n. (in pharmacy) a sweet substance that is combined with a medicinal preparation to make it suitable for administration.
Habitat: Native to Malaysia; now grown along the coasts of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Assam and Maharashtra.
English: Arecanut, Betel Nut.Ayurvedic: Puuga, Puugi, Kramuka, Ghontaa, Guwaak, Ghorant.Unani: Fufal, Chhaalia, Supaari.Siddha/Tamil: Kottai Paakku, Kamugu.Action: Taeniacide (confined to veterinary medicine), astringent, stimulant.
Along with other therapeutic application, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India indicates the use of dried ripe seed in leucorrhoea and vaginal laxity.Arecanut contains several alkaloids belonging to pyridine group, the most important being arecoline (0.1-0.5%). Arecaidine, guvacine and isoguvacine are also present. Arecoline is an- thelmintic (in animals, not in humans). Arecaidine has no parasympa- thomimetic effects, but only stimulating properties; sedative in higher doses. Isoguvacine produces hypotension.Contraindicated in asthma due to bronchoconstrictive effects of the alkaloid arecoline (human case reports). (Francis Brinker.)Arecanut tannins (8.0-18.0%) are predominantly catechol tannins which closely resemble Mimosa bark tannins. Powdered nuts are prescribed in diarrhoea and urinary disorders. In combination with other astringent and styptic herbs, arecanut is used as a major constituent in confections of Indian medicine for gynaecological disorders.Aqueous extract of the nut exhibits direct vasoconstriction and adrenaline potentiation in rats. Antimicrobial activity is due to polyphenolic fraction. Tannins potentiated the action of acetylcholine in ileum and uterus of rat and noradrenaline on seminal vesicle at low concentration.Due to increased incidence of oral cancer associated with betel chewing, the use of arecanut as a masticatory is being discouraged.Seeds are toxic at 8-10 g, fluid extract at 3.7 ml; and arecoline hydrobromide at 4.3-6.5 mg. (Francis Brinker.)Dosage: Dried ripe fruit—1-2 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... areca catechuAction: Used as a pulse. In the form of a confection, used for leucorrhoea and seminal debility. Oil extracts of the pulse is used externally in rheumatism, contracted knee, stiff shoulder. Root—used as a poultice for inflammations and abscesses. Narcotic.
Teramnus labialis Spreng. (grows wild): The whole plant is used in rheumatism, paralysis, nervous diseases, haemoptysis and catarrh of respiratory tract.... phaseolus mungoHabitat: Cultivated chiefly in Aligarh, Ghazipur and Kannauj, grown in gardens throughout India.
English: Damask Rose.Ayurvedic: Taruni. (Flowers—red, pink or white.)Unani: Gul-e-Surkh, Vard, Vard- e-Ahmar. Stamens—Zard-e-Vard. Fruit—Dalik, Samar-ul-Vard, Smar-e-Gul.Siddha/Tamil: Irosa.Folk: Fasali Gulaab.Action: Flower buds—astringent, expectorant, laxative; used as a cardiac tonic and aperient. Stamens and fruits—astringent. Petals—Gulkand (a confection in sugar)—laxative, anti-inflammatory (used in sore throat and tonsilitis. Rose water—cooling, refrigerant, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory (used as a remedy for skin irritation, also for sore eyes).
All parts of the rose plant yielded quercetin, kaempferol and cyanidin. Lycopene, rubixanthin, zeaxanthin, xanthophyll and taraxanthin have been isolated from the hips. The flowers contain an essential oil with citronel- lol, nerol, geraniol, beta-phenylethanol and its glucoside, eugenol and methyl eugenol; other constituents include organic acids, chlorogenic acid, tannin, cyanin, cyanidin and its 3,5-di- glucoside, quercitrin, carotene and sugars. Pollen from flowers contain carotene (0.76 mg/100 g), sugars (1.0%) and chlorogenic acid (1.5%). Their proline content is found unusually high.The red colouring matter consists of cyanin (9-10% on dry weight basis); a yellow glucoside of quercetin and quercitrin is also present. Flowers, usually, yield 0.04% oil or otto of rose.Dog Rose, extensively cultivated in Europe, North Africa and parts of Asia, is equated with Rosa canina Lin. The rose hip contains vitamin C (0.22.0%), malic and citric acid, pectins (15%), invert sugar (12-15%), tannins (2%), carotenoids, flavonoids.Preparations of Rose hips are used for the prevention and treatment of colds and influenza-type infections, for the treatment vitamin C deficiencies; and for increasing resistance.... rosa damascenaIncense of the Anglican Church. Parts: Olibanum 4; Thus 4; Benzoin 4; Tolu 41; Storax 2. Mix powders. ... incense
Habitat: Punjab, Assam, Khasi Hills, Madhya Pradesh and Peninsular India.
