Chloroform Health Dictionary

Royle.

Synonym: A. pindrow Spach. A. webbiana Lindl. var. pindrow Brandis. Pinus pindrow Royle.

Family: Pinaceae.

Habitat: Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Tehri-Garhwal and other areas of northern India, at altitudes of 2,100-3,600 m.

English: Pindrow-Fir, Silver-Fir, The West-Himalayan Low-Level Fir.

Ayurvedic: Taalisha (related sp.).

Folk: Badar, Morinda, Raisalla, Ransla.

Action: Uses similar to those of A. webbiana.

Terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosides and steroids of the leaf were found to have mast cell stabilizing action in rats. Terpenoids and flavonoids offered bronchoprotection against his- tamine challenge in guinea pigs. The ulcer protective action of petroleum ether, benzene and chloroform fraction has been attributed to steroidal contents. Terephthalic acid demethyl ester (TADE), isolated from the leaf, exhibited protection against inflammation and bronchospasm in guinea pigs. Ethanolic extract of leaves showed significant anxiolytic effects on all the paradigms of anxiety, barbiturate hypnosis potentiation.

Pindrolactone, a lanostane-based triterpene lactone, isolated from the leaves, showed mild activity against Gram-positive bacteria but exhibited potent antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria E. coli.... abies pindrow

(Roxb.) Baill.

Synonym: A. chinense (Lour.) Harms.

Family: Alangiaceae.

Habitat: The plains and foothills, up to an altitude of 2,100 m.

Ayurvedic: Ankola (related sp.).

Folk: Akhani.

Action: Bark and roots—sedative, anthelmintic.

A triterpenoid was responsible for the sedative effect on motor activity of rat brain.

Chloroform extract of the drug, which was devoid of anabasine, exhibited prominent sedative effect in rat. It significantly decreased concentration of norepinephrine in cortex, of dopamine and serotonin (5-HT) in brain stem, but increased concentration of 5-HT in cortex.... alangium begoniaefolium

Asphyxia means literally absence of pulse, but is the name given to the whole series of symptoms which follow stoppage of breathing and of the heart’s action. Drowning is one cause, but obstruction of the AIR PASSAGES may occur as the result of a foreign body or in some diseases, such as CROUP, DIPHTHERIA, swelling of the throat due to wounds or in?ammation, ASTHMA (to a partial extent), tumours in the chest (causing slow asphyxia), and the external conditions of su?ocation and strangling. Placing the head in a plastic bag results in asphyxia, and poisonous gases also cause asphyxia: for example, CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) gas, which may be given o? by a stove or charcoal brazier in a badly ventilated room, can kill people during sleep. Several gases, such as sulphurous acid (from burning sulphur), ammonia, and chlorine (from bleaching-powder), cause involuntary closure of the entrance to the larynx, and thus prevent breathing. Other gases, such as nitrous oxide (or laughing-gas), chloroform, and ether, in poisonous quantity, stop the breathing by paralysing the respiration centre in the brain.

Symptoms In most cases, death from asphyxia is due to insu?ciency of oxygen supplied to the blood. The ?rst signs are rapid pulse and gasping for breath. Next comes a rise in the blood pressure, causing throbbing in the head, with lividity or blueness of the skin, due to failure of aeration of the blood, followed by still greater struggles for breath and by general CONVULSIONS. The heart becomes overdistended and gradually weaker, a paralytic stage sets in, and all struggling and breathing slowly cease. When asphyxia is due to charcoal fumes, coal-gas, and other narcotic in?uences, there is no convulsive stage, and death ensues gently and may occur in the course of sleep.

Treatment So long as the heart continues to beat, recovery may be looked for with prompt treatment. The one essential of treatment is to get the impure blood aerated by arti?cial respiration. Besides this, the feeble circulation can be helped by various methods. (See APPENDIX 1: BASIC FIRST AID – Choking; Cardiac/respiratory arrest.)... asphyxia

A clear, yellow liquid, of aromatic smell and burning taste, prepared by distillation from pine-wood or beech-wood. It mixes readily with alcohol, ether, chloroform, glycerin, and oils.

Creosote is a powerful antiseptic and disinfectant; it is also an ingredient of some disinfectant ?uids.... creosote

Stertor is a form of noisy breathing, similar to SNORING, and usually due to ?apping of the soft PALATE. Whereas ordinary snoring results from sleeping with the mouth open, stertor is the result of paralysis of the soft palate: this may be the result of a stroke, su?ocation, concussion, drunkenness, or poisoning by OPIUM or chloroform. In severe cases of paralysis, the tongue may loll back against the back of the throat, resulting in a very loud sound. In such cases breathing may be rapidly relieved by pulling the lower jaw forwards, pulling the tongue out of the mouth, or turning the person on to one side.... stertor

n. one of a group of naturally occurring compounds that are soluble in solvents such as chloroform or alcohol, but insoluble in water. Lipids are important dietary constituents, not only because of their high energy value but also because certain vitamins and *essential fatty acids are associated with them. The group includes *fats, *steroids, *phospholipids, and *glycolipids.... lipid

The loss or absence of sensation or feeling. Commonly used to describe a reversible process which allows operations and painful or unpleasant procedures to be performed without distress to the patient.

The speciality of anaesthesia broadly covers its provision for SURGERY, intensive therapy (intensive care), chronic pain management, acute pain management and obstetric analgesia. Anaesthetists in Britain are trained specialists with a medical degree, but in many countries some anaesthetists may be nurse practitioners working under the supervision of a medical anaesthetist.

