditions such as colds, chills, coughs, chilblains, rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago and general aches and pains.

ACTIONS: Aperitif, antimicrobial, antiseptic, diuretic, emetic, febrifuge, rubefacient (produces blistering of the skin), stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the black mustard seeds, which have been macerated in warm water.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sharp, penetrating, acrid odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Allyl isothiocyanate (99 per cent). NB: Black mustard seed or powder does not contain this constituent, which is only formed by contact with water during the production of the essential oil.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin, dermal toxin, mucous membrane irritant. It is considered one of the most toxic of all essential oils.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘It should not be used in therapy either externally or internally.’.

OTHER USES: Used in certain rubefacient or counter-irritant liniments. Used extensively by the food industry especially in pickles, seasonings and sauces. Little used as a fragrance component except in cat and dog repellents.... mustard

Cinnamomum zeylanicum

FAMILY: Lauraceae

SYNONYMS: C. verum, Laurus cinnamomum, Ceylon cinnamon, Seychelles cinnamon, Madagascar cinnamon, true cinnamon, cinnamon leaf (oil), cinnamon bark (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical evergreen tree up to 15 metres high, with strong branches and thick scabrous bark with young shoots speckled greeny-orange. It has shiny green, leathery leaves, small white flowers and oval bluish-white berries. The leaves have a spicy smell when bruised.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Sri Lanka, Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, South India, Burma and Indochina. It is also cultivated in India, Jamaica and Africa – each region tending to have its own particular species.

OTHER SPECIES: Madagascar cinnamon is considered superior to the various other types of cinnamon such as the Saigon cinnamon (C. loureirii) and the Batavia Cinnamon (C. burmanii). See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The inner bark of the new shoots from the cinnamon tree are gathered every two years and sold in the form of sticks for use as a domestic spice. It has been used for thousands of years in the east for a wide range of complaints including colds, ’flu, digestive and menstrual problems, rheumatism, kidney troubles and as a general stimulant. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic and dyspepsia with nausea.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal, antidote (to poison), antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiputrescent, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue, haemostatic, orexigenic, parasiticide, refrigerant, spasmolytic, stimulant (circulatory, cardiac, respiratory), stomachic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the 1. leaves and twigs, and 2. dried inner bark.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A yellow to brownish liquid with a warm-spicy, somewhat harsh odour. 2. A pale to dark yellow liquid with a sweet, warm-spicy, dry, tenacious odour. It blends well with olibanum, ylang ylang, orange, mandarin, benzoin, Peru balsam and in oriental type mixtures.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Leaf – eugenol (80-96 per cent), eugenol acetate, cinnamaldehyde (3 per cent), benzyl benzoate, linalol, safrol among others. 2. Bark - cinnamaldehyde (40-50 per cent), eugenol (4-10 per cent), benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, pinene, cineol, phellandrene, furfurol, cymene, linalol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: 1. The leaf oil is relatively nontoxic, though possibly irritant due to cinnamaldehyde. Its major component, eugenol, causes irritation to the mucous membranes: use in moderation. 2. The bark oil is a dermal toxin, irritant and sensitizer; also irritant to the mucous membranes. ‘Should never be used on the skin (one of the most hazardous oils).’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Cinnamon bark oil – none. Cinnamon leaf oil:

Skin care: Lice, scabies, tooth and gum care, warts, wasp stings.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Poor circulation, rheumatism.

Digestive System: Anorexia, colitis, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, intestinal infection, sluggish digestion, spasm.

Genito-Urinary System: Childbirth (stimulates contractions), frigidity, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia, scanty periods.

Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.

Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Both bark and leaf oils are used for their fragrance and therapeutic actions in toothpastes, nasal sprays, mouthwashes, cough syrups and dental preparations. The leaf oil is used in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes. Both are used extensively in food flavouring, especially in alcoholic and soft drinks, including Coca-Cola.... cinnamon

Zingiber officinale

FAMILY: Zingiberaceae

SYNONYMS: Common ginger, Jamaica ginger.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect perennial herb up to 1 metre high with a thick, spreading, tuberous rhizome root, which is very pungent. Each year it sends up a green reedlike stalk with narrow spear-shaped leaves and white or yellow flowers on a spike direct from the root.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Asia, extensively cultivated all over the tropics in Nigeria, the West Indies, India, China, Jamaica and Japan. Most oil is distilled in the UK, China and India.

