Fleas Health Dictionary

An animal that is the carrier of a particular infectious disease (see INFECTION). A vector picks up the infectious agent (bacterium – see BACTERIA; also RICKETTSIA; VIRUS) from an infected person’s blood or faeces and carries it in or on its body before depositing the agent on or into a new host. Fleas, lice, mosquitoes and ticks are among common vectors of disease to humans. When a vector is used by the infectious agent to complete part of its life-cycle – for example, the malarial agent PLASMODIUM conducts part of its life-cycle in the mosquito – the vector is described as biological. If the vector simply carries the agent but is not a host for part of its life-cycle, the vector is described as mechanical. Flies, for example, may carry an infection such as bacterial dysentery from infected faeces to the ?ngers of another ‘host’.... vector

A genus of fleas infesting rats. The tropical rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis and other species of the genus are major vectors of Bubonic Plague and murine typhus.... xenopsylla

Any of a group of infectious diseases with similar symptoms that are caused by rickettsiae and are spread by insects or similar animals.

Except in some highland areas of tropical Africa and South America, epidemic typhus is rare today. Endemic typhus, also called murine typhus, is a disease of rats that is occasionally spread to humans by fleas; sporadic cases occur in North and Central America. Scrub typhus is spread by mites and occurs in India and Southeast Asia.

The symptoms and complications of all types of typhus are similar. Severe headache, back and limb pain, coughing, and constipation develop suddenly and are followed by high fever, a measles-like rash, confusion, and prostration. Left untreated, the condition may be fatal, especially in elderly or debilitated people.

A diagnosis is made by blood tests, and treatment is with antibiotic drugs and supportive treatment.... typhus

The process by which a disease is transmitted via micro-organisms from one person to another. The micro-organism may be a bacterium (see BACTERIA), a RICKETTSIA, a VIRUS, a protozoon – single-celled animal organism – or a metazoon – multicellular animal organism. Invasion of the body by a metazoon (e.g. by an intestinal worm) is more often known as an infestation.

The skin is an important protection against micro-organisms entering the body tissues. A large measure of protection is a?orded by the factors which ensure IMMUNITY against diseases.

Modes of infection The infective material may be transmitted to the person by direct contact with a sick person, when the disease is said to be contagious, although such a distinction is purely arti?cial. Di?erent diseases are especially infectious at di?erent periods of their course. Protecting people can be di?cult, since some diseases are infectious before the patient shows any symptoms (see INCUBATION).

Infection may be conveyed on dust, in drinking-water, in food (particularly milk), in the body’s waste products and secretions, or even on clothes and linen which have been in contact with the infected individual (called fomites).

Some people who have recovered from a disease, or who have simply been in contact with an infectious case, harbour the infectious agent. This is particularly the case in typhoid fever (see ENTERIC FEVER), the bacillus continuing to develop in the gall-bladder of some people who have had the disease for years after the symptoms have disappeared. In the case of CHOLERA, which is ENDEMIC in some developing countries with hot climates, 80 per cent or more of the population may harbour the bacillus and spread infection when other circumstances favour this. Similarly in the case of DYSENTERY, people who have completely recovered may still be capable of infecting dust and drinking-water by their stools. DIPHTHERIA and meningococcal MENINGITIS, which is particularly liable to infect children, are other examples.

Flies can infect milk and other food with the organisms causing typhoid fever and food poisoning. Mosquitoes carry the infective agents of MALARIA, DENGUE and YELLOW FEVER, these undergoing part of their development in the body of the mosquito. Fleas convey the germ of plague from rats to humans, and lice are responsible for inoculating TYPHUS FEVER and one form of RELAPSING FEVER by their bite. A tick is responsible for spreading another form of relapsing fever, and kala-azar (LEISHMANIASIS) is spread by the bites of sand?ies.

Noti?able diseases Certain of the common and most serious infectious diseases are noti?able in the United Kingdom. A doctor diagnosing someone infected by a noti?able disease must inform the authorities. For the current list of noti?able infectious diseases in the UK, see the main entry for NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

Prevention is an important aspect of the control of infectious diseases, and various steps can be taken to check the spread of such infections as dysentery, tuberculosis, malaria and others. (See also IMMUNITY; INCUBATION.)... infection

A zoonotic febrile disease caused by the rodent bacterial species, Rickettsia typhi, and transmitted by fleas of the genus Xenopsylla.... murine typhus

(Aphaniptera) Order of jumping and blood-sucking, wingless (apterous) insects known as fleas.... siphonaptera

Herbs that destroy animal or vegetable parasites in the alimentary canal, on the head or skin.