The anaesthetist will assess the patient’s ?tness for anaesthesia, choose and perform the appropriate type of anaesthetic while monitoring and caring for the patient’s well-being, and, after the anaesthetic, supervise recovery and the provision of post-operative pain relief.

Anaesthesia may be broadly divided into general and local anaesthesia. Quite commonly the two are combined to allow continued relief of pain at the operation site after the patient awakens.

General anaesthesia is most often produced by using a combination of drugs to induce a state of reversible UNCONSCIOUSNESS. ‘Balanced’ anaesthesia uses a combination of drugs to provide unconsciousness, analgesia, and a greater or lesser degree of muscle relaxation.

A general anaesthetic comprises induction, maintenance and recovery. Historically, anaesthesia has been divided into four stages (see below), but these are only clearly seen during induction and maintenance of anaesthesia using inhalational agents alone.

(1) Onset of induction to unconsciousness

(2) Stage of excitement

(3) Surgical anaesthesia

(4) Overdosage

Induction involves the initial production of unconsciousness. Most often this is by INTRAVENOUS injection of a short-acting anaesthetic agent such as PROPOFOL, THIOPENTONE or ETOMIDATE, often accompanied by additional drugs such as ANALGESICS to smooth the process. Alternatively an inhalational technique may be used.

Maintenance of anaesthesia may be provided by continuous or intermittent use of intravenous drugs, but is commonly provided by administration of OXYGEN and NITROUS OXIDE or air containing a volatile anaesthetic agent. Anaesthetic machines are capable of providing a constant concentration of these, and have fail-safe mechanisms and monitors which guard against the patient’s receiving a gas mixture with inadequate oxygen (see HYPOXIC). The gases are adminstered to the patient via a breathing circuit either through a mask, a laryngeal mask or via ENDOTRACHEAL INTUBATION. In recent years, concerns about side-effects and pollution caused by volatile agents have led to increased popularity of total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA).

For some types of surgery the patient is paralysed using muscle relaxants and then arti?cially ventilated by machine (see VENTILATOR). Patients are closely monitored during anaesthesia by the anaesthetist using a variety of devices. Minimal monitoring includes ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG), blood pressure, PULSE OXIMETRY, inspired oxygen and end-tidal carbon-dioxide concentration – the amount of carbon dioxide breathed out when the lungs are at the ‘empty’ stage of the breathing cycle. Analgesic drugs (pain relievers) and local or regional anaesthetic blocks are often given to supplement general anaesthesia.

Volatile anaesthetics are either halogenated hydrocarbons (see HALOTHANE) or halogenated ethers (iso?urane, en?urane, des?urane and sevo?urane). The latter two are the most recently introduced agents, and produce the most rapid induction and recovery – though on a worldwide basis halothane, ether and chloroform are still widely used.

Despite several theories, the mode of action of these agents is not fully understood. Their e?cacy is related to how well they dissolve into the LIPID substances in nerve cells, and it is thought that they act at more than one site within brain cells – probably at the cell membrane. By whatever method, they reversibly depress the conduction of impulses within the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM and thereby produce unconsciousness.

At the end of surgery any muscle relaxant still in the patient’s body is reversed, the volatile agent is turned o? and the patient breathes oxygen or oxygen-enriched air. This is the reversal or recovery phase of anaesthesia. Once the anaesthetist is satis?ed with the degree of recovery, patients are transferred to a recovery area within the operating-theatre complex where they are cared for by specialist sta?, under the supervision of an anaesthetist, until they are ready to return to the ward. (See also ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF THE LUNGS.) Local anaesthetics are drugs which reversibly block the conduction of impulses in nerves. They therefore produce anaesthesia (and muscle relaxation) only in those areas of the body served by the nerve(s) affected by these drugs. Many drugs have some local anaesthetic action but the drugs used speci?cally for this purpose are all amide or ester derivatives of aromatic acids. Variations in the basic structure produce drugs with di?erent speeds of onset, duration of action and preferential SENSORY rather than MOTOR blockade (stopping the activity in the sensory or motor nerves respectively).

The use of local rather than general anaesthesia will depend on the type of surgery and in some cases the unsuitability of the patient for general anaesthesia. It is also used to supplement general anaesthesia, relieve pain in labour (see under PREGNANCY AND LABOUR) and in the treatment of pain in persons not undergoing surgery. Several commonly used techniques are listed below:

LOCAL INFILTRATION An area of anaesthetised skin or tissue is produced by injecting local anaesthetic around it. This technique is used for removing small super?cial lesions or anaesthetising surgical incisions.

NERVE BLOCKS Local anaesthetic is injected close to a nerve or nerve plexus, often using a peripheral nerve stimulator to identify the correct point. The anaesthetic di?uses into the nerve, blocking it and producing anaesthesia in the area supplied by it.

SPINAL ANAESTHESIA Small volumes of local anaesthetic are injected into the cerebrospinal ?uid through a small-bore needle which has been inserted through the tissues of the back and the dura mater (the outer membrane surrounding the spinal cord). A dense motor and sensory blockade is produced in the lower half of the body. How high up in the body it reaches is dependent on the volume and dose of anaesthetic, the patient’s position and individual variation. If the block is too high, then respiratory-muscle paralysis and therefore respiratory arrest may occur. HYPOTENSION (low blood pressure) may occur because of peripheral vasodilation caused by sympathetic-nerve blockade. Occasionally spinal anaesthesia is complicated by a headache, perhaps caused by continuing leakage of cerebrospinal ?uid from the dural puncture point.

