(English) One who strengthens or soothes others
Comforte, Comfortyne, Comfortyna, Comforteene, Comforteena, Comfortene, Comfortena, Comfortiene, Comfortiena, Comforteine, Comforteina, Comforteane, Comforteana
Comforte, Comfortyne, Comfortyna, Comforteene, Comforteena, Comfortene, Comfortena, Comfortiene, Comfortiena, Comforteine, Comforteina, Comforteane, Comforteana
Disposable lenses are soft lenses designed to be thrown away after a short period of continuous use; their popularity rests on the fact that they need not be cleaned. The instructions on use should be followed carefully because the risk of complications, such as corneal infection, are higher than with other types of contact lenses.
Contraindications to the use of contact lenses include a history of ATOPY, ‘dry eyes’, previous GLAUCOMA surgery and a person’s inability to cope with the management of lenses. The best way to determine whether contact lenses are suitable, however, may be to try them out. Good hygiene is essential for wearers so as to minimise the risk of infection, which may lead to a corneal abscess – a serious complication. Corneal abrasions are fairly common and, if a contact-lens wearer develops a red eye, the lens should be removed and the eye tested with ?uorescein dye to identify any abrasions. Appropriate treatment should be given and the lens not worn again until the abrasion or infection has cleared up.... contact lenses
Episodes occur during (nonrapid eye movement) sleep, usually half an hour to 3 and a half hours after falling asleep. Sufferers wake up screaming in a semiconscious state and remain frightened for some minutes. They do not recognize familiar faces or surroundings, and usually cannot be comforted. The sufferer gradually falls back to sleep and has no memory of the event the following day.
Night terror in children has no serious significance, but, in adults, is likely to be associated with an anxiety disorder.... night terror
Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: Moderate Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Low Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin A, folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Calcium (moderate)
About the Nutrients in This Food All cabbage has some dietary fiber food: insoluble cellulose and lignin in the ribs and structure of the leaves. Depending on the variety, it has a little vitamin A, moderate amounts of the B vitamin folate and vitamin C. One-half cup shredded raw bok choy has 0.1 g dietary fiber, 1,041 IU vitamin A (45 percent of the R DA for a woman, 35 percent of the R DA for a man), and 15.5 mg vitamin C (21 percent of the R DA for a woman, 17 percent of the R DA for a man). One-half cup shredded raw green cabbage has 0.5 g dietary fiber, 45 IU vitamin A (1.9 percent of the R DA for a woman, 1.5 percent of the R DA for a man), 15 mcg folate (4 percent of the R DA), and 11 mg vitamin C (15 percent of the R DA for a woman, 12 percent of the R DA for a man). One-half cup chopped raw red cabbage has 0.5 g dietary fiber, 7 mcg folate (2 percent of the R DA), and 20 mg vitamin C (27 percent of the R DA for a woman, 22 percent of the R DA for a man). One-half cup chopped raw savoy cabbage has one gram dietary fiber, 322 IU vitamin A (14 percent of the R DA for a woman, 11 percent of the R DA for a man), and 11 mg vitamin C (15 percent of the R DA for a woman, 12 percent of the R DA for a man). Raw red cabbage contains an antinutrient enzyme that splits the thiamin molecule so that the vitamin is no longer nutritionally useful. This thiamin in hibitor is inactivated by cooking.
The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Raw or lightly steamed to protect the vitamin C.
Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Antiflatulence diet Low-fiber diet
Buying This Food Look for: Cabbages that feel heavy for their size. The leaves should be tightly closed and attached tightly at the stem end. The outer leaves on a savoy cabbage may curl back from the head, but the center leaves should still be relatively tightly closed. Also look for green cabbages that still have their dark-green, vitamin-rich outer leaves. Avoid: Green and savoy cabbage with yellow or wilted leaves. The yellow carotene pig- ments show through only when the cabbage has aged and its green chlorophyll pigments have faded. Wilted leaves mean a loss of moisture and vitamins.
Storing This Food Handle cabbage gently; bruising tears cells and activates ascorbic acid oxidase, an enzyme in the leaves that hastens the destruction of vitamin C. Store cabbage in a cool, dark place, preferably a refrigerator. In cold storage, cabbage can retain as much as 75 percent of its vitamin C for as long as six months. Cover the cabbage to keep it from drying out and losing vitamin A.
Preparing This Food Do not slice the cabbage until you are ready to use it; slicing tears cabbage cells and releases the enzyme that hastens the oxidation and destruction of vitamin C. If you plan to serve cooked green or red cabbage in wedges, don’t cut out the inner core that hold the leaves together. To separate the leaves for stuffing, immerse the entire head in boiling water for a few minutes, then lift it out and let it drain until it is cool enough to handle comfortably. The leaves should pull away easily. If not, put the cabbage back into the hot water for a few minutes.
What Happens When You Cook This Food Cabbage contains mustard oils (isothiocyanates) that break down into a variet y of smelly sulfur compounds (including hydrogen sulfide and ammon ia) when the cabbage is heated, a reaction that occurs more strongly in aluminum pots. The longer you cook the cabbage, the more smelly the compounds will be. Adding a slice of bread to the cooking water may lessen the odor. Keeping a lid on the pot will stop the smelly molecules from floating off into the air, but it will also accelerate the chemical reaction that turns cooked green cabbage drab. Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes green vegetables green, is sensitive to acids. When you heat green cabbage, the chlorophyll in its leaves reacts chemically with acids in the cabbage or in the cooking water to form pheophytin, which is brown. The pheophytin gives the cooked cabbage its olive color. To keep cooked green cabbage green, you have to reduce the interaction between the chlorophyll and the acids. One way to do this is to cook the cabbage in a large quantity of water, so the acids will be diluted, but this increases the loss of vitamin C.* Another alternative is to leave the lid off the pot so that the volatile acids can float off into the air, but this allows the smelly sulfur compounds to escape too. The best way may be to steam the cabbage ver y quickly in ver y little water so that it keeps its vitamin C and cooks before there is time for the chlorophyll/acid reaction to occur. Red cabbage is colored with red anthocyanins, pigments that turn redder in acids (lemon juice, vinegar) and blue purple in bases (alkaline chemicals such as baking soda). To keep the cabbage red, make sweet-and-sour cabbage. But be careful not to make it in an iron or aluminum pot, since vinegar (which contains tannins) will react with these metals to create dark pigments that discolor both the pot and the vegetable. Glass, stainless-steel, or enameled pots do not produce this reaction.