Aniseed, Benzoic acid as in Storax and the balsams of Tolu and Peru. Chaparral, Cinnamon oil, Garlic, Poke root, Rosemary, Rue, Thymol (oil of Thyme), Sassafras oil. (Topical use only) Quassia chips (cold infusion for head lice, fleas, scabies. ... parasiticides

A painful, itchy, pea-sized swelling caused by a sand flea that lives in sandy soil in Africa and tropical America.

The flea penetrates the skin of the feet and lays eggs.

Chigoe fleas should be removed with a sterile needle, and the wounds treated with an antiseptic.... chigoe

A type of small bacteria that can multiply only by invading other living cells. They are mainly parasites of arthropods such as ticks, lice, fleas, and mites.Side effects include harmless, orange-red discoloration of the urine, saliva, and other body secretions, muscle pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, jaundice, flu-like symptoms, rash, and itching. The drug interferes with the action of oral contraceptives.... rickettsia

(chlorophenothane, dicophane) n. a powerful insecticide that was formerly widely used against lice, fleas, flies, bed bugs, cockroaches, and other disease-carrying and destructive insects. It is a relatively stable compound that is stored in animal fats, and the quantities now present in the environment – in the form of stores accumulated in animal tissues – have led to its use being restricted. Acute poisoning, from swallowing more than 20 g, produces nervous irritability, muscle twitching, convulsions, and coma, but only a few fatalities have been reported.... ddt

n. a genus of tapeworms. D. caninum, a common parasite of the small intestine of dogs and cats, occasionally infects humans but usually produces no obvious symptoms. Fleas are the intermediate hosts, and children in close contact with pets become infected on ingesting fleas harbouring the parasite.... dipylidium

Though the Black Death is supposed to have passed into medical history, occasional cases are recorded which give rise to the question: “Could it really come again?”

In an atomic age the collapse of medical services provided by governments is not far removed from the bounds of possibility. Wars come and go, medical fashions change, what is regarded as scientific today, may be neglected to tomorrow’s superstition. It is possible this book may be consulted long after 20th century medicine has had its day.

The preventative remedy of history is Garlic. It was given to workers on the Great Pyramid of Cheops as a known antiseptic and prophylactic against infection. A riot ensued when supplies ran out. During the Great Plague under Charles II a colony of people escaped death, living to reveal their secret – all were in the habit of eating Garlic. It was later confirmed that the plague was not found in houses in which Garlic had been consumed.

The disease is spread by fleas from the black rat by the organism: bacillus pestis. Incubation period is two to five days, followed by severe headache, shivering, dizziness, fever and rapid pulse. Before delirium, the patient may have the ‘staggers’ and confused speech.

Glands of the body enlarge and may suppurate. Suppuration is a welcome sign indicating speedy elimination of pus. Haemorrhagic spots break out on the skin.

The most dangerous type is that which affects the lungs, known as ‘pneumonic’ and which is highly infectious; characterised by cyanosis (blueness of the face).

Occasionally there are human cases of Bubonic Plague in California and the West but today they seldom prove fatal. Public health officials point out that the incidence of the disease in China and Vietnam is lower than for centuries because of vaccine therapy. Wild animals still spread sporadic cases of the Plague.

Treatment: Health Authorities to be notified immediately and patient isolated. All bedding and personal effects to be destroyed or disinfected. Specialised nursing necessary. If hospital care is not available, the patient should receive treatment for collapse (Capsicum, Ginger or other circulatory stimulants).

In the absence of streptomycin and tetracycline, to which the organism yersinia is sensitive, powerful alternatives may assist: Echinacea, Wild Indigo, Poke root, Queen’s Delight, Sarsaparilla, Yellow Parilla, Goldenseal, Prickly Ash.

Topical. Poultice of Slippery Elm, Marshmallow, or both combined to promote suppuration. History records pulped fresh Plantain leaves.

To be treated by general medical practitioner or Infectious Diseases consultant. ... bubonic plague

A self-limiting crisis seen in children or adults. The New England Journal of Medicine noted that sufferers were nearly 30 times more likely to have been licked, scratched or bitten.

Kittens proved the greatest hazard, particularly those with fleas. Local inflammation with glandular swelling and fever. Organism: usually Pasteurella multocida. Often with great weakness. One of the commonest causes of swollen glands in the USA.

