Empyema Health Dictionary

The term applied to the thickening and broadening of the ?ngertips – and, less commonly, the tips of the toes – that occurs in certain chronic diseases of the lungs and heart. It is due to interstitial OEDEMA especially at the nail bed, leading to a loss of the acute angle between the nail and the skin of the ?nger. Clubbing is associated with lung cancer, EMPYEMA, BRONCHIECTASIS and congenital cyanotic heart disease.... clubbing

The gall-bladder rests on the underside of the LIVER and joins the common hepatic duct via the cystic duct to form the common BILE DUCT. The gall-bladder acts as a reservoir and concentrator of BILE, alterations in the composition of which may result in the formation of gallstones, the most common disease of the gallbladder.

Gall-stones affect 22 per cent of women and 11 per cent of men. The incidence increases with age, but only about 30 per cent of those with gall-stones undergo treatment as the majority of cases are asymptomatic. There are three types of stone: cholesterol, pigment and mixed, depending upon their composition; stones are usually mixed and may contain calcium deposits. The cause of most cases is not clear but sometimes gall-stones will form around a ‘foreign body’ within the bile ducts or gall-bladder, such as suture material. BILIARY COLIC Muscle ?bres in the biliary system contract around a stone in the cystic duct or common bile duct in an attempt to expel it. This causes pain in the right upper quarter of the abdomen, with nausea and occasionally vomiting. JAUNDICE Gall-stones small enough to enter the common bile duct may block the ?ow of bile and cause jaundice. ACUTE CHOLECYSTITIS Blockage of the cystic duct may lead to this. The gall-bladder wall becomes in?amed, resulting in pain in the right upper quarter of the abdomen, fever, and an increase in the white-blood-cell count. There is characteristically tenderness over the tip of the right ninth rib on deep inhalation (Murphy’s sign). Infection of the gall-bladder may accompany the acute in?ammation and occasionally an EMPYEMA of the gall-bladder may result. CHRONIC CHOLECYSTITIS A more insidious form of gall-bladder in?ammation, producing non-speci?c symptoms of abdominal pain, nausea and ?atulence which may be worse after a fatty meal.

Diagnosis Stones are usually diagnosed on the basis of the patient’s reported symptoms, although asymptomatic gall-stones are often an incidental ?nding when investigating another complaint. Con?rmatory investigations include abdominal RADIOGRAPHY – although many gall-stones are not calci?ed and thus do not show up on these images; ULTRASOUND scanning; oral CHOLECYSTOGRAPHY – which entails a patient’s swallowing a substance opaque to X-rays which is concentrated in the gall-bladder; and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) – a technique in which an ENDOSCOPE is passed into the duodenum and a contrast medium injected into the biliary duct.

Treatment Biliary colic is treated with bed rest and injection of morphine-like analgesics. Once the pain has subsided, the patient may then be referred for further treatment as outlined below. Acute cholecystitis is treated by surgical removal of the gall-bladder. There are two techniques available for this procedure: ?rstly, conventional cholecystectomy, in which the abdomen is opened and the gall-bladder cut out; and, secondly, laparoscopic cholecystectomy, in which ?breoptic instruments called endoscopes (see FIBREOPTIC ENDOSCOPY) are introduced into the abdominal cavity via several small incisions (see MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY (MIS)). Laparoscopic surgery has the advantage of reducing the patient’s recovery time. Gall-stones may be removed during ERCP; they can sometimes be dissolved using ultrasound waves (lithotripsy) or tablet therapy (dissolution chemotherapy). Pigment stones, calci?ed stones or stones larger than 15 mm in diameter are not suitable for this treatment, which is also less likely to succeed in the overweight patient. Drug treatment is prolonged but stones can disappear completely after two years. Stones may re-form on stopping therapy. The drugs used are derivatives of bile salts, particularly chenodeoxycholic acid; side-effects include diarrhoea and liver damage.... gall-bladder, diseases of

Acute or chronic inflammation of the gallbladder, causing severe abdominal pain. Acute cholecystitis is usually caused by a gallstone obstructing the outlet from the gallbladder. The trapped bile causes irritation of the gallbladder walls and may become infected by bacteria. The main symptom is severe constant pain in the right side of the abdomen under the ribs, accompanied by fever and, occasionally, jaundice. Treatment is usually with analgesic drugs, antibiotic drugs, and an intravenous infusion of nutrients and fluids. In some cases, complications develop, which may include peritonitis, if the gallbladder bursts, and empyema. Both require urgent surgical treatment.

Repeated mild attacks of acute cholecystitis can lead to a chronic form, in which the gallbladder shrinks, its walls thicken, and it ceases to store bile.

Symptoms (indigestion, pains in the upper abdomen, nausea, and belching) may be aggravated by eating fatty food.