How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Pickling. Sauerkraut is a fermented and pickled produce made by immersing cabbage in a salt solution strong enough to kill off pathological bacteria but allow beneficial ones to sur- vive, breaking down proteins in the cabbage and producing the acid that gives sauerkraut its distinctive flavor. Sauerkraut contains more than 37 times as much sodium as fresh cabbage (661 mg sodium/100 grams canned sauerkraut with liquid) but only one third the vitamin C and one-seventh the vitamin A. * According to USDA, if you cook t hree cups of cabbage in one cup of water you will lose only 10 percent of t he vitamin C; reverse t he rat io to four t imes as much water as cabbage and you will lose about 50 percent of t he vitamin C. Cabbage will lose as much as 25 percent of its vitamin C if you cook it in water t hat is cold when you start. As it boils, water releases ox ygen t hat would ot her wise dest roy vitamin C, so you can cut t he vitamin loss dramat ically simply by lett ing t he water boil for 60 seconds before adding t he cabbage.
Medical Uses and/or Benefits Protection against certain cancers. Naturally occurring chemicals (indoles, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, dithiolethiones, and phenols) in cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauli- flower, and other cruciferous vegetables appear to reduce the risk of some cancers, perhaps by preventing the formation of carcinogens in your body or by blocking cancer-causing substances from reaching or reacting with sensitive body tissues or by inhibiting the trans- formation of healthy cells to malignant ones. All cruciferous vegetables contain sulforaphane, a member of a family of chemicals known as isothiocyanates. In experiments with laboratory rats, sulforaphane appears to increase the body’s production of phase-2 enzymes, naturally occurring substances that inac- tivate and help eliminate carcinogens. At Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, 69 percent of the rats injected with a chemical known to cause mammary cancer developed tumors vs. only 26 percent of the rats given the carcinogenic chemical plus sulforaphane. In 1997, Johns Hopkins researchers discovered that broccoli seeds and three-day-old broccoli sprouts contain a compound converted to sulforaphane when the seed and sprout cells are crushed. Five grams of three-day-old broccoli sprouts contain as much sulforaphane as 150 grams of mature broccoli. The sulforaphane levels in other cruciferous vegetables have not yet been calculated. Vision protection. In 2004, the Johns Hopkins researchers updated their findings on sulfora- phane to suggest that it may also protect cells in the eyes from damage due to ultraviolet light, thus reducing the risk of macular degeneration, the most common cause of age-related vision loss. Lower risk of some birth defects. As many as two of every 1,000 babies born in the United States each year may have cleft palate or a neural tube (spinal cord) defect due to their moth- ers’ not having gotten adequate amounts of folate during pregnancy. The current R DA for folate is 180 mcg for a woman and 200 mcg for a man, but the FDA now recommends 400 mcg for a woman who is or may become pregnant. Taking a folate supplement before becom- ing pregnant and through the first two months of pregnancy reduces the risk of cleft palate; taking folate through the entire pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Possible lower risk of heart attack. In the spring of 1998, an analysis of data from the records for more than 80,000 women enrolled in the long-running Nurses’ Health Study at Harvard School of Public Health/Brigham and Women’s Hospital, in Boston, demonstrated that a diet providing more than 400 mcg folate and 3 mg vitamin B6 daily, either from food or supple- ments, might reduce a woman’s risk of heart attack by almost 50 percent. Although men were not included in the study, the results were assumed to apply to them as well. However, data from a meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in December 2006 called this theory into question. Researchers at Tulane Univer- sity examined the results of 12 controlled studies in which 16,958 patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease were given either folic acid supplements or placebos (“look-alike” pills with no folic acid) for at least six months. The scientists, who found no reduction in the risk of further heart disease or overall death rates among those taking folic acid, concluded that further studies will be required to verif y whether taking folic acid supplements reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). Cruciferous vegetables, including cabbage, contain goitrin, thiocyanate, and isothiocyanate. These chemicals, known collectively as goitrogens, inhibit the formation of thyroid hormones and cause the thyroid to enlarge in an attempt to pro- duce more. Goitrogens are not hazardous for healthy people who eat moderate amounts of cruciferous vegetables, but they may pose problems for people who have a thyroid condition or are taking thyroid medication. Intestinal gas. Bacteria that live naturally in the gut degrade the indigestible carbohydrates (food fiber) in cabbage, producing gas that some people find distressing.
Food/Drug Interactions Anticoagulants Cabbage contains vitamin K, the blood-clotting vitamin produced natu- rally by bacteria in the intestines. Consuming large quantities of this food may reduce the effectiveness of anticoagulants (blood thinners) such as warfarin (Coumadin). One cup of shredded common green cabbage contains 163 mcg vitamin K, nearly three times the R DA for a healthy adult; one cup of drained boiled common green cabbage contains 73 mcg vita- min K, slightly more than the R DA for a healthy adult. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors are drugs used to treat depression. They inactivate naturally occurring enzymes in your body that metabolize tyra- mine, a substance found in many fermented or aged foods. Tyramine constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure. If you eat a food such as sauerkraut which is high in tyramine while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, you cannot effectively eliminate the tyramine from your body. The result may be a hypertensive crisis.... cabbage
Cotti, Cottie, Cotty, Cottey, Cottee, Cottea, Cotteah... cotton
Habitat: Native to the Mediterranean region; now cultivated in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.
English: Cumin.Ayurvedic: Shveta-jiraka, Ajaaji, Shukla-ajaaji. The three jirakas mentioned in the Ayurvedic texts are: Jiraka, Krishna Jiraka (Carum bulbocastanum W. Koch.) and Kaaravi (Carum carvi Linn.).Unani: Safed Jeeraa, Kamun.Siddha/Tamil: Cheerakam.Action: Carminative, antispasmodic (used in dyspepsia and diarrhoea), stimulant, diuretic, antibacterial, emmenagogue, galactagogue.
Cumin seeds contain up to 14.5% lipids. They are reported to contain 14 flavonoid glycosides; 7 belong to api- genin, 5 to luteolin and 2 to chrysoeri- ol group. Major constituents of the essential oil include cuminaldehyde (2040% of the oil) and p-cymene.EtOH (50%) extract of the fruit exhibits spasmolytic and hypotensive activity.Cumin is considered superior is comforting carminative qualities to Fennel or Caraway. Due to its disagreeable flavour it has been replaced by Caraway in European herbal medicine.Cumin oil and cuminaldehyde have been reported to exhibit strong larvi- cidal and antibacterial activity.Fine grinding of the seed can cause loss of 50% of volatile oil, most within one hour. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)Dosage: Fruit—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... cuminum cyminumMenahema, Menaheme, Menahemia, Menahemai... menahem
Na’ima, Na’imah, Naimah, Nayma, Naymah, Naeema, Naeemah, Naema, Naemah... naima
Nehama, Nehamah, Nachmanit, Nachuma, Nechamah, Nechamit... nechama
Severe and extensive burns are most frequently produced by the clothes – for example, of a child – catching ?re. This applies especially to cotton garments, which blaze up quickly. It should be remembered that such a ?ame can immediately be extinguished by making the individual lie on the ?oor so that the ?ames are uppermost, and wrapping him or her in a rug, mat or blanket. As prevention is always better than cure, particular care should always be exercised with electric ?res and kettles or pots of boiling water in houses where there are young children or old people. Children’s clothes, and especially night-clothes, should be made of non-in?ammable material: pyjamas are also much safer than nightdresses.