English: Marking-Nut.Ayurvedic: Bhallaataka, Bhallata, Arushkara, Agnik, Agnimukha, Sophkrit, Viravrksha.Unani: Balaadur, Bhilaayan, Bhilaavaan.Siddha/Tamil: Shenkottei, Erimugi. (Kattu shen-kottai is equated with S. travancorica Bedd., found in evergreen forests of Tinnevelly and Travancore.)Folk: Bhilaavaa.Action: Toxic drug, used only after curing. Fruit—caustic, astringent, anti-inflammatory, antitumour. Used in rheumatoid arthritis and for the treatment of tumours and malignant growths.
A decoction, mixed with milk or butter fat, is prescribed in asthma, neuralgia, sciatica, gout, hemiplegia, epilepsy. Kernel oil—antiseptic; used externally in gout, leucoderma, psoriasis and leprosy. Bark gum—used for nervous debility; in leprous, scrofulous and venereal affections.Bigger var. is equated with S. kurzii Engler.The nut shells contain biflavonoids, including tetrahydrobustaflavone, tet- rahydroamentoflavone and anacardu- flavanone; nallaflavone; anacardic acid; aromatic amines and bhilawanol. Bhi- lawanol is a mixture of phenolic compounds, including cis and trans isomers of urushenol (3-pentadecenyl-8' catechol), monohydroxy phenol and semicarpol. These are the major constituents of the shell liquid, isolated from the nuts (about 46% of the weight of extract).A mixture of closely related pentade- cyl catechols exhibits anticancer activity. Extracts of the fruit was found effective against human epidermoid carcinoma of the naso-pharynx in tissue culture.Milk extract of the nut showed anti-inflammatory activity against car- rageenin, 5-HT and formaldehyde- induced rat paw oedema in acute anti- inflammatory studies. (About 20% animals developed gangrene of limbs, tail and ears.)Dosage: Detoxified fruit—1-2 g in milk confection. (API, Vol. II.)... semecarpus anacardiumHabitat: Cultivated throughout warmer parts of India.
English: Sorghum, Broomcorn.Ayurvedic: Yaava-naala.Siddha/Tamil: Makkaseelam.Folk: Jowaar, Paneraa.Action: Grains—demulcent, diuretic. A confection of grains and Foeniculum vulgare seeds is used as a galactagogue. Sorghum is inferior to wheat.
About 80% of sorghum in India belongs to the race Durra (Sorghum durra (Frosk.) Stapf.).... sorghum vulgare“A good and proper diet in disease is worth a hundred medicines and no amount of medication can do good to a patient who does not observe a strict regimen of diet.” (Charaka Samhita 300AD)
A healthy diet helps maintain the immune system, builds up reserves and hastens recovery from illness.
A good general diet includes foods low in fat, salt and high in fibre. All white sugar and white sugar products (chocolates, sweets, etc) should be replaced with natural sugars (honey, dates, figs, molasses, raisins etc). It should contain plenty of raw fresh fruit and vegetables; best prepared in a juice-press.
Vegetables should be conservatively cooked in very little water with little salt in a covered vessel. At least one mixed raw vegetable salad should be taken daily. Bread can be replaced by jacket potato, Soya- bean flour products or ripe bananas. Puddings, pastry and suety meals should be avoided.
Lean meat should be restricted to two or three parts a week with liberal inclusion of oily fish. Tofu, a Soya bean product, is an excellent alternative to meat. Three or four eggs, only, should be taken weekly.
Dairy produce (milk, butter, cream) contain cholesterol which thickens the blood, blocks arteries and increases resistance against the heart and major blood vessels, and should be taken sparingly.
Accept: Garlic, Onions, Lecithin, Muesli or Oatmeal porridge for breakfast or at other times during the day, yoghurt, honey.
Reject: fried foods, biscuits, confectionery.
Salt: replace with powdered Garlic, Celery or Kelp.
Alcohol: replace with fresh fruit or raw vegetable juices. Coffee is a risk factor raising cholesterol concentration; Dandelion coffee, Rutin or any one of many herbal teas available offer alternatives.