Cholecystectomy is the usual treatment.... cholecystitis

The principal gallbladder disorder is gallstones, which are common and often symptomless. Attempts by the gallbladder to expel the stones can cause biliary colic. If a gallstone becomes stuck in the gallbladder outlet, acute cholecystitis may develop. Occasionally, this leads to a painful condition called empyema of the gallbladder. If a gallbladder is empty when a stone obstructs its outlet, it may fill with mucus, resulting in a mucocele. Gallbladder cancer is rare.... gallbladder, disorders of

n. 1. the removal of the outside layer (cortex) from an organ or structure, such as the kidney. 2. an operation for removing the blood clot and scar tissue that forms after bleeding into the chest cavity (haemothorax). 3. (decapsulation) the surgical removal of a *capsule from an organ; for example, the stripping of the membrane that envelops the kidney or of the inflammatory capsule that encloses a chronic abscess, as in the treatment of *empyema.... decortication

n. blood in the pleural cavity, usually due to injury. If the blood is not drained dense fibrous *adhesions occur between the pleural surfaces, which can impair the normal movement of the lung. The blood may also become infected (see empyema).... haemothorax

Various conditions affecting the LUNGS are dealt with under the following headings: ASTHMA; BRONCHIECTASIS; CHEST, DEFORMITIES OF; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD); COLD, COMMON; EMPHYSEMA; EXPECTORATION; HAEMOPTYSIS; HAEMORRHAGE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH, MEDICINE AND DISEASES; PLEURISY; PNEUMONIA; PULMONARY EMBOLISM; TUBERCULOSIS.

In?ammation of the lungs is generally known as PNEUMONIA, when it is due to infection; as ALVEOLITIS when the in?ammation is immunological; and as PNEUMONITIS when it is due to physical or chemical agents.

Abscess of the lung consists of a collection of PUS within the lung tissue. Causes include inadequate treatment of pneumonia, inhalation of vomit, obstruction of the bronchial tubes by tumours and foreign bodies, pulmonary emboli (see EMBOLISM) and septic emboli. The patient becomes generally unwell with cough and fever. BRONCHOSCOPY is frequently performed to detect any obstruction to the bronchi. Treatment is with a prolonged course of antibiotics. Rarely, surgery is necessary.

Pulmonary oedema is the accumulation of ?uid in the pulmonary tissues and air spaces. This may be caused by cardiac disease (heart failure or disease of heart valves – see below, and HEART, DISEASES OF) or by an increase in the permeability of the pulmonary capillaries allowing leakage of ?uid into the lung tissue (see ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (ARDS)).

Heart failure (left ventricular failure) can be caused by a weakness in the pumping action of the HEART leading to an increase in back pressure which forces ?uid out of the blood vessels into the lung tissue. Causes include heart attacks and HYPERTENSION (high blood pressure). Narrowed or leaking heart valves hinder the ?ow of blood through the heart; again, this produces an increase in back pressure which raises the capillary pressure in the pulmonary vessels and causes ?ooding of ?uid into the interstitial spaces and alveoli. Accumulation of ?uid in lung tissue produces breathlessness. Treatments include DIURETICS and other drugs to aid the pumping action of the heart. Surgical valve replacement may help when heart failure is due to valvular heart disease.

Acute respiratory distress syndrome Formerly known as adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), this produces pulmonary congestion because of leakage of ?uid through pulmonary capillaries. It complicates a variety of illnesses such as sepsis, trauma, aspiration of gastric contents and di?use pneumonia. Treatment involves treating the cause and supporting the patient by providing oxygen.

Collapse of the lung may occur due to blockage of a bronchial tube by tumour, foreign body or a plug of mucus which may occur in bronchitis or pneumonia. Air beyond the blockage is absorbed into the circulation, causing the affected area of lung to collapse. Collapse may also occur when air is allowed into the pleural space – the space between the lining of the lung and the lining of the inside of the chest wall. This is called a pneumothorax and may occur following trauma, or spontaneously

– for example, when there is a rupture of a subpleural air pocket (such as a cyst) allowing a communication between the airways and the pleural space. Lung collapse by compression may occur when ?uid collects in the pleural space (pleural e?usion): when this ?uid is blood, it is known as a haemothorax; if it is due to pus it is known as an empyema. Collections of air, blood, pus or other ?uid can be removed from the pleural space by insertion of a chest drain, thus allowing the lung to re-expand.

Tumours of the lung are the most common cause of cancer in men and, along with breast cancer, are a major cause of cancer in women. Several types of lung cancer occur, the most common being squamous cell carcinoma, small- (or oat-) cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and large-cell carcinoma. All but the adenocarcinoma have a strong link with smoking. Each type has a di?erent pattern of growth and responds di?erently to treatment. More than 30,000 men and women die of cancer of the trachea, bronchus and lung annually in England and Wales.

The most common presenting symptom is cough; others include haemoptisis (coughing up blood), breathlessness, chest pain, wheezing and weight loss. As well as spreading locally in the lung – the rate of spread varies – lung cancer commonly spawns secondary growths in the liver, bones or brain. Diagnosis is con?rmed by X-rays and bronchoscopy with biopsy.