EPIDURAL ANAESTHESIA Spinal nerves are blocked in the epidural space with local anaesthetic injected through a ?ne plastic tube (catheter) which is introduced into the space using a special needle (Tuohy needle). It can be used as a continuous technique either by intermittent injections, an infusion or by patient-controlled pump. This makes it ideal for surgery in the lower part of the body, the relief of pain in labour and for post-operative analgesia. Complications include hypotension, spinal headache (less than 1:100), poor e?cacy, nerve damage (1:12,000) and spinal-cord compression from CLOT or ABSCESS (extremely rare).... anaesthesia

Linn.

Synonym: B. repens Linn. B. procumbens Roxb.

Family: Nyctaginaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India as a weed.

English: Horse-purslane, Hogweed.

Ayurvedic: Rakta-punarnavaa, Punarnavaa, Katthilla, Shophaghni, Shothaghni. Varshaabhu (also equated with Trianthema portu- lacastrum Linn., which exhibits anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic activity).

Unani: Itsit, Bishkhaparaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Mookkirattai.

Folk: Gadaha-purnaa.

Action: Diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, spasmolytic, antibacterial (used for inflammatory renal diseases, nephrotic syndrome, in cases of ascites resulting from early cirrhosis of liver and chronic peritonitis, dropsy associated with chronic Bright's diseases, for serum uric acid levels). Root—anticon- vulsant, analgesic, expectorant, CNS depressant, laxative, diuretic, abortifacient.

Key application: As diuretic, hepatoprotective. (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)

B. repanda, synonym B. chinensis Linn., roots exhibited antihepatotox- ic activity against carbon tetrachloride galactosamine-and paracetamol- induced intoxication in rats. Powdered root gave encouraging results in spermatorrhoea and leucorrhoea.

The chloroform and methanolic extracts of the roots and aerial parts of B. diffusa also exhibited antihepatotox- ic activity against carbon tetrachloride- induced intoxication in rats.

Punarnavaa is official in IP as a diuretic. The diuretic action of the drug is attributed to the presence of xanthone, beta-ecdysone. Flavonoid, arbinofura- noside, present in the drug, was found to lower serum uric acid in experimental animals, as also in humans.

Punarnavaa has been reported to increase serum protein level and reduce urinary protein extraction in clinical trials in patients suffering with nephrotic syndrome. The activity is attributed to the presence of rotenoids in various parts of the plant.

An antifibrinolytic agent, punar- navoside, has been found to stop IUCD-induced bleeding in monkeys. The drug contains quinolizidine alkaloids.

Dosage: Whole plant—20-30 g for decoction (API Vol. I); root—1-3 g powder; 10-20 ml fresh juice. (API Vol. III.)... boerhavia diffusa

Gingerbush (Pavonia spinifex).

Plant Part Used: Leaf, root.

Dominican Medicinal Uses: The leaf and root are traditionally prepared as a tea by decoction and administered orally for disorders of the kidney, gallbladder or liver, blood in the urine, hepatitis, sexually transmitted infections, uterine fibroids, tumors, cysts and menopausal hot flashes.

Safety: Insufficient information identified.

Contraindications: Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature.

Drug Interactions: Unknown; insufficient information identified in the available literature.

Laboratory & Preclinical Data: The chloroform extract of the plant has shown antibacterial activity in vitro.

* See entry for Cadillo de gato in “Part 3: Dominican Medicinal Plant Profiles” of this book for more information, including references.... cadillo tres pies

Linn.

Family: Caesalpiniaceae.

Habitat: Native to India and Malaysia. Cultivated in Bengal and South India, also grown as a hedge plant.

English: Sappan.

Ayurvedic: Pattanga, Patanga, Pattraanga, Raktasaara, Ranjana, Pataranjaka, Suranga, Kuchandana.

Unani: Bakam.

Siddha/Tamil: Patangam, Anaikun- trumani.

Folk: Patang.

Action: Wood decoction— emmenagogue, antidiarrhoeal; used in skin diseases.

The heartwood gave an anti-inflammatory principle brazilin; amyrin glu- coside, amino acids and carbohydrates. EtOH (50%) extract of stem exhibited semen coagulant activity Aqueous and chloroform extracts of the wood exhibited inhibitory action on cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. The methanolic extract of the sappan lignan showed sleep-time-elongation effect in mice. Significant anti-hypercholes- terolaemic activity is attributed to ben- zilic compounds.

The oil exhibited antibacterial and antifungal activity.

Plant pigments find use in facials which are resistant to light, heat and water and are non-irritating.

Dosage: Heartwood—5-10 g (API Vol. IV.)... caesalpinia sappan

Linn.

Family: Moraceae.

Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tracts, West Bengal, Central and South India; planted throughout India as an avenue tree.

English: Peepal, Bot-tree.

Ayurvedic: Ashvattha, Bodhidru, Bodhivrkisha, Sebya, Chalapa- tra, Gajabhaksha, Kshiradruma, Peeppal.

Unani: Peepal.

Siddha/Tamil: Arasu, Ashvatham.

Action: Bark—astringent, antiseptic, alterative, laxative, haemostatic, vaginal disinfectant (used in diabetes, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, nervous disorders; also in skin diseases.) Applied externally on unhealthy ulcers and wounds. Leaves and twigs— laxative.

The bark contains beta-sitosteryl-D- glucoside. Vitamin K, n-octacosanol, methyl oleanolate, lanosterol, stigmas- terol, lupen-3-one are reported from the stem bark.