Severe scalds are usually produced by escape of steam in boiler explosions. Cigarettes are a common cause of ?res and therefore of burns; people who have fallen asleep in bed or in a chair while smoking may set ?re to the bed or chair. Discarded, unextinguished cigarettes are another cause.
Degrees of burns Burns are referred to as either super?cial (or partial-thickness) burns, when there is su?cient skin tissue left to ensure regrowth of skin over the burned site; and deep (or full-thickness) burns, when the skin is totally destroyed and grafting will be necessary.
Symptoms Whilst many domestic burns are minor and insigni?cant, more severe burns and scalds can prove to be very dangerous to life. The main danger is due to SHOCK, which arises as a result of loss of ?uid from the circulating blood at the site of a serious burn. This loss of ?uid leads to a fall in the volume of the circulating blood. As the maintenance of an adequate blood volume is essential to life, the body attempts to compensate for this loss by withdrawing ?uid from the uninjured areas of the body into the circulation. If carried too far, however, this in turn begins to affect the viability of the body cells. As a sequel, essential body cells, such as those of the liver and kidneys, begin to suffer, and the liver and kidneys cease to function properly. This will show itself by the development of JAUNDICE and the appearance of albumin in the urine (see PROTEINURIA). In addition, the circulation begins to fail with a resultant lack of oxygen (see ANOXIA) in the tissues, and the victim becomes cyanosed (see CYANOSIS), restless and collapsed: in some cases, death ensues. In addition, there is a strong risk of infection occurring. This is the case with severe burns in particular, which leave a large raw surface exposed and very vulnerable to any micro-organisms. The combination of shock and infection can all too often be life-threatening unless expert treatment is immediately available.
The immediate outcome of a burn is largely determined by its extent. This is of more signi?cance than the depth of the burn. To assess the extent of a burn in relation to the surface of the body, what is known as the Rule of Nine has been evolved. The head and each arm cover 9 per cent of the body surface, whilst the front of the body, the back of the body, and each leg each cover 18 per cent, with the perineum (or crutch) accounting for the remaining 1 per cent. The greater the extent of the burn, the more seriously ill will the victim become from loss of ?uid from his or her circulation, and therefore the more prompt should be his or her removal to hospital for expert treatment. The depth of the burn, unless this is very great, is mainly of import when the question arises as to how much surgical treatment, including skin grafting, will be required.
Treatment This depends upon the severity of the burn. In the case of quite minor burns or scalds, all that may be necessary if they are seen immediately is to hold the part under cold running water until the pain is relieved. Cooling is one of the most e?ective ways of relieving the pain of a burn. If the burn involves the distal part of a limb – for example, the hand and forearm – one of the most e?ective ways of relieving pain is to immerse the burned part in lukewarm water and add cold water until the pain disappears. As the water warms and pain returns, more cold water is added. After some three to four hours, pain will not reappear on warming, and the burn may be dressed in the usual way. Thereafter a simple dressing (e.g. a piece of sterile gauze covered by cotton-wool, and on top of this a bandage or adhesive dressing) should be applied. The part should be kept at rest and the dressing kept quite dry until healing takes place. Blisters should be pierced with a sterile needle, but the skin should not be cut away. No ointment or oil should be applied, and an antiseptic is not usually necessary.
In slightly more severe burns or scalds, it is probably advisable to use some antiseptic dressing. These are the cases which should be taken to a doctor – whether a general practitioner, a factory doctor, or to a hospital Accident & Emergency department. There is still no general consensus of expert opinion as to the best ‘antiseptic’ to use. Among those recommended are CHLORHEXIDINE, and antibiotics such as BACITRACIN, NEOMYCIN and polymixin. An alternative is to use a Tulle Gras dressing which has been impregnated with a suitable antibiotic.
In the case of severe burns and scalds, the only sound rule is immediate removal to hospital. Unless there is any need for immediate resuscitation, such as arti?cial respiration, or attention to other injuries there may be, such as fractures or haemorrhage, nothing should be done on the spot to the patient except to make sure that s/he is as comfortable as possible and to keep them warm, and to cover the burn with a sterile (or clean) cloth such as a sheet, pillowcases, or towels wrung out in cold water. If pain is severe, morphine should be given – usually intravenously. Once the victim is in hospital, the primary decision is as to the extent of the burn, and whether or not a transfusion is necessary. If the burn is more than 9 per cent of the body surface in extent, a transfusion is called for. The precise treatment of the burn varies, but the essential is to prevent infection if this has not already occurred, or, if it has, to bring it under control as quickly as possible. The treatment of severe burns has made great advances, with quick transport to specialised burns units, modern resuscitative measures, the use of skin grafting and other arti?cial covering techniques and active rehabilitation programmes, o?ering victims a good chance of returning to normal life.
CHEMICAL BURNS Phenol or lysol can be washed o? promptly before they do much damage. Acid or alkali burns should be neutralised by washing them repeatedly with sodium bicarbonate or 1 per cent acetic acid, respectively. Alternatively, the following bu?er solution may be used for either acid or alkali burns: monobasic potassium phosphate (70 grams), dibasic sodium phosphate (70 grams) in 850 millilitres of water. (See also PHOSPHORUS BURNS.)... burns and scalds
Treatment If organic disease is identi?ed, it should, where possible, be treated; otherwise the treatment of dementia is alleviation of its symptoms. The affected person must be kept clean and properly fed. Good nursing care in comfortable surroundings is important and sedation with appropriate drugs may be required. Patients may eventually need institutional care. (See ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE.)... dementia
– a group which includes morphine, codeine, pethidine and methadone. It is a powerful analgesic and cough suppressant, but its capacity to produce euphoria rapidly induces DEPENDENCE. Popular with addicts, its mostly pleasant effects soon produce TOLERANCE; the need to inject the drug, with associated risks of HIV infection, has affected its use by addicts. Withdrawal symptoms include restlessness, insomnia, muscle cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea; signs include dilated pupils, raised pulse rate, and disturbed temperature control. Although rarely life-threatening, the effects of withdrawal may cause great distress, and for this reason methadone, which has a slower and less severe withdrawal syndrome, is commonly used when weaning addicts o? heroin. Legally still available to doctors in the UK, heroin is normally only used in patients with severe pain, or to comfort the dying.... heroin
Anxiety, phobias and depression are fairly common. For instance, surveys show that up to
2.5 per cent of children and 8 per cent of adolescents are depressed at any one time, and by the age of 18 a quarter will have been depressed at least once. Problems such as OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER, ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER (HYPERACTIVITY SYNDROME), AUTISM, ASPERGER’S SYNDROME and SCHIZOPHRENIA are rare.