Avoid over-eating and meals when tired. Foods should be well masticated without liquid drinks; dry- feed. Plenty of liquid drinks, water etc should be taken between meals.
Supplements: Vitamin C 200mg, Vitamin E 200iu, morning and evening. Evening Primrose oil. Efamol produce a combined Evening Primrose and Fish oil capsule.
Dietary fibre can prevent certain colonic diseases. Treatment of disease by diet is preferred to drugs because it has the advantage of being free from side-effects. ... diet - general
Symptoms: malaise, bloody alternating diarrhoea and constipation; right side colicky abdominal pain worse after meals; flatulence, loss of weight and appetite. Intestinal obstruction can usually be palpated. Blood count. A blood count high in whites indicates an abscess – a serious condition which may require surgical repair during which segments of the gut may have to be removed. Malignant change rare. Differential diagnosis. Ulcerative colitis, appendicitis, appendix abscess, irritable bowel syndrome.
Cracks or ulcers at corners of the mouth may be a good marker of Crohn’s Disease.
Treatment. Select one of the following. Herbal treatment offers a safe alternative to steroids by inducing remission in acute exacerbation. Good responses have been observed from the anti-bacterials Wild Yam and Goldenseal. Fenugreek seeds are of special value. Comfrey (tissue regeneration). Irish Moss.
Teas: Chamomile, Comfrey leaves, Hops, Marshmallow leaves, Meadowsweet, Shepherd’s Purse (Dr A. Vogel), Lobelia. Silverweed and Cranesbill are excellent for internal bleeding; Poke root for intestinal ulceration.
Decoction. Fenugreek seeds: 2 teaspoons to large cup water simmered gently 10 minutes. 1 cup freely. The seeds also should be consumed.
Tablets/capsules. Wild Yam, Fenugreek, Ginger, Goldenseal, Lobelia, Slippery Elm.
Powders. Formula. Wild Yam 2; Meadowsweet 2; Goldenseal 1. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Liquid Extracts. (1) Formula. Wild Yam 1, Echinacea 2. 30-60 drops in water thrice daily. Or, (2) Formula: Turkey Rhubarb 2, Goldenseal 1, Caraway half. 20-30 drops in water thrice daily.
Tinctures. Formula. Bayberry 2, Goldenseal 1, Cardamoms 1. Dose: One to two 5ml teaspoons thrice daily.
Ispaghula seeds. 2-4 teaspoons thrice daily.
Tea Tree oil Suppositories. Insertion at night.
Diet. Bland, little fibre, Slippery Elm gruel. Irish Moss preparations. Increase fluid intake. Reject: broccoli, tomatoes, lima, Soya, Brussels sprouts, pinto beans, cocoa, chocolate, cow’s milk, peas, onions, turnips, radishes. Accept fish oils.
Addenbrookes Hospital, Cambridge. Reject foods containing wheat and all dairy produce.
Supplements. Vitamins A, B12, C, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Potassium, Zinc.
Study. In a study carried out by UK researchers (1993) food allergies were found to be the most common cause of the disease. Results suggested that dietary changes may be as effective as corticosteroids in easing symptoms. The most common allergens were corn, wheat, milk, yeast, egg, potato, rye, tea, coffee, apples, mushrooms, oats, chocolate. An elemental diet with a formula of nutrients (E028, produced by Hospital Supplies, Liverpool) was used in trials. (The Lancet, 6.11.1993)
Notes. Crohn’s Disease is associated with Erythema nodosum, more frequently recognised in childhood. A frequent cause is cow’s milk intolerance. Smoking adds to the risk of Crohn’s disease.
In susceptible people, the food additives titanium dioxide and aluminosilicates may evoke a latent inflammatory response resulting in Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis or bowel cancer. These chemicals may be found in the intestinal lymphoid aggregations in gut mucosa. (Jonathan Powell, Gastro-intestinal Laboratory, St Thomas’s Hospital, London) (Titanium dioxide rarely occurs naturally but is added to confectionery, drinking water and anti-caking agents.) ... crohn’s disease
Symptoms. Where due to kidney: pain in the back on same side as affected kidney. May indicate tumour. Professional help should be sought. The main symptom of nephritis. Should not be confused with blood of the menstrual flow.
Alternatives. BHP (1983) recommends: Bur-Marigold, Horsetail, Sea Holly, Common Plantain, Beth root. HAMDAD recommends Grape seeds.
