Consequentialism: From 1 Different Sources
n. a variety of ethical theories arguing that the morality of an action, rule, or way of life can be determined by its outcome or consequences, rather than by its intrinsic nature or the motives or character of those performing or following it. The best known example of consequentialism is *utilitarianism, which in general seeks to achieve maximum utility or good outcomes for the greatest possible number of people in society.
In medical ethics, the principles of *beneficence and *nonmaleficence can be seen as consequentialist in their concern with outcomes but also as *deontological in that they are regarded as duties. A *cost–benefit analysis or *risk–benefit analysis on utilitarian principles is often carried out when distributing medical resources or deciding between treatments. A calculation of this kind also forms the basis of the quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) system (see quality of life).
A major objection to consequentialism is that the consequences of actions cannot always be predicted or perceived. Questions also arise regarding the likelihood of the consequences, whom they will affect (individuals, populations, animals, the environment), and by whom and what means they should be evaluated. —consequentialist adj.
an analytical process for weighing up the possible losses (costs) and gains (benefits) of an action or policy, often in monetary or numerical form, and usually as a means of deciding between alternatives. In medicine, it is particularly associated with the setting of priorities in allocating limited health-care resources. Analysis may result in a cost–benefit ratio. Compare risk–benefit analysis. See also consequentialism; quality of life; rationing.... cost–benefit analysis
n. an approach to ethics that is concerned with what makes an action inherently right or wrong. Deontology’s emphasis on the primacy of observing duties and respecting rights is at odds with the approach that judges actions by their outcomes (see consequentialism). This tension is central to many issues in medical ethics; for example, in relation to *euthanasia, the wrong of killing versus the good outcome of ending suffering, and is further complicated when rights or duties are in conflict with one another, e.g. in relation to *abortion, the rights of the mother versus the rights of the fetus. See also Kantian ethics. —deontological adj.... deontology
the principle that, where it is foreseen that a single action will have both a good and a bad outcome, a person may perform such an action provided that (a) he or she intends only the positive outcome, (b) the bad outcome is not disproportionate to the good, and (c) the good outcome is not a direct consequence of the bad. The classic example occurs where a terminally ill patient requires high doses of opiates for pain relief that may also depress respiratory function and hasten his or her death. In such a case the law holds that the doctor may supply the necessary dosage without this being considered tantamount to *euthanasia, even though the outcome will be the same, i.e. the morality of the action does not lie in its consequences (see consequentialism).... doctrine of double effect
n. 1. the branch of philosophy concerned with the content of moral judgments (normative ethics) and their nature and meaning (metaethics). See also consequentialism; Kantian ethics; narrative ethics. 2. the principles, values, virtues, or rules of conduct accepted within a particular profession or field of activity. See bioethics; medical ethics.... ethics
adj. positive, desirable, or morally admirable. The question of what is to be judged good is at the heart of medical ethics and ethics in general. Some theorists believe that one’s intentions or will may or may not be good (see deontology), while others argue that only the consequences of actions may or may not be good (*consequentialism). Physicians have an explicit duty to do good for their patients (see beneficence). See also right.... good
approaches to moral questions based on the thought of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). These seek to discover what is morally right by asking what basic rules all rational people (see autonomy) could adopt for themselves and then act on as an *imperative matter of *duty, regardless of their personal desires or of the possible consequences (see deontology; consequentialism). The Kantian tradition has been influential in medical ethics, especially in its insistence that every human life must be treated as an end in itself and not simply as a means.... kantian ethics
1. adj. in accordance with ethical principles or accepted professional standards. There may be more than one right action in any given circumstance. The tradition of *Kantian ethics maintains that an action may be right irrespective of any *good that flows from it; *consequentialism denies this. 2. n. any moral or legal entitlement. See human rights.... right
an analytical process used to weigh up the probability of foreseeable risks and benefits of an action or policy. In medical ethics, it provides a means of reconciling the principles of *beneficence and *nonmaleficence where a particular intervention has dangers as well as benefits. Compare cost–benefit analysis. See also consequentialism.... risk–benefit analysis
the claim that a relatively innocuous or small first step will result in seriously harmful or otherwise undesirable consequences that will be difficult, if not impossible, to prevent. When or whether such slippery slopes exist is much argued over in medical ethics, especially in debates about *euthanasia. See also consequentialism.... slippery slope argument
theories that emphasize the ethical importance of the virtues (e.g., honesty or courage), true happiness, and practical wisdom (compare consequentialism; deontology). In medical ethics, the traits of a ‘good doctor’ provide the moral compass by which to assess professional practice.... virtue ethics
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