Mental-health problems may not be obvious at ?rst, because children often express distress through irritability, poor concentration, dif?cult behaviour, or physical symptoms. Physical symptoms of distress, such as unexplained headache and stomach ache, may persuade parents to keep children at home on school days. This may be appropriate occasionally, but regularly avoiding school can lead to a persistent phobia called school refusal.
If a parent, teacher or other person is worried that a child or teenager may have a mental-health problem, the ?rst thing to do is to ask the child gently if he or she is worried about anything. Listening, reassuring and helping the child to solve any speci?c problems may well be enough to help the child feel settled again. Serious problems such as bullying and child abuse need urgent professional involvement.
Children with emotional problems will usually feel most comfortable talking to their parents, while adolescents may prefer to talk to friends, counsellors, or other mentors. If this doesn’t work, and if the symptoms persist for weeks rather than days, it may be necessary to seek additional help through school or the family’s general practitioner. This may lead to the child and family being assessed and helped by a psychologist, or, less commonly, by a child psychiatrist. Again, listening and counselling will be the main forms of help o?ered. For outright depression, COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY and, rarely, antidepressant drugs may be used.... mental health problems in children
... nehama
Selimah, Seleema, Seliema, Seleima, Selyma, Selimma, Seleyma, Seleama... selima
Triage is now operated in accident and emergency departments by a ‘triage nurse’ who allocates a degree of priority so that patients are seen in order of severity rather than according to their time of arrival.... triage
Blood pressure is measured using two values. The systolic pressure – the greater of the two – represents the pressure when blood is pumped from the left VENTRICLE of the heart into the AORTA. The diastolic pressure is the measurement when both ventricles relax between beats. The pressures are measured in millimetres (mm) of mercury (Hg). Despite the grey area between normal and raised blood pressure, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has de?ned hypertension as a blood pressure consistently greater than 160 mm Hg (systolic) and 95 mm Hg (diastolic). Young children have readings well below these, but blood pressure rises with age and a healthy person may well live symptom free with a systolic pressure above the WHO ?gure. A useful working de?nition of hypertension is the ?gure at which the bene?ts of treating the condition outweigh the risks and costs of the treatment.
Between 10 and 20 per cent of the adult population in the UK has hypertension, with more men than women affected. Incidence is highest in the middle-aged and elderly. Because most people with hypertension are symptomless, the condition is often ?rst identi?ed during a routine medical examination, otherwise a diagnosis is usually made when complications occur. Many people’s blood pressure rises when they are anxious or after exercise, so if someone’s pressure is above normal at the ?rst testing, it should be taken again after, say, 10 minutes’ rest, by which time the reading should have settled to the person’s regular level. BP measurements should then be taken on two subsequent occasions. If the pressure is still high, the cause needs to be determined: this is done using a combination of personal and family histories (hypertension can run in families), a physical examination and investigations, including an ECG and blood tests for renal disease.
Over 90 per cent of hypertensive people have no immediately identi?able cause for their condition. They are described as having essential hypertension. In those patients with an identi?able cause, the hypertension is described as secondary. Among the causes of secondary hypertension are:
Lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol, stress, excessive dietary salt and obesity.
Diseases of the KIDNEYS.
Pregnancy (ECLAMPSIA).
Various ENDOCRINE disorders – for example, PHAEOCHROMOCYTOMA, CUSHING’S DISEASE, ACROMEGALY, thyrotoxicosis (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF).
COARCTATION OF THE AORTA.
Drugs – for example, oestrogen-containing oral contraceptives (see under CONTRACEPTION), ANABOLIC STEROIDS, CORTICOSTEROIDS, NON-STEROIDAL ANTIINFLAMMATORY DRUGS (NSAIDS).
Treatment People with severe hypertension may need prompt admission to hospital for urgent investigation and treatment. Those with a mild to moderate rise in blood pressure for which no cause is identi?able should be advised to change their lifestyle: smokers should stop the habit, and those with high alcohol consumption should greatly reduce or stop their drinking. Obese people should reduce their food consumption, especially of animal fats, and take more exercise. Everyone with hypertension should follow a low-salt diet and take regular exercise. Patients should also be taught how to relax, which helps to reduce blood pressure and, if they have a stressful life, working patterns should be modi?ed if possible. If these lifestyle changes do not reduce a person’s blood pressure su?ciently, drugs to achieve this will be needed. A wide range of anti-hypertensive drugs are available on prescription.
A ?rst-line treatment is one of the THIAZIDES, e?ective at a low dosage and especially useful in the elderly. Beta blockers (see BETAADRENOCEPTOR-BLOCKING DRUGS), such as oxprenolol, acebutol or atenolol, are also ?rst-line treatments. ACE inhibitors (see ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME (ACE) INHIBITORS) and CALCIUM-CHANNEL BLOCKERS can be used if the ?rst-line choices are not e?ective. The drug treatment of hypertension is complex, and sometimes various drugs or combinations of drugs have to be tried to ?nd what regimen is e?ective and suits the patient. Mild to moderate hypertension can usually be treated in general practice, but patients who do not respond or have complications will normally require specialist advice. Patients on anti-hypertensive treatments require regular monitoring, and, as treatment may be necessary for several years, particular attention should be paid to identifying sideeffects. Nevertheless, e?ective treatment of hypertension does enable affected individuals to live longer and more comfortable lives than would otherwise be the case. Older people with moderately raised blood pressure are often able to live with the condition, and treatment with anti-hypertensive drugs may produce symptoms of HYPOTENSION.
In summary, hypertension is a complex disorder, with di?erent patients responding di?erently to treatment. So the condition sometimes requires careful assessment before the most e?ective therapy for a particular individual is identi?ed, and continued monitoring of patients with the disorder is advisable.