Treatment. Poke root to combat infection of the glandular system. Echinacea to increase powers of resistance.

Alternatives. Tablets/capsules. Poke root. Echinacea. Wild Yam.

Powders. Formula: Echinacea 2; Gum Myrrh half; Goldenseal half. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) every 3 hours.

Tinctures. Formula. Echinacea 2; Poke root 1; Goldenseal half. Mix. One teaspoon in water every 3 hours.

Dosage for children: see – DOSAGE.

Topical. Apply Tea Tree oil diluted. May be diluted many times. Vitamin C. 1g morning and evening.

Calcium ascorbate powder. 1g morning and evening. ... cat scratch fever

Beverage and medicine. Whilst not a herb, honey is processed by bees from the nectar of flowers and has an ethereal quality that enhances its healing properties. A source of vitamins and minerals.

Action. Many bacteria cannot live in the presence of honey since honey draws from them the moisture essential to their existence. It is a potent inhibitor of the growth of bacteria: salmonella, shigella and E. coli. Taken internally and externally, hastens granulation and arrests necrotic tissue. A natural bacteriostatic and bactericide.

Of an alkaline action, honey assists digestion, decreasing acidity. It has been used with success for burns, frostbite, colic, dry cough, inflammations, involuntary twitching of eyes and mouth; to keep a singer’s throat in condition. Some cases of tuberculosis have found it a life-preserver.

A cooling analgesic: dressings smeared with honey and left on after pain has subsided to prevent swelling – for cuts, scratches, fistula, boils, felon, animal bites; stings of mosquitoes, wasps, bees, fleas, etc. May be applied to any kind of wound: dip gauze strips in pure honey and bind infected area; leave 24 hours.

Insomnia: 2 teaspoons to glass of hot milk at bedtime.

Arterio-sclerosis: with pollen, is said to arrest thickening of the arteries.

2, 3 or more teaspoons daily to prevent colds and influenza.

2 teaspoons in water or tea for renewed vitality when tired.

Rheumatism and arthritis: 2 teaspoons honey and 2 teaspoons Cider vinegar in water 2-3 times daily.

“The taking of honey each day is advised in order to keep the lymph flowing at its normal tempo and thus avoid degenerative disease which shortens life. The real value of honey is to maintain a normal flow of the tissue fluid called lymph. When this flow-rate slows down, then calcium and iron are precipitated as sediment. When the lymph flow is stagnant, then harmful micro-organisms invade the body and sickness appears.” (D.C. Jarvis MD)

Where sweetening is required to ensure patient compliance, honey is better than sugar. Its virtues deteriorate in open sunlight. Should not be heated above 40°C. ... honey

n. the destruction of insect pests and other animal parasites. This generally involves the use of insecticides applied either topically, as in delousing, or as a spray for eliminating an infestation of fleas or bed bugs in the home.... disinfestation

n. a small wingless bloodsucking insect with a laterally compressed body and long legs adapted for jumping. Adult fleas are temporary parasites on birds and mammals and those species that attack humans (*Pulex, *Xenopsylla, and *Nosopsyllus) may be important in the transmission of various diseases. Their bites are not only a nuisance but may become a focus of infection. Appropriate insecticide powders are used to destroy fleas in the home.... flea

Infestation. Head louse (pediculosis capitas). Body louse (pediculosis corporis). Pubic louse (pediculosis pubis – crabs). Fleas. Lice are among man’s earliest companions and bearers of disease. The head louse lays small grey eggs (nits) which adhere to the hair shafts. Body lice may be responsible for Trench fever and typhus. Their appearance may be accompanied by swelling of the occipital lymph glands for which alteratives such as Burdock, Yellow Dock and Echinacea should be given.

Herbs are least effective where personal hygiene is poor. A wholesome lifestyle is the best preventative. Liberal quantities of Garlic in the diet are said to confer immunity. See also: NEEM. Treatment. External. Vigorously scrub with soap before applying Tea Tree oil. May be diluted many times. A good response has been observed when wiping with cider vinegar. Some practitioners use 1 part Oil Rosemary to 2 parts Peanut oil rubbed into affected parts.

Dr Finlay Ellingwood. Wrap the head at night with suitable material dipped in oil of Turpentine. Aromatherapy. Essential oils: Sassafras, Quassia, Aniseed.

Tansy herb. Strong decoction.

Traditional, Russian. Saturate the hair with Vodka or strong spirit and allow to evaporate.