Cinnamon oil. Long traditional reputation in Malaysia for blood in the urine – 5-10 drops oil (or half a teaspoon powder) to control until medical attention is available or other measures adopted.
Formula. Sea Holly 3; Bur-Marigold 2; Beth root 1. Mix. Dose. Powders quarter of a teaspoon (375mg). Liquid Extracts 30-60 drops. Tinctures 1-2 teaspoons. In water thrice daily. Acute cases: every 2 hours. Dr Finlay Ellingwood. Formula. Liquid Extracts: Black Cohosh 20ml; Hydrangea 10ml; Chimiphila 5ml; Gelsemium 0.5ml. Mix. 20-40 drops in water every 2 hours, acute cases.
John Wesley (evangelist). Copious draughts of Yarrow Tea.
Note: Small stone or gravel are a common cause of blood in the urine. Rhubarb favours formation of stone, being able to induce oxaluria. Where drinking water has a high degree of hardness and rhubarb is eaten, calcium oxalate stones may be formed between the action of the water and the oxalic acid in the rhubarb.
Treatment by or in liaison with a general medical practitioner or hospital specialist. ... haematuria
Causes: chronic catarrh with obstruction of the Eustachian tubes of dietetic origin. Starchy foods should be severely restricted. The ear is clogged with a sticky fluid usually caused by enlarged adenoids blocking the ventilation duct which connects the cavity with the back of the throat.
Conventional treatment consists of insertion of ‘grommets’ – tiny flanged plastic tubes about one millimetre long – which are inserted into the eardrum, thus ensuring a free flow of air into the cavity.
Fluid usually disappears and hearing returns to normal.
Tre atme nt. Underlying cause treated – adenoids, tonsils, etc. Sinus wash-out with Soapwort, Elderflowers, Mullein or Marshmallow tea. Internal treatment with anti-catarrhals to disperse. Alternatives:– German Chamomile tea. (Traditional German).
Teas. Boneset, Cayenne, Coltsfoot, Elderflowers, Eyebright, Hyssop, Marshmallow leaves, Mullein, Mint, Yarrow.
Powders. Combine: Echinacea 2; Goldenseal quarter; Myrrh quarter; Liquorice half. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon), thrice daily.
Tinctures. Combine: Echinacea 2; Yarrow 1; Plantain 1. Drops: Tincture Capsicum. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily.
Topical. Castor oil drops, with cotton wool ear plugs, Oils of Garlic or Mullein. If not available, use Almond oil. Hopi Indian Ear Candles for mild suction and to impart a perceptible pressure regulation of sinuses and aural fluids.
Diet. Gluten-free diet certain. No confectionery, chocolate, etc. Salt-free. Low-starch. Milk-free. Abundance of fruits and raw green salad materials. Supplements. Vitamins A, B-complex, C. E. ... otitis media – glue ear
FAMILY: Rosaceae
SYNONYMS: P. amygdalus var. amara, Amygdalus communis var. amara, A. dulcis, P. communis.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The almond tree grows to a height of about 7 metres and is popular as a garden tree due to its pinky-white blossom. It is botanically classified as a drupe.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Western Asia and North Africa, it is now extensively cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region, Israel and California.
OTHER SPECIES: There are two main types of almond tree – bitter and sweet. The sweet almond does not produce any essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A ‘fixed’ oil commonly known as ‘sweet almond oil’ is made by pressing the kernels from both the sweet and bitter almond trees. Unlike the essential oil, this fixed oil does not contain any benzaldehyde or prussic acid, and has many medical and cosmetic uses. It is used as a laxative, for bronchitis, coughs, heartburn and for disorders of the kidneys, bladder and biliary ducts. It helps relieve muscular aches and pains, softens the skin and premotes a clear complexion.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, antispasmodic, narcotic, vermifuge (FFPA).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the kernels. The nuts are first pressed and macerated in warm water for 12 to 24 hours before the oil is extracted. It is during this process that the prussic acid is formed; it is not present in the raw seed. Most commercial bitter almond oil is rectified to remove all prussic acid, i.e. free from prussic acid (FFPA).
CHARACTERISTICS: Light colourless liquid with a characteristic ‘marzipan’ scent (FFPA).
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Benzaldehyde (95 per cent), prussic acid (3 per cent).