Treatment Treatment for the two main categories of lung cancer – small-cell and nonsmall-cell cancer – is di?erent. Surgery is the only curative treatment for the latter and should be considered in all cases, even though fewer than half undergoing surgery will survive ?ve years. In those patients unsuitable for surgery, radical RADIOTHERAPY should be considered. For other patients the aim should be the control of symptoms and the maintenance of quality of life, with palliative radiotherapy one of the options.

Small-cell lung cancer progresses rapidly, and untreated patients survive for only a few months. Because the disease is often widespread by the time of diagnosis, surgery is rarely an option. All patients should be considered for CHEMOTHERAPY which improves symptoms and prolongs survival.

Wounds of the lung may cause damage to the lung and, by admitting air into the pleural cavity, cause the lung to collapse with air in the pleural space (pneumothorax). This may require the insertion of a chest drain to remove the air from the pleural space and allow the lung to re-expand. The lung may be wounded by the end of a fractured rib or by some sharp object such as a knife pushed between the ribs.... lungs, diseases of

Surgery to remove the gallbladder, usually to deal with gallstones.

Cholecystectomy is also used in acute cholecystitis and as an emergency treatment for perforation of the gallbladder or empyema.

The procedure is carried out using conventional surgery or, more commonly, by minimally invasive surgery using a laparoscope.... cholecystectomy

n. pus and gas or air in the *pleural cavity. The condition can arise if gas is produced by gas-forming bacteria as part of an *empyema or if air is introduced during attempts to drain the pus from an empyema. Alternatively a *hydropneumothorax may become infected.... pyopneumothorax

n. see empyema.... pyothorax

Pneumonia is an in?ammation of the lung tissue (see LUNGS) caused by infection. It can occur without underlying lung or general disease, or in patients with an underlying condition that makes them susceptible.

Pneumonia with no predisposing cause – community-acquired pneumonia – is caused most often by Streptococcus pneumoniae (PNEUMOCOCCUS). The other most common causes are viruses, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Legionella species (Legionnaire’s disease). Another cause, Chlamydia psittaci, may be associated with exposure to perching birds.

In patients with underlying lung disease, such as CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE (COPD) or BRONCHIECTASIS as in CYSTIC FIBROSIS, other organisms such as Haemophilus in?uenzae, Klebsiella, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are more prominent. In patients in hospital with severe underlying disease, pneumonia, often caused by gram-negative bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN), is commonly the terminal event.

In patients with an immune system suppressed by pregnancy and labour, infection with HIV, CHEMOTHERAPY or immunosuppressive drugs after organ transplantation, a wider range of opportunistic organisms needs to be considered. Some of these organisms such as CYTOMEGALOVIRUS (CMV) or the fungus Pneumocystis carinii rarely cause disease in immunocompetent individuals – those whose body’s immune (defence) system is e?ective.

TUBERCULOSIS is another cause of pneumonia, although the pattern of lung involvement and the more chronic course usually di?erentiate it from other causes of pneumonia.

Symptoms The common symptoms of pneumonia are cough, fever (sometimes with RIGOR), pleuritic chest pain (see PLEURISY) and shortness of breath. SPUTUM may not be present at ?rst but later may be purulent or reddish (rusty).

Examination of the chest may show the typical signs of consolidation of an area of lung. The solid lung in which the alveoli are ?lled with in?ammatory exudate is dull to percussion but transmits sounds better than air-containing lung, giving rise to the signs of bronchial breathing and increased conduction of voice sounds to the stethoscope or palpating hand.

The chest X-ray in pneumonia shows opacities corresponding to the consolidated lung. This may have a lobar distribution ?tting with limitation to one area of the lung, or have a less con?uent scattered distribution in bronchopneumonia. Blood tests usually show a raised white cell (LEUCOCYTES) count. The organism responsible for the pneumonia can often be identi?ed from culture of the sputum or the blood, or from blood tests for the speci?c ANTIBODIES produced in response to the infection.

Treatment The treatment of pneumonia involves appropriate antibiotics together with oxygen, pain relief and management of any complications that may arise. When treatment is started, the causative organism has often not been identi?ed so that the antibiotic choice is made on the basis of the clinical features, prevalent organisms and their sensitivities. In severe cases of community-acquired pneumonia (see above), this will often be a PENICILLIN or one of the CEPHALOSPORINS to cover Strep. pneumoniae together with a macrolide such as ERYTHROMYCIN. Pleuritic pain will need analgesia to allow deep breathing and coughing; oxygen may be needed as judged by the oxygen saturation or blood gas measurement.

Possible complications of pneumonia are local changes such as lung abscess, pleural e?usion or EMPYEMA and general problems such as cardiovascular collapse and abnormalities of kidney or liver function. Appropriate treatment should result in complete resolution of the lung changes but some FIBROSIS in the lung may remain. Pneumonia can be a severe illness in previously ?t people and it may take some months to return to full ?tness.... pneumonia