A hypoglycaemic response is reported for beta-sitosterol-D-glucoside obtained from the bark.

Aerial roots are given to women, also used in prescriptions, for inducing conception. The dried fruits are used as a uterine tonic.

The fruits contain 4.9% protein having the essential amino acids, isoleu- cine and phenylalanine. The chloroform extract of fruits exhibited anti- tumour and antibacterial activities in bioassays.

Various plant parts are included in formulations used for menorrha- gia, metrorrhagia, blood dysentery, bleeding piles, haematuria and haemorrhages.

Dosage: Bark, fruit—50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... ficus religiosa

(K. Schum.) Heine.

Synonym: H. schulli (Ham.) MR & SM Almeida. H. spinosa T. anders. Asteracantha longifolia (L.) Nees.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India along the banks of fresh or stagnant water ditches and swampy grounds, mixed with marshy grasses and sedges.

Ayurvedic: Kokilaaksha, Kokilaak- shi, Ikshuraka, Ikshura, Kshuraka, Bikshu, Kaakekshu.

Unani: Taalmakhaanaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Neermulli.

Action: Leaves, roots and seeds— diuretic; used for diseases of the urinogenital tract, spermatorrhoea. Seeds promote sexual vigour, arrest abortion and cure diseases due to vitiated blood. Also used for arthritis and oedema.

The seeds contain large amounts of tenacious mucilage and potassium salts, which may be responsible for the diuretic property of seeds. The seeds also contain linoleic acid (71%), besides diastase, lipase and protease.

EtOH (50%) extract of the plant is spasmolytic and hypotensive.

The chloroform soluble fraction of ethanolic extract of aerial parts exhibited promising hepatoprotective activity in albino rats.

The plant contains lupeol, stigmas- terol and hydrocarbons.

Dosage: Seed—3-6 g powder; ash—1-3 g. (CCRAS.)... hygrophila auriculata

Linn.

Family: Lythraceae.

Habitat: Native to Arabia and Persia; now cultivated mainly in Haryana and Gujarat; to a small extent in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.

English: Henna.

Ayurvedic: Madayanti, Madayan- tikaa, Mendika, Ranjaka.

Unani: Hinaa, Mehndi.

Siddha/Tamil: Marudum.

Action: Leaves—astringent, antihaemorrhagic, antispasmodic, oxytocic, antifertility, antifungal, antibacterial. Used externally to treat skin infections (tinea); also as a hair conditioner.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia indicated the use of the leaves in dysuria, jaundice, bleeding disorders, ulcers, prurigo and other obstinate skin diseases. The leaf is also recommended in giddiness and vertigo.

The leaves contain naphthoqui- nones, in particular lawsone; couma- rins (laxanthone, I, II and III); flavono- ids, luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside, acacetin-7-O-glucoside; beta-sitoste- rol-3-O-glucoside; all parts contain tannins.

Chloroform and ethanol extracts of leaves exhibit promising antibacterial activity against Shigella and Vibrio cholerae. Leaf extract shows antifun- gal activity against several pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

Henna paint is used as a medicament for treatment of hands and feet for mycosis. The antimycotic activity is due to lawsone, a naphthoquinone.

The ethanol-water (1 : 1) extract of the stem bark shows hepatoprotective activity CCl4-induced liver toxicity. Stembarkand root, probably due to the presence of isoplumbagin and lawsar- itol, exhibit anti-inflammatory activity experimentally.

Evidence shows Henna leaf might be able to decrease the formation of sickled cells in individuals with sickle cell anaemia. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Dosage: Leaves—5-10 ml juice. (API, Vol. IV.)... lawsonia inermis

Gloriosa superba

Liliaceae

San: Langali, Visalya, Agnishika,Shakrapushpi, Garbhaghatini

Hin: Kalihari

Mal: Menthonni

Tam: Akkinichilam

Pan: Kariari

Guj: Dudhiya vachnag

Kan: Nangulika Mar: Nagakaria

Ben: Bishalanguli Ori: Dangogahana

Tel: Adavinabhi

Importance: Glory lily is a glabrous herbaceous climber which yields different types of troplone alkaloids of medicinal importance. The major alkaloids are colchicine , 3-demethyl colchicine and colchicoside. There is another alkaloid gloriosine which promises to be even more effective than colchicine in plant breeding for inducing polyploidy. The genus has importance in the ornamental horticulture due to its bright flowers and wiry climbing stem.

The roots and rhizomes are used in traditional system of medicine. Its abortifacient and antipyretic properties have been mentioned in ancient classics “Charaka”. The name Garbhaghatini is due to this abortifacient activity. They are useful in the treatment of inflammations, ulcers, scrofula, hemorrhoids, pruritus, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, flatulence, intermittent fevers and debility. The root is given internally as an effective antidote against cobra poison. A paste of the root is also used as an anodyne; applications in bites of poisonous insects, snake bites, scorpion sting, parasitic skin diseases and leprosy (Nadkarni,1954; Chaudhuri and Thakur; 1994).

Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout tropical India upto an altitude of 2500m and in Andaman islands. It is also cultivated in tropical and South Africa, Madagaskar, Indonesia and Malasia. It is reported to be cultivated in some parts of Europe. In India it was cultivated in RRL, Jammu in 1960s. Recently it was taken up by Indian Council of Agricultural Research(ICAR). Cultivation of the plant is mostly confined to the Southern states of India besides its collection from wild sources.