SAFETY DATA: Prussic acid, also known as hydrocyanic acid or cyanide, is a well-known poison. Benzaldehyde is also moderately toxic.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy either internally or externally.’2
OTHER USES: Bitter almond oil is no longer used for internal medication. Rectified bitter almond oil is used for flavouring foods, mainly confectionery; the most common uses are ‘almond essence’ and marzipan. The oil (FFPA) is increasingly being replaced by synthetic benzaldehyde in food flavourings.... almond, bitter
FAMILY: Malvaceae
SYNONYMS: Hibiscus abelmoschus, musk seed, Egyptian alcee, target-leaved hibiscus, muskmallow.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub about 1.5 metres high, bearing large single yellow flowers with a purple centre. The capsules, in the form of five-cornered pyramids, contain the greyish-brown kidney-shaped seeds which have a musky odour.
DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to India; widely cultivated in tropical countries including Indonesia, Africa, Egypt, China, Madagascar, and the West Indies. Distillation of the oil is generally carried out in Europe and America.
OTHER SPECIES: A variety, H. esculentus, is grown largely in Istanbul as a demulcent. Another variety is also found in Martinique, the seeds of which have a more delicate scent.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Generally used as a stimulant and to ease indigestion, cramp and nervous dyspepsia. In Chinese medicine it is used to treat headache; in Egypt the seeds are used to sweeten the breath and are made into an emulsion with milk to be used for itch. The Arabs use the seeds to mix with coffee. Widely used as a domestic spice in the East.
ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, nervine, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the seeds. Liquid ambrette seed oil should be allowed to age for several months before it is used. A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-red liquid with a rich, sweet floral-musky odour, very tenacious. It blends well with rose, neroli, sandalwood, clary sage, cypress, patchouli, oriental and ‘sophisticated’ bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ambrettolide, ambrettolic acid, palmitic acid and farnesol.
SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates the oil to be non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation muscles and joints: Cramp, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation.
Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Employed by the cosmetic and perfumery industries in oriental-type scents and for the adulteration of musk; also used as a musk substitute. Used for flavouring alcoholic and soft drinks as well as some foodstuffs, especially confectionery.
AMYRIS... ambrette seed
FAMILY: Illiciaceae
SYNONYMS: Chinese anise, illicium, Chinese star anise.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Evergreen tree up to 12 metres high with a tall, slender white trunk. It bears fruit which consist of five to thirteen seed-bearing follicles attached to a central axis in the shape of a star.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south east China, also Vietnam, India and Japan. Mainly produced in China.
OTHER SPECIES: Several other related species, e.g. Japanese star anise which is highly poisonous!
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used in Chinese medicine for over 1300 years for its stimulating effect on the digestive system and for respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and unproductive coughs. In the East generally, it is used as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and often chewed after meals to sweeten the breath and promote digestion. A common oriental domestic spice.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, carminative, expectorant, insect repellent, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits, fresh or partially dried. An oil is also produced from the leaves in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, extremely sweet, liquorice like scent. It blends well with rose, lavender, orange, pine and other spice oils, and has excellent masking properties.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Trans-anethole (80–90 per cent).
SAFETY DATA: Despite the anethole content, it does not appear to be a dermal irritant, unlike aniseed. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; it can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive System: Colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures, lozenges, etc. and to mask undesirable odours and flavours in drugs. As a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste and detergents as well as cosmetics and perfumes. Widely used for flavouring food, especially confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.... anise, star
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: S. lappa, Aucklandia costus, Aplotaxis lappa, A. auriculata.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large, erect, perennial plant up to 2 metres high with a thick tapering root and numerous almost black flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to northern India; cultivated in India and south west China. The oil is mainly produced in India.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to elecampane (lnula helenium), whose roots are also used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The root has been used for millennia in India and China for digestive complaints, respiratory conditions, as a stimulant and for infection including typhoid and cholera. It is also used as an incense.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, digestive, expectorant, febrifuge, hypotensive, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: The dried roots are macerated in warm water, then subjected to steam distillation followed by solvent extraction of the distilled water. (A concrete and absolute are also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or brownish viscous liquid of soft, woody-musty, extremely tenacious odour. It blends well with patchouli, opopanax, ylang ylang, oriental and floral fragrances.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, including dihydrocostus lactone and costunolide (together up to 50 per cent), other sesquiterpenes such as costols, caryophyllene and selinene, as well as costic and oleic acids, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Subject to frequent adulteration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Perfume.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, spasmodic cough.
Digestive System: Flatulence, indigestion, spasm.