OTHER SPECIES: Several varieties according to location which are all used to produce oils with slight variations in their constitiuents; for example the African oil is generally darker. Another member of the same family, galangal (Alpinia officinarum), is also known as ginger root or Chinese ginger.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ginger has been used as a domestic spice and as a remedy for thousands of years, especially in the East. Fresh ginger is used in China for many complaints including rheumatism, bacterial dysentery, toothache, malaria, and for cold and moist conditions such as excess mucus and diarrhoea.

It is best known as a digestive aid, especially in the West: in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is specifically indicated for flatulent intestinal colic. Preserved and crystallized ginger is a popular sweet, in the East and West.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the unpeeled, dried, ground root. (An absolute and oleoresin are also produced for use in perfumery.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, amber or greenish liquid with a warm, slightly green, fresh, woody-spicy scent. It blends well with sandalwood, vetiver, patchouli, frankincense, rosewood, cedarwood, coriander, rose, lime, neroli, orange and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Gingerin, gingenol, gingerone, zingiberine, linalol, camphene, phellandrene, citral, cineol, borneol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), slightly phototoxic; may cause sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, strains etc.

Respiratory System: Catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.

Digestive System: Diarrhoea, colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion, loss of appitite, nausea, travel sickness.

Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, fever, infectious disease.

Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion.

OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in digestive, carminative and laxative preparations; used as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental and men’s fragrances; extensively employed in all major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... ginger

Solidago canadensis

FAMILY: Asteraceae

SYNONYMS: S. canadensis var. gilvocanescens, S. altissima, S. canadensis var. salebrosa, Canadian goldenrod, meadow goldenrod, common goldenrod, giant goldenrod, tall goldenrod, rough goldenrod.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Solidago canadensis is a herbaceous, perennial plant of the daisy family often found growing as a wildflower, commonly forming colonies. The stem is stiff and erect, growing up to 7 feet high with numerous branches and lance-shaped leaves. The attractive small yellow or golden flowers are held above the foliage in clusters, which bloom late in the season. Goldenrod is often unfairly blamed for causing hay fever in humans although the pollen causing these allergy problems is mainly produced by ragweed, another wild plant which blooms at the same time. Goldenrods have a reputation of being difficult to control due to their aggressive rhizomatous growth, which enables them to rapidly colonize large areas.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, the herb occurs in most US states and Canadian provinces. It is found in a variety of habitats, and it typically is one of the first plants to colonize an area after disturbance (such as fire) but rarely persists once shrubs and trees become established and is found neither in very dry locations nor in waterlogged ones. In many parts of Europe, Japan and China, it is considered an invasive weed, often endangering local fauna.

OTHER SPECIES: The genus Solidago comprises over 140 varieties, many of which are very similar; it can even crossbreed with other plants! Nearly all are known simply as goldenrod, though some have specific folk names such as woundwort, Aaron’s rod and Blue Mountain tea. Most of the goldenrod species are native to North America although a few are native to Europe, Asia, North Africa and South America. The European goldenrod (S. virgaurea), was known as woundwort in England as it was used as an astringent remedy for treating wounds and bleeding. The sweet goldenrod (S. odora), a native of the US and Canada, is the species most frequently seen in herb gardens and is also used to produce an essential oil used by the perfumery industry. Sweet goldenrod also has a long history of medicinal use by Native Americans and was exported for tea in the nineteenth century.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The genus name Solidago derives from the Latin soldare, which means ‘to make whole’. Goldenrod has a long history of medicinal use especially by the Native Americans who used the plant for a wide range of conditions: infusions and compounds of the flowers and roots were used as emetics, sedatives and to counteract love potions, treat diarrhoea, fevers and the ’flu. The Shuswap used the plant in baths for women giving birth and the Zunis chewed crushed flowers to treat sore throats and drank infusions of the flowers for body pain. People of the Gosiute tribe ate the seeds and the Navajo people ate the roots. The Navajo also smoked the root with other plants and used the plant as a charm for success in gambling. The ground flowers were used on bee stings and a tea made to treat snakebite. During the Boston Tea Party, colonists drank goldenrod tea instead of English tea, which gave it the nick-name ‘Liberty Tea’. The tea is aromatic with a pleasing anise-like flavour as well as being a mildly astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge and stimulant.