Botany: Gloriosa superba Linn. belongs to Liliaceae family. It is a glabrous climbing herb with tuberous root stock grows over hedges and small trees. Stem is 6m long which grows to a height of 1.2-1.5m before the stem branches. Leaves are simple, alternate or whorled, sessile, ovate-lanceolate, 17x4.5cm, tip elongating into a spirally coiled tendril, base cordate and margin entire. Flowers are large in terminal racemes; perianth segments 6, linear, flexuosus and deflexed, basal half bright yellow, upper half red; stamens 6; ovary glabrous, 3-celled. Fruits are capsules, linear-oblong, upto 6.8cm long, 3 equal lobes, one or two lobes shorter in malformed fruits; green dried to pale and then black colour, dehisced into three sections. Seeds are oval in shape, testa spongy, embryo cylindric, 30-150 seeds per capsule, pale orange attached to the sutures. Tubers are cylindric, large, simple, ‘V’ shaped with the two limps equal or unequal in lenth pointed towards end brownish externally and yellowish internally. (Narain, 1977)

Agrotechnology: This is a rainy season plant and sprouts well in warm, humid and tropical conditions. It should be grown in sun as the plants in shade become weedy and thin and move towards light. G. superba is a shallow rooted plant and grows well in a variety of soils either clay or sand through out India. It grows well in a light porous soil with good drainage. For vigorous growth, greater blooms and strong tuber, a mixture of soil, sand and compost manure is recommended. The propagation is mainly by tubers, by division of rhizomes. Seeds remain dormant for 6-9 months and due to hard seed coat, about 20-30 days are required for germination and seeds may take 3-4 years before it matures to flower. Treatment of seeds by gibberellin(1-3 ppm) resulted in higher yield of colchicine in the plant and higher production of tubers. In tissue culture, young sprouts are cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s medium (Msb) supplemented with kinetin (1-4 mg/l). Direct regeneration of the explants are obtained.

The seeds and rhizomes are sown usually in the last week of June to mid July. The rhizomes are planted by splitting carefully into two from their ‘V’ shaped joints (two buds being at the extreme end of each rhizome) in lines 20cm apart at a distance of 20cm (while seeds are sown in lines at a distance of 4-6cm apart). They are watered regularly when the plants are growing. After green shoots appear 2-3 showers are weekly. The irradiation of the plant at 42% natural sunlight intensity increased the production of tuber and colchicine. They usually takes 6-10 weeks to flower after sprouting and then set on fruits. The fruits ripen at the end of October and after that aerial shoot eventually dies, leaving the fleshy tubers underground. The tubers are dug out with great care. An individual plant produces 50g tubers on an average. The average yield is approximately 4000-5000kg of rhizomes and 1000 kg of seed per hectare. The content of colchicine is usually 0.358% and 1.013% in tubers and seeds, respectively.

Post harvest technology: Lixivation of the material is done with 70% ethyl alcohol. Concentrated under vacuum to one third of its volume and extracted with chloroform for colchicine and related substances-concentration of the aqueous phase to syrup which is extracted 6-8 times with a mixture of CHCl3 - alcohol (4:1) to yield colchicoside.

Properties and activity: The flowers, leaves and tubers contain colchicine, superbin, N-formyl deacetyl colchicine, demethyl colochicine and lumicolchicine. Tubers also contain gloriosine. Leaves in addition, contain chelidonic acid, 2-hydroxy 6-methoxy benzoic acid and -sitosterol glucoside. Colchicine, demethyl colchicine and colchicoside have been reported from seeds. Rhizome is oxytocic, anticancerous, antimalarial, stomachic, purgative, cholagogue, anthelmintic, alterative, febrifuge and antileprotic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and antiinflammatory. Root shows antigonorrhoeic and antibiotic activity. This plant has poisonous effect to enviroment and livestock. The toxic properties are due to presence of alkaloids chiefly colchicine (Clewer et al, 1915).... glory lily

The LIVER may be extensively diseased without any obviously serious symptoms, unless the circulation through it is impeded, the out?ow of BILE checked, or neighbouring organs implicated. JAUNDICE is a symptom of several liver disorders, and is discussed under its separate heading. ASCITES, which may be caused by interference with the circulation through the portal vein of the liver, as well as by other reasons, is also considered separately. The presence of gallstones is a complication of some diseases connected with the liver, and is treated under GALLBLADDER, DISEASES OF. For hydatid cyst of the liver, see TAENIASIS. Liver diseases in a tropical environment are dealt with later in this section.

In?ammation of the liver, or HEPATITIS, may occur as part of a generalised infection or may be a localised condition. Infectious hepatitis, which is the result of infection with a virus, is one of the most common forms. Many di?erent viruses can cause hepatitis, including that responsible for glandular fever (see MONONUCLEOSIS). Certain spirochaetes may also be the cause, particularly that responsible for LEPTOSPIROSIS, as can many drugs. Hepatitis may also occur if there is obstruction of the BILE DUCT, as by a gall-stone.

Cirrhosis of the liver A disorder caused by chronic damage to liver cells. The liver develops areas of ?brosis or scarring; in response, the remaining normal liver cells increase and form regeneration nodules. Those islands of normality, however, suffer from inadequate blood supply, thus adversely affecting liver function. Alcohol is the most common cause of cirrhosis in the United Kingdom and the USA, and the incidence of the disorder among women in the UK has recently risen sharply as a consequence of greater consumption of alcohol by young women in the latter decades of the 20th century. In Africa and many parts of Asia, infection with hepatitis B virus is a common cause. Certain drugs – for example, PARACETAMOL – may damage the liver if taken in excess. Unusual causes of cirrhosis include defects of the bile ducts, HAEMOCHROMATOSIS (raised iron absorption from the gut), CYSTIC FIBROSIS, cardiac cirrhosis (the result of heart failure causing circulatory congestion in the liver), and WILSON’S DISEASE (raised copper absorption).