Nervous system: Debility, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Fixative and fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient by the food industry, especially in confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.... costus
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Field mint, Japanese mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A rather fragile herb with leafy stems up to 60 cms high, lance-shaped leaves and lilac-coloured flowers borne in clustered whorls in the axils of the upper leaves.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Japan and China); naturalized in North America. Major producers of the oil include China, Brazil, Argentina, India and Vietnam.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties and chemotypes of this herb, which is used for large-scale oil production, such as the Chinese type M. arvensis var. glabrata, and the Japanese species M. arvensis var. piperascens.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is used therapeutically in many of the same ways as peppermint; the bruised leaves are applied to the forehead to relieve nervous headache. In the East it is used to treat rheumatic pain, neuralgia, toothache, laryngitis, indigestion, colds and bronchitis. In Chinese medicine, it is also employed for relieving earache, treating tumours and some skin conditions.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cytotoxic, digestive, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb. The oil is usually dementholized since it contains so much menthol that it is otherwise solid at room temperature.
CHARACTERISTICS: Dementholized oil – a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a strong, fresh, bitter-sweet minty odour, somewhat like peppermint.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Menthol (70–95 per cent), menthane (10–20 per cent), pinene, menthyl acetate, isomenthone, thujone, phellandrene, piperitone and menthofuran, among others. Constituents vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration); may cause sensitization in some individuals. Menthol is a dermal irritant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. Use peppermint in preference, since it is not fractionated like the commercial cornmint oil and has a more refined fragrance.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical preparations, such as cough lozenges, herb teas and syrups, mainly in the form of menthol. Extensively employed in soaps, toothpastes, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes and especially industrial fragrances. Used by the food industry especially for flavouring confectionery, liqueurs and chewing gum. However, it is mainly used for the isolation of natural menthol.... mint, cornmint
FAMILY: Iridaceae
SYNONYMS: Orris root, iris, flag iris, pale iris, orris butter (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A decorative perennial plant up to 1.5 metres high, with sword-shaped leaves, a creeping fleshy rootstock and delicate, highly scented, pale blue flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the eastern Mediterranean region; also found in northern India and North Africa. Most commercial orris is produced in Italy where it grows wild. The oil is mainly produced in France and Morocco and to lesser extent in Italy and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of iris; cultivation has also produced further types. In Italy the pale iris (I. pallida) is collected indiscriminately with the Florentine orris (I. florentina) which has white flowers tinged with pale blue, and the common or German iris (I. germanica) which has deep purple flowers with a yellow beard. Other species which have been used medicinally include the American blue flag (I. versicolor), and the yellow flag iris (I. pseudacorus).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In ancient Greece and Rome orris root was used extensively in perfumery, and its medicinal qualities were held in high esteem by Dioscorides. The juice of the root was used for cosmetic purposes, and the root bruised in wine was employed for dropsy, bronchitis, coughs, hoarseness, chronic diarrhoea and congested headaches. In Russia the root was used to make a tonic drink with honey and ginger.
Iris is little used medicinally these days, but it still appears in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as being formerly used in upper respiratory catarrh, coughs, and for diarrhoea in infants.
ACTIONS: Dried Root – antidiarrhoeal, demulcent, expectorant. Fresh Root – diuretic, cathartic, emetic.
EXTRACTION: 1. An essential oil (often called a ‘concrete’) by steam distillation from the rhizomes which have been peeled, washed, dried and pulverized. The rhizomes must be stored for a minimum of three years prior to extraction otherwise they have virtually no scent! 2. An absolute produced by alkali washing in ethyl ether solution to remove the myristic acid from the ‘concrete’ oil. 3. A resin or resinoid by alcohol extraction from the peeled rhizomes.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil solidifies at room temperature to a cream-coloured mass with a woody, violet-like scent and a soft, floral-fruity undertone. 2. The absolute is a water-white or pale yellow oily liquid with a delicate, sweet, floral-woody odour. 3. The resin is a brown or dark orange viscous mass with a deep, woody sweet, tobacco-like scent – very tenacious.
Orris blends well with cedarwood, sandalwood, vetiver, cypress, mimosa, labdanum, bergamot, clary sage, rose, violet and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Myristic acid, an odourless substance which makes the ‘oil’ solid (85–90 per cent), alpha-irone and oleic acid.