General – Use of ‘nit’ comb. Scrub toilet seats. Change bedding frequently. Tell children not to wear another’s clothes. Thorough daily combing with one or two drops of any of the above oils on the comb. ... lice

Various parasites and infectious organisms can spread from cats to humans. The most serious disease is rabies. Cat-scratch fever is an uncommon illness caused by infection with the bacterium ROCHALIMAEA HENDELAE following a cat scratch or bite. Cats commonly carry the protozoan TOXOPLASMA GONDII, which causes toxoplasmosis.

Infection, usually from contact with cat’s faeces, is not generally serious but has serious consequences if a woman is infected during pregnancy.

Cat faeces may also carry eggs of the cat roundworm, a possible cause of toxocariasis.

Rarely, a larva from an ingested roundworm egg migrates to and lodges in an eye, causing deterioration of vision or even blindness.

Children who have been playing in sand or soil contaminated by cat faeces are most commonly affected.

Other cat-related disorders in humans include tinea (ringworm), fungal infections of the skin, bites from cat fleas, and allergic reactions to dander that may cause asthma or urticaria.

Diseases from cats can be avoided by good hygiene, veterinary care for animals that are ill, and regular worming and flea treatment of cats.... cats, diseases from

Infectious or parasitic diseases that are acquired from contact with dogs. They may be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, worms, insects, or mites living in or on a dog. Many parasites that live on dogs can be transferred to humans. The most serious disease from dogs is rabies. The is free of rabies, but travellers to countries in which rabies exists should treat any bite with suspicion. Dog bites can cause serious bleeding and shock and may become infected. Toxocariasis and hydatid disease are potentially serious diseases caused by the ingestion of worm eggs from dogs. In the tropics, walking barefoot on soil that is contaminated with dog faeces can lead to dog hookworm infestation.

Bites from dog fleas are an occasional nuisance. Ticks and mites from dogs, including a canine version of the scabies mite, are other common problems. The fungi that cause tinea infections in dogs can be caught by humans.

Some people become allergic to animal dander (tiny scales from fur or skin). They may, for example, have asthma or urticaria when a dog is in the house. (See also zoonoses.)... dogs, diseases from

Puncture wounds inflicted by bloodsucking insects such as gnats, mosquitoes, fleas, and lice. Most bites cause only temporary pain or itching, but some people have severe skin reactions. In the tropics and subtropics, insect bites are potentially more serious because certain biting species can transmit disease (see insects and disease).

All insect bites provoke a skin reaction to substances in the insect’s saliva or faeces, which may be deposited at or near the site of the bite. Reactions vary from red pimples to painful swellings or an intensely itching rash; some insects, such as bees and wasps, have stings (see insect stings) that can produce fatal allergies. (See also lice; spider bites; mites and disease; ticks and disease.)... insect bites

a nematode worm, Dracunculus medinensis, that is a parasite of humans. The white threadlike adult female, 60–120 cm long, lives in the connective tissues beneath the skin. It releases its larvae into a large blister on the legs or arms; when the limbs are immersed in water the larvae escape and are subsequently eaten by tiny water fleas (Cyclops), inside which their development continues. The disease *dracontiasis results from drinking water contaminated with Cyclops.... guinea worm

n. a disease of wild rodents caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas pseudomallei. It can be transmitted to humans, possibly by rat fleas, causing pneumonia, multiple abscesses, and septicaemia. It is often fatal.... melioidosis

n. a genus of fleas. The common rat flea of temperate regions, N. fasciatus, will, in the absence of rats, bite humans and may therefore transmit plague or murine typhus from an infected rat population. The rat flea is also an intermediate host for the larval stage of two tapeworms, *Hymenolepis diminuta and H. nana.... nosopsyllus

n. a genus of widely distributed *fleas. P. irritans, the human flea, is a common parasite whose bite may give rise to intense irritation and bacterial infection. It is an intermediate host for larvae of the tapeworms *Hymenolepis and *Dipylidium, which it can transmit to humans, and it may also be involved in the transmission of plague.... pulex

n. a genus of sand fleas found in tropical America and Africa. The fertilized female of T. penetrans, the chigoe or jigger, burrows beneath the skin of the foot, where it becomes enclosed in a swelling of the surrounding tissues and causes intense itching and inflammation. Surgical removal of the fleas is recommended.... tunga

Relatively few insect species cause disease directly in humans. Some parasitize humans, living under the skin or on the body surface (see lice; chigoe; myiasis). The most troublesome insects are flies and biting insects. Flies can carry disease organisms from human or animal excrement via their feet or legs and contaminate food or wounds.