Symptoms Some people with cirrhosis have no signs or symptoms and the disease may be diagnosed at a routine medical examination. Others may develop jaundice, OEDEMA (including ascites – ?uid in the abdomen), fever, confusion, HAEMATEMESIS (vomiting blood), loss of appetite and lethargy. On examination, cirrhotic patients often have an enlarged liver and/ or SPLEEN, and HYPERTENSION. Liver function tests, cholangiography (X-ray examination of the bile ducts) and biopsy of liver tissue will help to reach a diagnosis.

Treatment Nothing can be done to repair a cirrhosed organ, but the cause, if known, must be removed and further advance of the process thus prevented. In the case of the liver, a high-protein, high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet is given, supplemented by liver extract and vitamins B and K. The consumption of alcohol should be banned. In patients with liver failure and a poor prognosis, liver TRANSPLANTATION is worthwhile but only after careful consideration.

Abscess of the liver When an ABSCESS develops in the liver, it is usually a result of amoebic DYSENTERY, appearing sometimes late in the disease – even after the diarrhoea is cured (see below). It may also follow upon in?ammation of the liver due to other causes. In the case of an amoebic abscess, treatment consists of oral metronidazole.

Acute hepatic necrosis is a destructive and often fatal disease of the liver which is very rare. It may be due to chemical poisons, such as carbontetrachloride, chloroform, phosphorus and industrial solvents derived from benzene. It may also be the cause of death in cases of poisoning with fungi. Very occasionally, it may be a complication of acute infectious hepatitis.

Cancer of the liver is not uncommon, although it is rare for the disease to begin in the liver – the involvement of this organ being usually secondary to disease situated somewhere in the stomach or bowels. Cancer originating in the liver is more common in Asia and Africa. It usually arises in a ?brotic (or cirrhotic) liver and in carriers of the hepatitis B virus. There is great emaciation, which increases as the disease progresses. The liver is much enlarged, and its margin and surface are rough, being studded with hard cancer masses of varying size, which can often be felt through the abdominal wall. Pain may be present. Jaundice and oedema often appear.... liver, diseases of

C. B. Clarke.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Punjab, Upper Gangetic plains, Gujarat, Rajasthan.

Ayurvedic: Raasnaa, Rasanaa, Raas- nikaa, Rasaa, Yuktaa, Yuktrasaa, Suvahaa, Elaaparni.

Folk: Vaaya-surai (Uttar Pradesh), Raayasan.

Action: Aerial parts—smooth muscle relaxant. Stem—antiinflammatory. Pluchea lanceolata is the source of Raasnaa in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. Vanda roxburghii is used as Raasnaa in Bengal. Throughout South India, Alpinia galanga is accepted as Raasnaa.

The stem and leaves contain morete- nol, moretenol acetate, neolupenol, oc- tacosanoic, hexacosanoic and tetra- cosanoic acid, tetracosanol, hexaco- sanol, triacontanol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterol-D-glucoside.

The petroleum extract of the stem and leaves and the chloroform-soluble portion of the methanolic extract exhibited 31.9% and 54.5% antioedema activity, respectively. The triterpenes, moretenol acetate, moretenol and ne- olupenol exhibited 55.2,32,8 and 39.7% anti-inflammatory activity respectively as against ibuprofen as standard exhibiting 65.5% activity.... pluchea lanceolata

Linn.

Family: Plumbaginaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in gardens throughout India; also found wild in Peninsular India.

English: Ceylon Leadwort, Leadwort.

Ayurvedic: Chitraka, Agni, Vahni, Jvalanaakhya, Krshaanu, Hutaasha, Dahana, Sikhi.

Unani: Sheetraj Hindi. Siddha/Tamil: Chittramoolam.

Action: Root—intestinal flora normalizer, stimulates digestive processes; used for dyspepsia. Root paste is applied in order to open abscesses; a paste prepared with milk, vinegar or salt and water, is used externally in leprosy and other obstinate skin diseases. A cold infusion is used for influenza and black-water fever.

Key application: In sprue, malabsorption syndrome, piles and inflammatory diseases of ano-rectum. (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)

The root yielded naphthoquinone derivatives, plumbagin being the most important active principle.

The root extract, after processing for plumbagin enhancement, has been used in a number of drug formulations for liver ailments. Experimentally, plumbagin prevented the accumulation of triglycerides in liver and aorta and regressed atheromatous plaques and abdominal aorta. The chloroform extract of the root showed significant activity against pencillin-resistant (also non-pencillin resistant) strains of Neisseria gonorrhoea. (The root is used for treating sexually transmitted diseases in traditional Indian medicine.)

In Siddha medicine, in Tamil Nadu, the plant is an ingredient in a number of drug formulations for treating cancers of the uterus, breast, lungs and oral cavity, in addition to haemorrhoids.

Plumbagin is abortifacient, antiovu- latory; causes selective testicular lesions in dogs; in lower doses it behaves like a spindle poison, in higher concentration exhibits radiomimetic nu- cleotoxic and cytotoxic effects.

Dosage: Detoxified root—1-2 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... plumbago zeylanica

Sm.