SAFETY DATA: The fresh root causes nausea and vomiting in large doses. The oil and absolute are much adulterated or synthetic – ‘true’ orris absolute is three times the price of jasmine.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. However, the powdered orris, which is a common article, may be used as a dry shampoo, a body powder, a fixative for pot pourris, and to scent linen.
OTHER USES: The powder is used to scent dentifrices, toothpowders, etc. The resin is used in soaps, colognes and perfumes; the absolute and ‘concrete’ oil are reserved for high-class perfumery work. Occasionally used on the Continent for confectionery and fruit flavours.... orris
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: C. bigaradia, petitgrain bigarade (oil), petitgrain Paraguay (oil). See also bitter orange.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The oil of petitgrain is produced from the leaves and twigs of the same tree that produces bitter orange oil and neroli oil: see bitter orange and neroli.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern China and north east India. The best quality petitgrain oil comes from France but a good-quality oil is also produced in North Africa, Paraguay and Haiti from semi-wild trees.
OTHER SPECIES: A type of petitgrain is also produced in small quantities from the leaves, twigs and small unripe fruit of the lemon, sweet orange, mandarin and bergamot trees.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: At one time the oil used to be extracted from the green unripe oranges when they were still the size of a cherry – hence the name petitgrains or ‘little grains’. One of the classic ingredients of eau-de-cologne.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, deodorant, digestive, nervine, stimulant (digestive, nervous), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs. An orange ‘leaf and flower’ water absolute is also produced, known as petitgrain sur fleurs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow to amber liquid with a fresh-floral citrus scent and a woody-herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rosemary, lavender, geranium, bergamot, bitter orange, labdanum, neroli, oakmoss, clary sage, jasmine, benzoin, palmarosa, clove and balsams.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 40–80 per cent esters: mainly linalyl acetate and geranyl acetate, as well as linalol, nerol, terpineol, geraniol, nerolidol, farnesol, limonene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing, non-phototoxic.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, excessive perspiration, greasy skin and hair, toning.
Digestive system: Dyspepsia, flatulence.
Nervous system: Convalescence, insomnia, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially colognes (sometimes used to replace neroli). Employed as a flavour component in many foods, especially confectionery, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... petitgrain
FAMILY: Aristolochiaceae
SYNONYMS: Wild ginger, Indian ginger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An inconspicuous but fragrant little plant not more than 35 cms high with a hairy stem, two glossy, kidney-shaped leaves and a creeping rootstock. The solitary bell-shaped flower is brownish purple, and creamy white inside.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, especially North Carolina, Kansas and Canada. The oil is produced in the USA mainly from wild-growing plants.
OTHER SPECIES: It should not be confused with ‘serpentaria oil’ from the Virginian snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria) which belongs to the same botanical family but contains asarone and is considered toxic.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This plant has been employed for centuries in folk medicine but is now little prescribed. It used to be used for chronic chest complaints, dropsy, rheumatism and painful bowel and stomach spasms. It was also considered a ‘valuable stimulant in cases of amenorrhoea and colds’ and for ‘promoting a copious perspiration’. .
The name (of the Virginian variety at least) derives from its use in aiding the body to combat nettle rash, poison ivy and some snake bites.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried rhizomes and crushed roots.
CHARACTERISTICS: A brownish-yellow or amber liquid with a warm, woody-spicy, rich, gingerlike odour. It blends well with bergamot, costus, oakmoss, patchouli, pine needle, clary sage, mimosa, cassie and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, linalol, borneol, terpineol, geraniol, eugenol and methyl eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE May possibly be used for its antispasmodic qualities, for example for period pains or indigestion.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in perfumery work. Mainly used as a flavouring agent with other spicy materials, especially in confectionery.... snakeroot
FAMILY: Agavaceae
SYNONYMS: Tuberosa, tubereuse
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender, tall, slim perennial up to 50 cms high, with long slender leaves, a tuberous root and large, very fragrant, white lilylike flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native of Central America, where it is found growing wild. Cultivated for its oil in southern France, Morocco, China, Taiwan and Egypt.
OTHER SPECIES: Related to the narcissus and jonquil. The Chinese species of tuberose is somewhat different from the French and Moroccan type, although both are single flowered varieties.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The double flowered variety is grown for ornamental purposes and for use by the cut flower trade. ‘Pure absolute extraction of tuberose is perhaps the most expensive natural flower oil at the disposal of the modern perfumer.’.
ACTIONS: Narcotic.
EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh flowers, picked before the petals open. (An essential oil is also obtained by distillation of the concrete.)
CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a dark orange or brown soft paste, with a heavy, sweet floral, sometimes slightly spicy, tenacious fragrance. It blends well with gardenia, violet, opopanax, rose, jasmine, carnation, orris, Peru balsam, neroli and ylang ylang.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Methyl benzoate, methyl anthranilate, benzyl alcohol, butyric acid, eugenol, nerol, farnesol, geraniol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: No safety data available – often adulterated.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Perfume.
OTHER USES: Used in high-class perfumes, especially of an oriental, floral or fantasy type. Occasionally used for flavouring confectionery and some beverages.... tuberose
FAMILY: Violaceae
SYNONYMS: English violet, garden violet, blue violet, sweet-scented violet.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, tender, perennial plant with dark green, heart-shaped leaves, fragrant violet-blue flowers and an oblique underground rhizome.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia; cultivated in gardens worldwide. It is mainly grown in southern France (Grasse) and to a lesser extent in Italy and China for perfumery use.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 200 species of violet; the main types cultivated for aromatic extraction are the ‘Parma’ and the ‘Victoria’ violets.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both the leaf and flowers have a long tradition of use in herbal medicine, mainly for congestive pulmonary conditions and sensitive skin conditions, including capillary fragility. The leaf has also been used to treat cystitis and as a mouthwash for infections of the mouth and throat. It is reported to have mild pain-killing properties, probably due to the presence of salicylic acid (as in ‘aspirin’).
The flowers are still used to make a ‘syrup of violet’ which is used as a laxative and colouring agent. The dried leaf and flowers are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘eczema and skin eruptions with serious exudate, particularly when associated with rheumatic symptoms’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antiseptic, decongestant (liver), diuretic, expectorant, laxative, soporific, stimulant (circulation).
EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute from 1. fresh leaves, and 2. flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The leaf absolute is an intense dark green viscous liquid with a strong green-leaf odour and a delicate floral undertone. 2. The flower absolute is a yellowish-green viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, floral fragrance, characteristic of the fresh flowers. It blends well with tuberose, clary sage, boronia, tarragon, cumin, hop, basil, hyacinth and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Both leaves and petals contain nonadienal, parmone, hexyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, ionone and viola quercitin, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, eczema, refines the pores, thread veins, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Fibrosis, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, mouth and throat infections.
Nervous system: Dizziness, headaches, insomnia, nervous exhaustion – the scent was believed to ‘comfort and strengthen the heart’.
OTHER USES: Used in high-class perfumery work; occasionally used in flavouring, mainly confectionery.... violet
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Common wormwood, green ginger, armoise, absinthium (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb up to 1.5 metres high with a whitish stem, silvery-green, divided leaves covered in silky fine hairs, and pale yellow flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, North Africa and western Asia; naturalized in North America. It is extensively cultivated in central and southern Europe, the USSR, North Africa and the USA, where the oil is mainly produced.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many other Artemisia species such as davana and the Roman wormwood. See also entry on mugwort (A. vulgaris) also commonly called ‘armoise’; remedy for epilepsy and as an aromatic stewing herb to banish fleas.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used as an aromatic-bitter for anorexia, as a digestive tonic and as a choleretic for liver and gall bladder disorders, usually in the form of a dilute extract. It is also used to promote menstruation, reduce fever and expel worms. It was once used as a remedy for epilepsy and as an aromatic stewing herb to banish fleas.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, choleretic, deodorant, emmenagogue, febrifuge, insect repellent, narcotic, stimulant (digestive), tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops. (An absolute is occasionally produced by solvent extraction.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark green or bluish oil with a spicy, warm, bitter-green odour and a sharp, fresh topnote. The ‘de-thujonized’ oil blends well with oakmoss, jasmine, neroli, lavender and hyacinth.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (up to 71 per cent), azulenes, terpenes.
SAFETY DATA: Toxic. Abortifacient. Habitual use can cause restlessness, nightmares, convulsions, vomiting and, in extreme cases, brain damage. In 1915 the French banned the production of the drink Absinthe with this plant, due to its narcotic and habit-forming properties.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy either internally or externally.’.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in rubefacient pharmaceutical preparations and as a fragrance component in toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Widely employed (at minute levels) as a flavouring agent in alcoholic bitters and vermouths; also to a lesser extent in soft drinks and some foods, especially confectionery and desserts.... wormwood
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