Traditionally the herb has also been used for respiratory conditions and urinary tract infections. In the Swiss Pharmacopoeia, Goldenrod essential oil is indicated for supporting the circulatory system including cardiovascular problems like tachycardia as well as urinary tract and liver function. Goldenrod has also been approved by the German Commission as a natural anti-inflammatory, diuretic and antispasmodic in the treatment of urinary tract conditions. It is also reputed to be a lymphatic system conditioner, a regulator of the autonomic nervous system, with relaxing and calming effects valuable for hypertension.

According to the University of Montreal in Canada, goldenrod shows great potential in dealing with impotence. Although a little-known aromatherapy essential oil, it may have value due to its anti-allergy properties, for conditions like hay fever, allergic reactions, coughs and respiratory infections.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antihypertensive, antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, immuno-stimulant, liver support/stimulant, mucolytic, sedative.

EXTRACTION: The essential oil is steam distilled from the goldenrod flower.

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellowish liquid with a strong fresh, balsamic-peppery and slightly bitter aroma with a woody undertone. It blends well with ravintsara, peru balsam, rosemary, pine, ginger, spruce and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinene, bornyl acetate, benzoates, myrcene, methyl chavicol, borneol and limonene. NB: Essential oil from a sample of S. odora contained up to 75 per cent methyl chavicol (estragole), which is known to be moderately toxic

SAFETY DATA: Generally considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing: possible skin sensitivity. Avoid during pregnancy and for children due to high levels of estragole in some chemotypes.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, cuts, inflammations of the skin, insect bites, sores, wounds.

Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills, coughs and colds, hay fever, allergies, laryngitis (as a gargle) and respiratory congestion, sinus infection, sore throat, ’flu.

Digestive system: Liver congestion, hepatitis and fatty liver.

Genito-urinary system: Urinary tract and bladder conditions.

Immune system: Boosts vitality.

Nervous system: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension, stress.

OTHER USES: The essential oil is used in pharmaceutical and in perfumery products, especially for scenting soaps. Mustard, orange and brown dyes can be obtained from the whole plant.... goldenrod

Cinnamomum camphora ct linalol

FAMILY: Lauraceae

SYNOYNMS Ho oil, ho-wood il, shiu oil, ho-leaf oil.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, tropical evergreen tree, quite dense with small white flowers and black berries, which grows up to 30 metres in height. This is the same tree that produces camphor comes from the wood of the tree.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to China, Japan, Taiwan and south-east Asia. It is now cultivated in many tropical and sub-tropical countries including India, Australia, Madagascar and parts of the USA where it has naturalized.

OTHER SPECIES: Cinnamomum camphora is a large genus with many subspecies which yield a volatile oil on distillation, including ho oil (wood and leaf), camphor, apopin, sassafras and ravintsara. All these essential oils, although derived from the same principal botanical species, differ in their chemical profile enormously depending on their country of origin as well as the part of the plant used to extract the oil. There are thus many different subvarieties of the camphor tree found throughout Asia, for example the Yu-sho in China and the Sho-guy variety found in Taiwan. Ho (wood and leaf) oil is derived both from the Hon-sho and Ho-sho varieties growing mainly in Japan and Taiwan. This variety has linalool as its major constituent.