Synonym: R. puniceum Roxb.

Family: Ericaceae.

Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan, the Nilgiris, Khasi Hills and Travancore.

English: Tree-Rhododendron, Rose-Tree.

Folk: Burans (Kumaon), Kurbak, Pullaas.

Action: Leaf—anticephalalgic (applied to the forehead). Leaf and stem-bark—spasmolytic. Flowers— used in diarrhoea and dysentery.

The green leaves contain a gluco- side, ericolin. The extracts of leaves, stems and bark cause hypotension in cats and inhibit intestinal movements in rabbits. The acetone and chloroform extracts and a resinous fraction from the alcoholic extract of leaves depress respiration. The petroleum ether extract decreases the rate of heartbeat and contraction in isolated heart of frog.

An alcoholic (50%) extract of the flowers lowered blood pressure in dogs and albino rats.

Cyanidin-3-galactoside and cyani- din-3-arbinoside are present in the pigments of flowers. The leaves of var. nilgiricum and var. cinnamonum contain ursolic acid, friedelin, epifrie- delanol, quercetin. A triterpenoid, campanulin, has been isolated from the leaves of var. nilagaricum.... rhododendron arboreum

Wall. ex G. Don.

Family: Ericaceae.

Habitat: The Himalayas from Kumaon to Bhutan, extending to Assam.

English: Giantblood Rhododendron.

Folk: Chimal (Nepal), Kurbak, Guraans.

Action: Respiratory depressant, emetic, toxic.

The leaves and flowers gave an- dromedotoxin which resembles tertiary amine veratrum alkaloids, particularly protoveratrine, in pharmacological action. Intravenous administration of andromedotoxin to dogs resulted in 20-40% reduction in blood pressure. It also closely resembles protoveratrine in its stimulating effect on the barostatic-pressor-reflex- mechanism, respiratory effects and emetic action. It produces reflex va- sodepressor responses in intact animals; in debuffered dogs, it produced vasopressor responses. It also produced, both direct and indirect, positive ionotropic effects, the latter being more pronounced.

The leaves contain ursolic acid, alpha-amyrin, epi-friedelinol, cam- panulin and hyperoside. Chloroform extract of the leaves and shoots showed a depressant action. The honey from flowers is poisonous; contains an- dromedotoxin.... rhododendron barbatum

D. Don.

Synonym: R. aeruginosum Hk. f.

Family: Ericaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the Himalayas at altitudes of 2,400-5,200 m.

Folk: Chimal (Kumaon, Nepal), Gagger vurmi, Nichnai (Kashmir). Cherailu, Taalis-far.

Action: Leaves—used in chronic rheumatism and sciatica. As a snuff, in colds and hemicrania.

The leaves gave a toxic substance which resembles andromedotoxin; besides ericolin, ursolic acid, alpha-amy- rin, friedelin, epi-friedelinol, campan- ulin, quercitin. The pigments of flowers contain myricetin and quercetin.

Petroleum ether and chloroform extracts of leaves, stems and flowers lower blood pressure in cats and inhibit intestinal movements in rabbits.... rhododendron campanulatum

Beauv.

Habitat: Native to tropical Africa. Grown as a avenue tree, in Coffee estates for shade.

English: Syringe tree, Fountain tree, African Tulip tree.

Siddha/Tamil: Patadi.

Folk: Ruugatuuraa.

Action: Bark—decoction given for dysentery, gastro-intestinal and renal ailments. Pulverized bark applied to skin diseases. Leaves— infusion administered for urethral inflammation.

The stem bark gave oleanolic and siaresinolic acids. The bark yields small quantities of tannin. Leaves gave caf- feic and chlorogenic acids, quercetin- 3-galactoside. Flowers gave malvidin and pelargonidin diglycoside.

An aqueous alcoholic extract of the leaves and the hexane and chloroform extracts of stem bark showed anti- malarial activity.... spathodea campanulata

(Linn.) Skeels.

Synonym: S. jambolanum (Lam.) DC. Eugenia jambolana Lam.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated throughout India up to 1,800 m.

English: Java Plum, Jambolan, Black Plum.

Ayurvedic: Jambu, Mahaaphalaa, Phalendraa, Surabhipatra. (Fruit— black.)

Unani: Jaamun

Siddha/Tamil: Naaval.

Action: Fruit—stomachic, carminative, diuretic. Bark and seed— antidiarrhoeal. Seed—hypo- glycaemic. Leaf—antibacterial, antidysenteric.

Key application: Bark—in nonspecific acute diarrhoea and in topical therapy for mild inflammation of the oral-pharyngeal mucosa; externally in mild, superficial inflammation of the skin. (German Commission E.) The seed has been included among unapproved herbs by German Commission E, as the blood sugar-lowering effect could not be established by several researchers. Claimed applications mentioned in German Commission E monograph: in diabetes, also in combination preparations for atonic and spastic constipation, diseases of the pancreas, gastric and pancreatic complaints.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the bark in acute diarrhoea and haemorrhagic diseases; the seed in hyperglycaemia and polyuria.

The aqueous alcoholic extract of the bark contains bergenin, gallic acid and ethyl gallate.

The fruit contains anthocyanins and yielded citric, malic and gallic acids. Gallic acid and tannins account for as- tringency of the fruit. Malic acid is the major acid (0.59%) of the weight of fruit; a small quantity of oxalic acid is reported to be present. Glucose and fructose are principal sugars in the ripe fruit; surcose was not detected.