A number of serious diseases are spread by biting insects.

These include malaria and filariasis (transmitted by mosquitoes), sleeping sickness (tsetse flies), leishmaniasis (sandflies), epidemic typhus (lice), and plague (rat fleas).

Mosquitoes, sandflies, and ticks can also spread illnesses such as yellow fever, dengue, Lyme disease, and some types of viral encephalitis.

Organisms picked up when an insect ingests blood from an infected animal or person are able to survive or multiply in the insect.

Later, the organisms are either injected into a new human host via the insect’s saliva or deposited in the faeces at or near the site of the bite.

Most insect-borne diseases are confined to the tropics and subtropics, although tick-borne Lyme disease occurs in some parts of the.

The avoidance of insect-borne disease is largely a matter of keeping flies off food, discouraging insect bites by the use of suitable clothing and insect repellents, and, in parts of the world where malaria is present, the use of mosquito nets and screens, pesticides, and antimalarial tablets.... insects and disease

Rats are rodents that live close to human habitation. They damage and contaminate crops and food stores and can spread disease. The organisms responsible for plague and a type of typhus are transmitted to humans by the bites of rat fleas. Leptospirosis is caused by contact with anything contaminated by rat’s urine.

Rat-bite fever is a rare infection transmitted directly by a rat bite. There are 2 types of this infection, caused by different bacteria. The symptoms include inflammation at the site of the bite and in nearby lymph nodes and vessels, bouts of fever, a rash, and, in one type, painful joint inflammation. Treatment for both types is with antibiotic drugs.

Rabies virus can be transmitted by the bites of infected rats. Lassa fever, also a viral disease, may be contracted from the urine of rats in West Africa. Rats also carry the viral infection lymphocytic chorio-meningitis, as well as the bacterial infection tularaemia.... rats, diseases from

n. a genus of small widely distributed parasitic tapeworms. The dwarf tapeworm, H. nana, only 40 mm in length, lives in the human intestine. Fleas can be important vectors of this species, and children in close contact with flea-infested dogs are particularly prone to infection. H. diminuta is a common parasite of rodents; humans occasionally become infected on swallowing stored cereals contaminated with insect pests – the intermediate hosts for this parasite. Symptoms of abdominal pain, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, and headache are obvious only in heavy infections of either species. Treatment involves a course of *anthelmintics.... hymenolepis

n. a member of a large group of mainly land-dwelling *arthropods. The body of the adult is divided into a head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears a single pair of sensory antennae; the thorax bears three pairs of legs and, in most insects, wings (these are absent in some parasitic groups, such as lice and fleas). Some insects are of medical importance. Various bloodsucking insects transmit tropical diseases, for example the female Anopheles mosquito transmits malaria and the tsetse fly transmits sleeping sickness. The bites of lice can cause intense irritation and, secondarily, bacterial infection. The organisms causing diarrhoea and dysentery can be conveyed to food on the bodies of flies. See also myiasis.... insect

prevents and destroys parasites such as fleas, lice, etc.... parasiticide

n. 1. any epidemic disease with a high death rate. 2. an acute epidemic disease of rats and other wild rodents caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, which is transmitted to humans by rat fleas. Bubonic plague, the most common form of the disease, has an incubation period of 2–6 days. Headache, fever, weakness, aching limbs, and delirium develop and are followed by acute painful swellings of the lymph nodes (see bubo). In favourable cases the buboes burst after about a week, releasing pus, and then heal. In other cases bleeding under the skin, producing black patches, can lead to ulcers, which may prove fatal (hence the former name Black Death). In the most serious cases bacteria enter the bloodstream (septicaemic plague) or lungs (pneumonic plague); if untreated, these are nearly always fatal. Treatment with tetracycline, streptomycin, and chloramphenicol is effective; vaccination against the disease provides only partial protection.... plague

Cymbopogon nardus

FAMILY: Poaceae (Gramineae)

SYNONYMS: Andropogon nardus, Sri Lanka citronella, Lenabatu citronella.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, aromatic, perennial grass, which has derived from the wild-growing ‘managrass’ found in Sri Lanka.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Sri Lanka, now extensively cultivated on the southernmost tip of the country.