Complications Untreated hypertension may eventually result in serious complications. People with high blood pressure have blood vessels with thickened, less ?exible walls, a narrowed LUMEN and convoluted shape. Sometimes arteries become rigid. ANEURYSM may develop and widespread ATHEROMA (fat deposits) is apparent in the arterial linings. Such changes adversely affect the blood supply to body tissues and organs and so damage their functioning. Patients suffer STROKE (haemorrhage from or thrombosis in the arteries of the BRAIN) and heart attacks (coronary thrombosis
– see HEART, DISEASES OF). Those with hypertension may suffer damage to the retina of the EYE and to the OPTIC DISC. Indeed, the diagnosis of hypertension is sometimes made during a routine eye test, when the doctor or optician notices changes in the retinal arteries or optic disc. Kidney function is often affected, with patients excreting protein and excessive salt in their urine. Occasionally someone with persistent hypertension may suffer an acceleration of damage to the blood vessels – a condition described as ‘malignant’ hypertension, and one requiring urgent hospital treatment.
Hypertension is a potentially dangerous disease because it develops into a cycle of self-perpetuating damage. Faulty blood vessels lead to high blood pressure which in turn aggravates the damage in the vessels and thus in the tissues and organs they supply with blood; this further raises the affected individual’s blood pressure and the pathological cycle continues.... hypertension
Occupational therapists work from hospital and community bases. They do much more than keep patients occupied with diverting hobbies. The arts and crafts still have a place in modern therapy techniques, but these now also include household chores, industrial work, communication techniques, social activities, sports and educational programmes. An occupational therapy department may have facilities for woodwork, metalwork, printing, gardening, cooking, art and drama. Occupational therapists will use any combination of activities to strengthen muscles, increase movement and restore coordination and balance. With mentally ill people, similar activies are used. They help provide order, comfort and support and aim to build up self-con?dence. Occupational therapists plan courses of treatment which are individually tailored to the needs of the patient. The aim is to help the patient practise all the activites involved in daily life. (See REHABILITATION.)
The therapists are part of a team including doctors, nurses, social workers, home helps, housing o?cers, physiotherapists, speech therapists and psychologists. Occupational therapists are mainly employed by the National Health Service and by local-authority social services, and they work in hospitals, special centres and in the handicapped person’s own home. State registration is essential for employment as an occupational therapist. There are 15 occupational therapy schools in the United Kingdom where the course leading to the diploma of the College of Occupational Therapists can be followed. The course lasts three academic years. (See also APPENDIX 8: PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS.)... occupational therapy
careful control of symptoms, especially PAIN.
psychosocial and spiritual care.
a personalised management plan centred on the patient’s needs and wishes.
care that takes into account the family’s needs and that is carried into the bereavement period.
provision of coordinated services in the home, hospital, day-care centre and other facilities used by the patient. Palliative care should include: managing
chronic cancer pain with planned use of common ANALGESICS including opioids (see SYRINGE DRIVERS); planning ahead to preserve as far as possible the patient’s autonomy and choice as death approaches and the ability to make decisions may decline; and an understanding and use of arti?cial feeding and hydration. Palliative care seeks to improve the satisfaction of both patient and family, to identify their needs and, if possible, to reduce the overall cost because the patient can often be looked after at home or in a HOSPICE instead of in hospital.
A well-publicised question that may arise in the context of palliative care is physician-assisted suicide. This subject is referred to in the entry on ETHICS. A request by a patient for accelerated death may suggest that he or she is depressed – a treatable condition – or that the palliative care is inadequate and needs reviewing and, if possible, improving.... palliative care
Raspberry leaf tea (iron absorption) should be taken the last 3 months of pregnancy (1oz to 1 pint boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; all drunk at intervals during the day). Taken hot at expectation of delivery the tea favourably assists.
For last month of pregnancy to ensure easy delivery Blue Cohosh should also be taken: (Helonias or Pulsatilla in its absence).
Blue Cohosh. Strengthens muscles of the womb and pelvis. Assists labour pains and all aspects of childbirth. (An old veterinary stand-by to reduce piglet mortality.) Where labour is delayed, the os rigid, painful spasms, “all worn-out by fatigue”, 10 drops Liquid Extract or 20 drops tincture in water every half hour favourably assists.
Pulsatilla. For inefficient labour, to accelerate delivery. Safe and reliable for weak and distressing pains. Thirty drops tincture or 15 drops Liquid Extract in water every 15 minutes to half hour. Even if ineffective, its action is harmless. Believed to act as well as Ergot. At time of delivery, place 20-30 drops tincture or liquid extract in 4oz water; dose – 1 teaspoon every 15 minutes as circumstances dictate. Given once daily, last month of pregnancy, 5 drops tincture or liquid extract powerfully assist women whose labour is expected to be difficult.
For sickness. Black Horehound tea.
Convulsions of childbirth: see, ECLAMPSIA.
Severe haemorrhage: Yarrow tea, as much as tolerated. OR:– Combination. Equal parts: Helonias, Black Haw, Cypripedium.
Powders: Quarter of a teaspoon.
Liquid Extracts: 30-60 drops.
Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons in water or honey, hourly.
Sponge-down. A sponge saturated with Marigold (Calendula) tea after delivery is most comforting to the new mother. ... childbirth
Attachment to such an item is normal and usually diminishes by age 7 or 8.... security object
Thumb-sucking tends to decrease after age 3, and most children grow out of it by age 7.
In most cases, it is not harmful.
However, malocclusion of the permanent teeth may develop if the habit continues past age 7.
This is usually temporary; if not, an orthodontic appliance may be needed.... thumb-sucking
Marked floppiness and paralysis occur during the first few months, and affected children rarely survive beyond age 3.
There is no cure for the disease. Treatment aims to keep the affected infant as comfortable as possible.... werdnig–hoffmann disease
Development of such mechanical and biomechanical devices points the way to a much wider use of e?ective prostheses, enabling people who would previously have died or been severely handicapped to lead normal or near normal lives. The technical hazards that have already been overcome provide a sound foundation for future successes. Progress so far in producing prostheses should also ensure that organ replacement is free from the serious ethical problems that surround the use of genetic manipulation to cure or prevent serious diseases (see ETHICS).
Limbs These are best made to meet the individual’s requirements but can be obtained ‘o? the shelf’. Arti?cial joints normally comprise complex mechanisms to stimulate ?exion and rotation movements. Leg prostheses are generally more useful than those for arms, because leg movements are easier to duplicate than those of the arm. Modern electronic circuitry that enables nerve impulses to be picked up and converted into appropriate movements is greatly improving the e?ectiveness of limb prostheses.