Rosewood (Aniba rosaedora), a native tree of the Amazon, also yields an oil very rich in linalool. However, rosewood became endangered due to over-harvesting and although plantations have since been planted, it will take time for the trees to mature. Rosewood oil and ho wood oil are very similar in nature, and since ho wood is more renewable, it is increasingly used as a replacement for the former. However, ho leaf oil, distilled from the leaves of C. camphora, is gradually beginning to replace ho wood oil in aromatherapy usage, because its scent is smoother, containing hardly any camphor-like notes.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ho wood has traditionally been used for making the handles of Japanese swords and knives because it is soft and will not scratch the blades. It is also used nowadays for ornamental parts of houses, carpentry and cabinet making, as it is of a very similar beauty to rosewood. Ho wood oil became very popular in Taiwan during the 1900s as a linalool-rich product, locally referred to as shiu oil. C. camphora was also heavily exploited as a source of camphor in Japan and Taiwan until World War II.

The high ‘linalool’ content makes Ho oil a potent immune system stimulant (good for infections such as cold or ’flu) as well as a powerful relaxant or sedative … soothing yet uplifting in effect. Recent studies also suggest that the oil may play a role as a cellular stimulant and tissue regenerator, being beneficial for complaints associated with the skin.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-fungal, anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, immune support, sedative, tonic. It is also believed to be a mild aphrodisiac.

EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves (ho leaf oil) and wood (ho wood oil)

CHARACTERISTICS: Ho wood oil is a pale yellow liquid with a soft, warm, floral, spicy-woody scent with a slightly camphor-like undertone. The leaf oil has a sweet-fresh, green-floral and woody scent. It blends well with basil, bergamot, cedarwood, chamomile, lavender, lime, geranium, juniper, neroli, petitgrain, myrtle, sandalwood, ylang ylang and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ho (wood and leaf) oil contains up to 99 per cent linalool, with traces of limonene, myrcene, gamma-terpinene and other components. Ho wood oil generally contains higher levels of cineol. Japanese ho oil ‘A’ quality has a linalool content of 94 per cent or more; a ‘B’ grade has 85–90 per cent linalool.

SAFETY DATA: It is non-toxic and non-irritant but with possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, cuts, dermatitis, stretch marks, scars, wounds & general skin care: dry, oily, mature and sensitive skin.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Aches and pains caused by inflammation.

Respiratory System: Chills, coughs and colds, ’flu.

Immune System: Low libido and frigidity: boosts vitality.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, insomnia, nervous tension, stress.

OTHER USES: The use of C. camphora as a source of ho leaf and wood oil has expanded in recent years and it is now an important source of natural linalool (which is still preferred over the synthetic form) for some fragrance applications in the perfumery industry. Indeed, ho leaf and wood oil has largely displaced the use of rosewood as a source of natural linalool. It is also an effective insect repellent.... ho wood

Citrus sinensis

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYMS: C. aurantium var. dulcis, C. aurantium var. sinensis, China orange, Portugal orange.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree, smaller than the bitter variety, less hardy with fewer or no spines. The fruit has a sweet pulp and non-bitter membranes. Another distinguishing feature is the shape of the leaf stalk: the bitter orange is broader and in the shape of a heart.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to China; extensively cultivated especially in America (California and Florida) and round the Mediterranean (France, Spain, Italy). The expressed oil is mainly produced in Israel, Cyprus, Brazil and North America; the distilled oil mainly comes from the Mediterranean and North America.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous cultivated varieties of sweet orange, for example Jaffa, Navel and Valencia. There are also many other subspecies such as the Japanese orange (C. aurantium var. natsudaidai). See also bitter orange.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A very nutritious fruit, containing vitamins A, B and C. In Chinese medicine the dried sweet orange peel is used to treat coughs, colds, anorexia and malignant breast sores. Li Shih-chen says: ‘The fruits of all the different species and varieties of citrus are considered by the Chinese to be cooling. If eaten in excess they are thought to increase the “phlegm”, and this is probably not advantageous to the health. The sweet varieties increase bronchial secretion, and the sour promote expectoration. They all quench thirst, and are stomachic and carminative.’.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, choleretic, digestive, fungicidal, hypotensive, sedative (nervous), stimulant (digestive and lymphatic), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by cold expression (hand or machine) of the fresh ripe or almost ripe outer peel. 2. Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh ripe or almost ripe outer peel. An oil of inferior quality is also produced by distillation from the essences recovered as a byproduct of orange juice manufacture. Distilled sweet orange oil oxidizes very quickly, and anti-oxidant agents are often added at the place of production. (An oil from the flowers is also produced occasionally called neroli Portugal or neroli petalae; an oil from the leaves is also produced in small quantities.)