The seeds contain tannin (about 19%), ellagic acid, gallic acid (1-2%), beta-sitosterol, 0.05% essential oil; myricyl alcohol is present in the un- saponifiable matter.

The stem bark yielded friedelan-3- alpha-ol, kaempferol, quercetin, beta- sitosterol and its glycoside, kaempferol- 3-O-glucoside, gallic acid, friedelin and betulinic acid. It contained eugenin and epi-friedelanol. 10-12% tannins were reported.

The leaves contain aliphatic alcohols, sitosterols, betulinic acid and crategolic (maslinic) acid.

The flowers contain triterpenic acids—oleanolic acid and crategolic acid. The oleanolic acid is a strong protector against adriamycin-induced lipid peroxidation in liver and heart microsomes.

Phenols, including methylxantho- xylin and 2, 6-dihydroxy-4-methoxy- acetophene have been isolated from the plant (also from the seed).

Seeds in a dose of 10 mg/kg p.o. on normal and alloxanized rabbits exhibited hypoglycaemic activity up to 23 and 20% respectively. The chloroform fraction of seed extract exhibited potent anti-inflammatory action against both exudative and prolifer- ative and chronic phases of inflammation, besides exhibiting significant anti-arthritic, antipyretic and analgesic activities. Water extract exhibited antibacterial property against S. boydi and S. dysentrae in cases of dysentery and diarrhoea.

The bark extract is reported to have an effect on glycogenolysis and glyco- gen storage in animals.

Dosage: Stem bark—10-20 g for decoction; dried seed—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)... syzygium cuminii

(G. Don) Seem.

Synonym: Tecoma undulata G. Don.

Bignonia undulata Sm.

Family: Bignoniaceae.

Habitat: North-West and Western India, and in the outer Himalayas.

English: Rohida tree.

Ayurvedic: Rohitaka, Rohi, Daadimpushpaka, Daadimchhada, Plihaghna. (Amoora rohituka is also known as Rohitaka.)

Action: Bark—relaxant, cardiotonic, choleretic. (Heartwood toxic due to lapachol.) Used for the treatment of leucorrhoea, diseases of the liver and spleen, leucoderma, syphilis and other skin diseases.

The bark contains tecomin (veratryl beta-D-glucoside), alkanes, alkanols and beta-sitosterols. The bark also yielded chromone glycosides—undu- latosides A and B, and iridoid glu- cosides—tecomelloside and tecoside.

A quinonoid—lapachol, veratric acid and dehydrotectol are also reported from the bark.

Water soluble portion of the alcoholic as well as chloroform extracts of the bark shows smooth muscle relaxant, mild cardiotonic and chloretic activities.

Dosage: Flower, bark—50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... tecomella undulata

An extract, usually herbal, and usually made with a mixture of water and alcohol, although there were official tinctures that also used acetic acid, chloroform and glycerin. Only a few tinctures are still official in the U.S., including Tincture of Arnica and Compound Tincture of Benzoin. In herb commerce, the term should really only be appropriate when the extract at least RESEMBLES the formerly official methods for making plant extracts. The strength should be listed, usually as a ratio (1:5 being the most common) or a percentage (20%...the same strength as 1:5). Green Tinctures of fresh plants, are usually appropriate when defined as 1:2 or 50%. The alcohol percentage should be given, and, if below 45%, is made incorrectly. Dry plant tinctures, the norm, are official when percolated (usually), although maceration was and is allowed as an alternative method. The term Tincture is still pharmaceutical in implication, so the FDA periodically objects to its use in the herb industry. Nonetheless, if it is IMPLIED, it should reasonably resemble the former pharmaceutical media. Glycerin, although a vary inferior solvent, is used as a substitute for moral reasons by some manufacturers, and others try to make do with low percentages, like 25%...others use Vinegar for making their “tinctures”..There are many alternative methods for preparing herbs inconcentrated forms, in ours and other cultures. (the Unani honeys, the pills used in Ayurveda and TCM), but trying to emulate a tincture with other media results in inferior products...and a moral waste of Plant Energy. Methods and recommended strengths are outlined in my pamphlet HERBAL MATERIA MEDICA See: FLUIDEXTRACT, MENSTRUUM... tincture

R. Br.

Synonym: V. tessellata G. Don.

Family: Orchidaceae.

Habitat: From Uttar Pradesh to West Bengal, extending southwards to Kerala.

Ayurvedic: Raasnaa (used in Eastern India). Pluchea lanceolata is the accepted source of Raasnaa.

Throughout South India Alpinia galanga is used as Raasnaa.

Folk: Baandaa-Raasnaa.

Action: Roots—antipyretic, antiinflammatory, tranquilizer, tonic to liver, laxative. Used in rheumatism, lumbago, inflammations; diseases of the nervous system; diseases of the abdomen, dyspepsia; bronchitis, chest diseases. Roots form a constituent of medicated oils, used externally on rheumatic swellings and neurological affections. Root is also used in the treatment of fractures.

Petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol extracts of the root showed anti-inflammatory activity in rats. Ethanolic extract of the root also showed hepatoprotective activity in albino mice.

The root yielded tetracosyl feru- late and beta-sitosterol D-glucoside. Petroleum ether, chloroform and methanol extracts of the root showed 54.3, 42.1 and 21.9% anti-inflammatory activity at a dose of 0.5 g/kg in rats. Heptacosane, octacosanol and traces of their higher homologues, a bitter principle, saponin, beta-sitosterol and tannins were isolated from the plant.... vanda roxburghii