Eyes Arti?cial eyes are worn both for appearance and for psychological reasons. They are made of glass or plastic, and are thin shells of a boat-shape, representing the front half of the eye which has been removed. The stump which is left has still the eye-muscles in it, and so the arti?cial eye still has the power of moving with the other. A glass eye has to be replaced by a new one every year. Plastic eyes have the advantage of being more comfortable to wear, being more durable, and being unbreakable. Research is taking place aimed at creating a silicon chip that stimulates the visual cortex and thus helps to restore sight to the blind.
Dental prostheses is any arti?cial replacement of a tooth. There are three main types: a crown, a bridge and a denture. A crown is the replacement of the part of a tooth which sticks through the gum. It is ?xed to the remaining part of the tooth and may be made of metal, porcelain, plastic or a combination of these. A bridge is the replacement of two or three missing teeth and is usually ?xed in place. The replacement teeth are held in position by being joined to one or more crowns on the adjacent teeth. A denture is a removable prosthesis used to replace some or all the teeth. The teeth are made of plastic or porcelain and the base may be of plastic or metal. Removable teeth may be held more ?rmly by means of implants.
Heart The surgical replacement of stenosed or malfunctioning heart-valves with metal or plastic, human or pig valves has been routinely carried out for many years. So too has been the insertion into patients with abnormal heart rhythms of battery-driven arti?cial pacemakers (see CARDIAC PACEMAKER) to restore normal function. The replacement of a faulty heart with an arti?cial one is altogether more challenging. The ?rst working attempt to create an arti?cial heart took place in the early 1980s. Called the Jarvik-7, it had serious drawbacks: patients had to be permanently connected to apparatus the size of an anaesthetic trolley; and it caused deaths from infection and clotting of the blood. As a result, arti?cial hearts have been used primarily as bridging devices to keep patients alive until a suitable donor heart for transplantation can be found. Recent work in North America, however, is developing arti?cial hearts made of titanium and dacron. One type is planted into the chest cavity next to the patient’s own heart to assist it in its vital function of pumping blood around the body. Another replaces the heart completely. Eventually, it is probable that arti?cial hearts will replace heart transplants as the treatment of choice in patients with serious heart disorders.
Liver Arti?cial livers work in a similar way to kidney dialysis machines (see DIALYSIS). Blood is removed from the body and passed through a machine where it is cleaned and treated and then returned to the patient. The core of the device comprises several thousand ?exible membrane tubules on which live liver cells (from pigs or people) have been cultured. There is an exchange of biological molecules and water with the ‘circulating’ blood, and the membrane also screens the ‘foreign’ cells from the patient’s immune system, thus preventing any antagonistic immune reaction in the recipient.
Nose The making of a new nose is the oldest known operation in plastic surgery, Hindu records of such operations dating back to 1,000 BC. Loss of a nose may be due to eroding disease, war wounds, gun-shot wounds or dog bites. In essence the operation is the same as that practised a thousand years before Christ: namely the use of a skin graft, brought down from the forehead. Alternative sources of the skin graft today are skin from the arm, chest or abdomen. As a means of support, the new nose is built round a graft of bone or of cartilage from the ear.... prosthesis
Most important of such organs are the heart, which can be sustained by a few grains of Cayenne; the brain (Ginkgo, Skullcap, Kola); stomach (Peppermint); liver (Dandelion); spleen (New Jersey tea). See: LIFE DROPS.
When all desire for food has ceased, sips of honey-water or Balm tea sweetened with honey offer a comforting and sustaining support. ... death
Action: prostaglandin inhibitor, anti-diarrhoeal, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, sedative, diaphoretic, brain stimulant, carminative, aromatic (oil), digestive stimulant.
Uses: children’s diarrhoea, dysentery, colic, nausea, vomiting, to promote acid content of gastric juice. Claimed to dissolve gall-stones. Nervous stomach, throbbing headache caused by stress, palpitation.
Relief of muscle tension back of neck.
“To comfort head and nerves.” (Dr Joseph Mill)
Preparations: Average dose, 0.3-1 gram or equivalent. Thrice daily, after meals. Grains obtained by rubbing a Nutmeg over a metal kitchen grater; may be taken in a beverage, honey, mashed banana, etc. Powder: Fill No 3 gelatin capsules; 1 capsule or 50mg.
Oil: an alternative for internal conditions. 1-2 drops daily.
Massage oil for rheumatic pains and to stimulate circulation: Nutmeg oil (1), Olive oil or Almond oil (10).
Home tincture: one freshly grated Nutmeg to macerate in half pint 60 per cent alcohol (Vodka, gin, etc) 7 days. Decant. Dose: 5-10 drops.
Avoid large doses. ... nutmeg
Symptoms: difficult breathing. Breathing-in is noisy, spasmodic and prolonged. Effusion of a plastic-like material which coagulates to form a false membrane. Fretfulness. Symptoms of a ‘cold’ disappear but towards evening skin becomes hot, pulse rises, and a sense of anxiety takes over.
Laryngeal muscles are held in spasm, calling for antispasmodics. If the course of the disease has not been arrested on the third or fourth day a crisis is at hand and modern hospital treatment necessary. The condition is always worse at night. Treatment varies with each individual case. Stimulating diaphoretics induce gentle sweating, de-toxicate, and relieve tension on respiration.
Lobelia is unsurpassed as a croupal remedy and may be given alone either by infusion (tea) liquid extract or acid tincture. Given as a powder it works too slowly in a condition where speed saves lives.
While copious drinks of Catnep (Catmint) tea help, stronger medicines are indicated. Where resistance runs low, add Echinacea. Should any of these induce vomiting, it would be regarded as a favourable sign after which a measure of relief is felt.
Alternatives. Liquid extracts. Formula. Pleurisy root 2; Lobelia 1; Ginger half. Dose: one 5ml teaspoon in hot water every 2 hours. Infants: 10-30 drops.
Tinctures. Formula: Pleurisy root 2; Blue Cohosh 1; Lobelia 1. One to two 5ml teaspoons in hot water every 2 hours. Infants 10-20 drops.
Practitioner. Formula: 2 drops Tincture Belladonna BP 1980, 4 drops Tincture Ipecuanha BP 1973. Water to 2oz. One 5ml teaspoon in water every 15 minutes for 2 or 3 doses to enable child to sleep until morning; then once every hour or two for 3 days. Not to press medicines on children feeling comfortable. Inhalant. Friar’s Balsam. Steam kettle on hand. Or:–
Aromatherapy. Inhale. Drops. Thyme 1; Eucalyptus 2; Hyssop 1. In bowl of boiling water at the bedside at night or when necessary.
Drowsiness requires diffusive stimulants: Tinctures: Echinacea 2; Ginger quarter; Pleurisy root 1. One to two 5ml teaspoons in hot water every 2 hours; infants 5-20 drops according to age.