SYNONYM: 1. A yellowy-orange or dark orange mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh fruity scent, richer than the distilled oil. It blends well with lavender, neroli, lemon, clary sage, myrrh and spice oils such as nutmeg, cinnamon and clove.

2. A pale yellow or colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, light-fruity scent, but little tenacity.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 90 per cent monoterpenes, mainly limonene. The cold expressed oil also contains bergapten, auraptenol and acids.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic (although ingestion of large amounts of orange peel has been known to be fatal to children); non-irritant and non-sensitizing (although limonene has been found to cause dermatitis in a few individuals). Distilled orange oil is phototoxic: its use on the skin should be avoided if there is danger of exposure to direct sunlight. However, there is no evidence to show that expressed sweet orange oil is phototoxic although it too contains coumarins.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Dull and oily complexions, mouth ulcers.

Circulation muscles and joints: Obesity, palpitations, water retention.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, chills.

Digestive system: Constipation, dyspepsia, spasm.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu.

Nervous system: Nervous tension and stressrelated conditions.

OTHER USES: Sweet orange peel tincture is used to flavour pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially eau-de-colognes. Extensively used in all areas of the food and drinks industry (more so than the bitter orange oil). Used as the starting material for the isolation of naturallimonene.... orange, sweet

Piper nigrum

FAMILY: Piperaceae

SYNONYMS: Piper, pepper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial woody vine up to 5 metres high with heart-shaped leaves and small white flowers. The berries turn from red to black as they mature – black pepper is the dried fully grown unripe fruit.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to south west India; cultivated extensively in tropical countries. Major producers are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and Madagascar. It is also distilled in Europe and America from the imported dried fruits.

OTHER SPECIES: The so-called white pepper is the dried ripe fruit with the outer pericarp removed. Not to be confused with cayenne pepper or paprika from the capsicum species, which are used to make an oleoresin.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both black and white pepper have been used in the East for over 4000 years for medicinal and culinary purposes. In Chinese medicine, white pepper is used to treat malaria, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, stomach ache and other digestive problems. In Greece it is used for intermittent fever and to fortify the stomach. ‘The mendicant monks of India who cover daily considerable distances on foot, swallow 7–9 grains of pepper a day. This gives them remarkable endurance.’.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant (nervous, circulatory, digestive), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the black peppercorns, dried and crushed. (‘Light’ and ‘heavy’ oils are produced by the extraction of the low or high boiling fractions respectively.) An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction, mainly for flavour use.

CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white to pale olive mobile liquid with a fresh, dry-woody, warm, spicy scent. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, spices and florals (in minute quantities).

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes (70–80 per cent): thujene, pinene, camphene, sabinene, carene, myrcene, limonene, phellandrene, and sesquiterpenes (20–30 per cent) and oxygenated compounds.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, irritant in high concentration due to rubefacient properties. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Chilblains.

Circulation muscles and joints: Anaemia, arthritis, muscular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, poor muscle tone (muscular atonia), rheumatic pain, sprains, stiffness.

Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills.

Digestive system: Colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections and viruses.

OTHER USES: Used in certain tonic and rubefacient preparations. Used for unusual effects in perfumery work; for example, with rose or carnation in oriental or floral fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are used extensively in the food industry, as well as in alcoholic drinks.... pepper, black

Thymus vulgaris

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: T. aestivus, T. ilerdensis, T. webbianus, T. valentianus, French thyme, garden thyme, red thyme (oil), white thyme (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial evergreen subshrub up to 45 cms high with a woody root and much-branched upright stem. It has small, grey-green, oval, aromatic leaves and pale purple or white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Spain and the Mediterranean region; now found throughout Asia Minor, Algeria, Turkey, Tunisia, Israel, the USA, Russia, China and central Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Spain but also in France, Israel, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Germany and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous varieties of thyme – the common thyme is believed to have derived from the wild thyme or mother-of-thyme (T. serpyllum), which is also used to produce an essential oil called serpolet, similar in effect to the common thyme oil.

Another species used for the production of the so-called red thyme oil is particularly the Spanish sauce thyme (T. zygis), a highly penetrating oil good for cellulitis, sports injuries, etc. (although, like the common thyme, it is a skin irritant). Other species used for essential oil production include lemon thyme (T. citriodorus), a fresh scented oil good for asthma and other respiratory conditions, safe for children. Spanish marjoram (T. Mastichina) is actually botanically classified as a variety of thyme, with which it shares many common properties, despite its common name. Spanish marjoram contains mainly 1,8-cineole (up to 75 per cent) and linalool (up to 20 per cent), so therapeutically has much in common with eucalyptus, being well suited to treating viral and bacterial respiratory infections. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest medicinal plants employed throughout the Mediterranean region, well known to both Hippocrates and Dioscorides. It was used by the ancient Egyptians in the embalming process, and by the ancient Greeks to fumigate against infectious illness; the name derives from the Greek thymos meaning ‘to perfume’. It is also a long-established culinary herb, especially used for the preservation of meat.

It has a wide range of uses, though in Western herbal medicine its main areas of application are respiratory problems, digestive complaints and the prevention and treatment of infection. In the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is indicated for dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, bronchitis, pertussis, asthma, children’s diarrhoea, laryngitis, tonsillitis and enuresis in children.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiputrescent, antirheumatic, antiseptic (intestinal, pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antitussive, antitoxic, aperitif, astringent, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypertensive, nervine, revulsive, rubefacient, parasiticide, stimulant (immune system, circulation), sudorific, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and flowering tops. 1. ‘Red thyme oil’ is the crude distillate. 2. ‘White thyme oil’ is produced by further redistillation or rectification. (An absolute is also produced in France by solvent extraction for perfumery use.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A red, brown or orange liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, powerful odour. 2. A clear, pale yellow liquid with a sweet, green-fresh, milder scent. It blends well with bergamot, lemon, rosemary, melissa, lavender, lavandin, marjoram, Peru balsam, pine, etc.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thymol and carvacrol (up to 60 per cent), cymene, terpinene, camphene, borneol, linalol; depending on the source it can also contain geraniol, citral and thuyanol, etc.

There are many chemotypes of thyme oil: notably the ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ types (warming and active); the ‘thuyanol’ type (penetrating and antiviral); and the milder ‘linalol’ or ‘citral’ types (sweet-scented, non-irritant).

SAFETY DATA: Red thyme oil, serpolet (from wild thyme), ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ type oils all contain quite large amounts of toxic phenols (carvacrol and thymol). They can irritate mucous membranes, cause dermal irritation and may cause sensitization in some individuals. Use in moderation, in low dilution only. They are best avoided during pregnancy.

White thyme is not a ‘complete’ oil and is often adulterated. Lemon thyme and ‘linalol’types are in general less toxic, non-irritant, with less possibility of sensitization – safe for use on the skin and with children.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Abscess, acne, bruises, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, insect bites, lice, gum infections, oily skin, scabies.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, gout, muscular aches and pains, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, sports injuries.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis, sinusitis, sore throat, tonsillitis.

Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence.

Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urethritis.

Immune system: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.

Nervous system: Headaches, insomnia, nervous debility and stress-related complaints – ‘helps to revive and strengthen both body and mind’..

OTHER USES: The oil is used in mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes and cough lozenges. ‘Thymol’ is isolated for pharmaceutical use in surgical dressings, disinfectants etc. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, aftershaves, perfumes, colognes, etc. Extensively employed by the food and drink industry, especially in meat products.... thyme, common