Collapse. When confronted with an ashen face, depression and collapse, powerful stimulants are necessary: tinctures – Formula. Prickly Ash bark 3; Blue Cohosh 2; Ginger 1. One 5ml teaspoon in hot water every 10 minutes; (infants 5-20 drops).
Topical. Relaxing oil. Ingredients: 3oz olive oil; half an ounce Liquid Extract or tincture Lobelia; Tincture Capsicum (Cayenne) 20 drops. Shake vigorously. Rub freely on throat, winding round a strip of suitable material wrung out in hot water. Cover with protective bandage or plastic film. Renew hot flannel every 10-15 minutes until paroxysms subside.
Poultice. Dissolve coffeespoon Cayenne powder or chillies in cup cider vinegar. Simmer gently 10 minutes. Strain. Saturate a piece of suitable material and wind round throat to relieve congested blood vessels.
Diet: No dairy foods which increase phlegm. No solid meals. Herb teas, vegetable and fruit juices only.
Steam kettle on hand, or Friar’s Balsam inhalation. See: FRIAR’S BALSAM. Regulate bowels. The condition is worsened in a dry hot atmosphere; reduce central heating to ensure adequate ventilation. Many a serious stridor and cough have been relieved by running some hot water into a bath or basin and sitting the child in a homemade Turkish bath.
Treatment by or in liaison with a general medical practitioner. ... croup
Palming was initiated by Dr William Bates who, suffering from physical exhaustion and eye strain cupped his eyes in his palms to relax the tension. A few minutes later he felt refreshed and his eyes no longer ached. From this experience he devised the Bates Method to strengthen the eyes. ... palming
Pain can be relieved by regular low doses of analgesic drugs. Opioid analgesics, such as morphine, may be given if pain is severe. Other methods of pain relief include nerve blocks, cordotomy, and TENS. Nausea and vomiting may be controlled by drugs. Constipation can be treated with laxatives. Breathlessness is another common problem in the dying and may be relieved by morphine.
Towards the end, the dying person may be restless and may suffer from breathing difficulty due to heart failure or pneumonia. These symptoms can be relieved by drugs and by placing the patient in a more comfortable position.
Emotional care is as important as the relief of physical symptoms.
Many dying people feel angry or depressed and feelings of guilt or regret are common responses.
Loving, caring support from family, friends, and others is important.
Many terminally ill people prefer to die at home.
Few terminally ill patients require complicated nursing for a prolonged period.
Care in a hospice may be offered.
Hospices are small units that have been established specifically to care for the dying and their families.... dying, care of the
The aims of first-aid treatment in an emergency are to preserve life, to protect the individual from further harm, to provide reassurance, to make the victim comfortable, to arrange for medical help, and to find out as much as possible about the circumstances of the accident or injury.
Various techniques can be used to achieve these aims.
For example, the recovery position helps to maintain an open airway in an unconscious person who is breathing; artificial respiration is necessary if a person is not breathing.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation is essential if a person is not breathing and has no heartbeat.
Heavy bleeding can lead to shock but can be controlled by applying pressure at appropriate pressure points.... first aid
In most cases, flat-feet are painless and require no treatment, although in some cases the feet may ache on walking or standing. Arch supports can be worn in the shoes for comfort.... flat-feet
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: L. vera, L. officinalis, garden lavender, common lavender
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen woody shrub, up to 1 metre tall, with pale green, narrow, linear leaves and flowers on blunt spikes of a beautiful violet-blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated all over the world. The oil is produced mainly in France, also Spain, Italy, England, Australia, Tasmania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria, Greece, etc.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of lavender; L. angustifolia is divided into two subspecies – L. delphinensis and L. fragrans. French lavender (L. stoechas) is a smaller shrub with dark violet flowers; see also entries on spike lavender, lavandin and the Botanical Classification section. The so-called cotton lavender (Santolina chamaecyparissus) and the sea lavender (Statice caroliniana) belong to different botanical families.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Lavender has a well-established tradition as a folk remedy, and its scent is still familiar to almost everyone. It was used to ‘comfort the stomach’ but above all as a cosmetic water, an insect repellent, to scent linen, and as a reviving yet soothing oil ‘The essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made from it, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms and colic ... A few drops of lavender in a hot footbath has a marked influence in relieving fatigue. Outwardly applied, it relieves toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. In hysteria, palsy and similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve power, lavender will act as a powerful stimulant.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops. 2. An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, floral herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone; it has a more fragrant floral scent compared to spike lavender. It blends well with most oils, especially citrus and florals; also cedarwood, clove, clary sage, pine, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli, etc. 2. The absolute is a dark green viscous liquid with a very sweet herbaceous, somewhat floral odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 100 constituents including linalyl acetate (up to 40 per cent), linalol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene, caryophyllene, among others. Constituents vary according to source: high altitudes generally produce more esters.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Generally regarded as the most versatile essence therapeutically:
Skin care: Abscesses, acne, allergies, athlete’s foot, boils, bruises, burns, dandruff, dermatitis, earache, eczema, inflammations, insect bites and stings, insect repellent, lice, psoriasis, ringworm, scabies, sores, spots, all skin types, sunburn, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Lumbago, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, halitosis, laryngitis, throat infections, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Abdominal cramps, colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune system: ’Flu.
Nervous system: Depression, headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions, PMT, sciatica, shock, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and as a fragrance. Extensively employed in all types of soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, etc, especially toilet waters and colognes. Employed as a flavouring agent in most categories of food as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... lavender, true
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Calendula, marygold, marybud, gold-bloom, pot marigold, hollygold, common marigold, poet’s marigold.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual herb up to 60 cms high with soft, oval, pale green leaves and bright orange daisylike flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe and Egypt; naturalized throughout temperate regions of the world. Widely cultivated, especially in northern Europe for domestic and medicinal use. The absolute is only produced in France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several species of marigold, but the common marigold is the one generally used medicinally. It should not be confused with tagetes or taget from the Mexican marigold (Tagetes minuta) or the African marigold (T. erecta), the oil of which is also often called ‘calendula’.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient medical repute, said to ‘comfort the heart and spirits’.. It was also used for skin complaints, menstrual irregularities, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, conjunctivitis and poor eyesight. The flowers are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, specific for enlarged or inflamed lymph nodes, sebaceous cysts, duodenal ulcers and inflammatory skin lesions. The infused oil is useful for a wide range of skin problems including cracked and rough skin, nappy rash, grazes, cracked nipples, varicose veins and inflammations.
ACTIONS: Antihaemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, diaphoretic, cholagogue, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, styptic, tonic, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: An absolute by solvent extraction from the flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark greenish-brown viscous liquid with an intensely sharp, herbaceous odour. It blends well with oakmoss, hyacinth, floral and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The absolute contains calendulin (a yellow resin), waxes and volatile oil.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. The real calendula absolute is only produced in small quantities, and is difficult to get hold of.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Burns, cuts, eczema, greasy skin, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, wounds. NB: ‘The infused oil is very valuable in Aromatherapy for its powerful skin-healing properties.’ .
OTHER USES: Used in high-class perfumery.... marigold
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: M. viridis, common spearmint, garden spearmint, spire mint, green mint, lamb mint, pea mint, fish mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hardy branched perennial herb with bright green, lance-shaped, sharply toothed leaves, quickly spreading underground runners and pink or lilac-coloured flowers in slender cylindrical spikes.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now common throughout Europe, western Asia and the Middle East. It was introduced to the USA where it has become a very popular flavouring. The oil is produced in midwest USA, Hungary, Spain, Yugoslavia, the USSR and China.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different types of spearmint, especially in the USA, such as the curly mint (M. spicata var. crispa). In Russia the oil from M. verticellata is also sold as spearmint oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Valued all over the world as a culinary herb, as shown by its folk names. It was used by the ancient Greeks as a restorative and to scent their bathwater. The distilled water is used to relieve hiccough, colic, nausea, indigestion and flatulence. ‘Applied to the forehead and temples, it eases the pains in the head, and is good to wash the heads of young children with, against all manner of breakings out, sores or scabs ... being smelled unto, it is comforting to the head.’.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic (local), antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, decongestant, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive mobile liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, minty odour. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, jasmine, eucalyptus, basil and rosemary and is often used in combination with peppermint.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: L-carvone (50–70 per cent), dihydrocarvone, phellandrene, limonene, menthone, menthol, pulegone, cineol, linalol, pinenes, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE ‘The properties of spearmint oil resemble those of peppermint but its effects are less powerful ... it is better adapted to children’s maladies.’.
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, congested skin.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, sinusitis.
Digestive system: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatobiliary disorders, nausea, vomiting.
Immune system: Colds, fevers, ’flu.
Nervous system: Fatigue, headache, migraine, nervous strain, neurasthenia, stress.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component, mainly in soaps and colognes. Primarily used as a flavour ingredient in a wide range of products, including toothpaste, chewing gum, sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks.... mint, spearmint
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Marjorana hortensis, knotted marjoram.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender bushy perennial plant (cultivated as an annual in colder climates), up to 60 cms high with a hairy stem, dark green oval leaves and small greyish white flowers in clusters or ‘knots’. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, Egypt and North Africa. Major oil-producing countries include France, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anaphrodisiac, antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cordial, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypotensive, laxative, nervine, sedative, stomachic, tonic, vasodilator, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried flowering herb. An oleoresin is also produced in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or amber coloured mobile liquid with a warm, woody, spicy camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavender, rosemary, bergamot, chamomile, cypress, cedarwood, tea tree and eucalyptus.
OTHER SPECIES: There is a great deal of confusion regarding the various species of marjoram or oregano. The most common types are the pot or French marjoram (Origanum onites or Marjorana onites), which is a hardier plant than the sweet marjoram and of a spreading nature; the Spanish marjoram or oregano (Thymus mastichina) and the wild or common marjoram or oregano (Origanum vulgare) which is used to produce the so-called ‘oregano oil’. See entries on common oregano, Spanish oregano and also the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional culinary herb and folk remedy. It was used by the ancient Greeks in their fragrances, cosmetics and medicines; the name oregano derives from a Greek word meaning ‘joy of the mountains’. lt is a versatile herb which has a soothing, fortifying and warming effect; it aids digestive and menstrual problems, as well as nervous and respiratory complaints.
It is ‘comforting in cold diseases of the head, stomach, sinews and other parts, taken inwardly or outwardly applied ... helps diseases of the chest, obstructions of the liver and spleen.’. It is also very helpful for muscular and rheumatic pain, sprains, strains, stiff joints, bruises, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinenes, terpineol, sabinenes, linalol, carvacrol, linalyl acetate, ocimene, cadinene, geranyl acetate, citral, eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Not to be used during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains, bruises, ticks.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, lumbago, muscular aches and stiffness, rheumatism, sprains, strains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, PMT.
Immune system: Colds.
Nervous system: Headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: The oil and oleoresin are used as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed in most major food categories, especially meats, seasonings and sauces, as well as soft drinks and alcoholic beverages such as vermouths and bitters.... marjoram, sweet
FAMILY: Violaceae
SYNONYMS: English violet, garden violet, blue violet, sweet-scented violet.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, tender, perennial plant with dark green, heart-shaped leaves, fragrant violet-blue flowers and an oblique underground rhizome.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia; cultivated in gardens worldwide. It is mainly grown in southern France (Grasse) and to a lesser extent in Italy and China for perfumery use.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 200 species of violet; the main types cultivated for aromatic extraction are the ‘Parma’ and the ‘Victoria’ violets.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both the leaf and flowers have a long tradition of use in herbal medicine, mainly for congestive pulmonary conditions and sensitive skin conditions, including capillary fragility. The leaf has also been used to treat cystitis and as a mouthwash for infections of the mouth and throat. It is reported to have mild pain-killing properties, probably due to the presence of salicylic acid (as in ‘aspirin’).
The flowers are still used to make a ‘syrup of violet’ which is used as a laxative and colouring agent. The dried leaf and flowers are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘eczema and skin eruptions with serious exudate, particularly when associated with rheumatic symptoms’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antiseptic, decongestant (liver), diuretic, expectorant, laxative, soporific, stimulant (circulation).
EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute from 1. fresh leaves, and 2. flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The leaf absolute is an intense dark green viscous liquid with a strong green-leaf odour and a delicate floral undertone. 2. The flower absolute is a yellowish-green viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, floral fragrance, characteristic of the fresh flowers. It blends well with tuberose, clary sage, boronia, tarragon, cumin, hop, basil, hyacinth and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Both leaves and petals contain nonadienal, parmone, hexyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, ionone and viola quercitin, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, eczema, refines the pores, thread veins, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Fibrosis, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, mouth and throat infections.
Nervous system: Dizziness, headaches, insomnia, nervous exhaustion – the scent was believed to ‘comfort and strengthen the heart’.
OTHER USES: Used in high-class perfumery work; occasionally used in flavouring, mainly confectionery.... violet
Health Encyclopedia