OTHER SPECIES: An important essential oil is also produced on a large scale from the Java or Maha Pengiri citronella (C. winterianus). This variety is cultivated in the tropics worldwide, especially in Java, Vietnam, Africa, Argentina and Central America. There are many other related species of scented grasses.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The leaves of citronella are used for their aromatic and medicinal value in many cultures, for fever, intestinal parasites, digestive and menstrual problems, as a stimulant and an insect repellent. It is used in Chinese traditional medicine for rheumatic pain.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, deodorant, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, insecticide, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh, part-dried or dried grass. (The Java citronella yields twice as much oil as the Sri Lanka type.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellowy-brown, mobile liquid with a fresh, powerful, lemony scent. The Java oil is colourless to pale yellow with a fresh, woody-sweet fragrance; it is considered of superior quality in perfumery work. It blends well with geranium, lemon, bergamot, orange, cedarwood and pine.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly geraniol (up to 45 per cent in the Java oil), citronella (up to 50 per cent in the Java oil) with geranyl acetate, limonene and camphene, among others. The Sri Lanka variety contains more monoterpene hydrocarbons.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; may cause dermatitis in some individuals. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Excessive perspiration, oily skin, insect repellant. ‘Mixed with cedarwood oil Virginia, it has been a popular remedy against mosquito attacks for many years prior to the appearance of DDT and other modern insecticides.’.

Immune System: Colds, ’flu, minor infections.

Nervous System: Fatigue, headaches, migraine, neuralgia.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, detergents, household goods and industrial perfumes. Employed in insect repellent formulations against moths, ants, fleas, etc, for use in the home and in the garden The Sri Lanka oil is used in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks. The Java oil is used as the starting material for the isolation of natural geraniol and citronellal.... citronella

Artemisia absinthium

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Common wormwood, green ginger, armoise, absinthium (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb up to 1.5 metres high with a whitish stem, silvery-green, divided leaves covered in silky fine hairs, and pale yellow flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, North Africa and western Asia; naturalized in North America. It is extensively cultivated in central and southern Europe, the USSR, North Africa and the USA, where the oil is mainly produced.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many other Artemisia species such as davana and the Roman wormwood. See also entry on mugwort (A. vulgaris) also commonly called ‘armoise’; remedy for epilepsy and as an aromatic stewing herb to banish fleas.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used as an aromatic-bitter for anorexia, as a digestive tonic and as a choleretic for liver and gall bladder disorders, usually in the form of a dilute extract. It is also used to promote menstruation, reduce fever and expel worms. It was once used as a remedy for epilepsy and as an aromatic stewing herb to banish fleas.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, choleretic, deodorant, emmenagogue, febrifuge, insect repellent, narcotic, stimulant (digestive), tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops. (An absolute is occasionally produced by solvent extraction.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark green or bluish oil with a spicy, warm, bitter-green odour and a sharp, fresh topnote. The ‘de-thujonized’ oil blends well with oakmoss, jasmine, neroli, lavender and hyacinth.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (up to 71 per cent), azulenes, terpenes.

SAFETY DATA: Toxic. Abortifacient. Habitual use can cause restlessness, nightmares, convulsions, vomiting and, in extreme cases, brain damage. In 1915 the French banned the production of the drink Absinthe with this plant, due to its narcotic and habit-forming properties.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy either internally or externally.’.

OTHER USES: Occasionally used in rubefacient pharmaceutical preparations and as a fragrance component in toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Widely employed (at minute levels) as a flavouring agent in alcoholic bitters and vermouths; also to a lesser extent in soft drinks and some foods, especially confectionery and desserts.... wormwood

Juniperus communis

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYM: Common juniper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or tree up to 6 metres high, with bluish green narrow stiff needles. It has small flowers and little round berries, which are green in the first year, turning black in the second and third.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere: Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada, northern Europe and northern Asia. The oil is mainly produced in Italy, France, Yugoslavia, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Germany and Canada.

OTHER SPECIES: In Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruit and twigs of J. smerka, less rich and sweet than that of common juniper. There are various other species of juniper such as J. oxycedrus which produces cade oil, J. virginiana which produces the so-called Virginian cedarwood oil, and J. sabina which produces savin oil. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The needles and berries have a long traditional history of use. It is used medicinally for urinary infections such as cystitis and urethritis; for respiratory problems such as bronchitis, colic and coughs; as well as gastro-intestinal infections and worms. It helps expel the build-up of uric acid in the joints, and is employed in gout, rheumatism and arthritis. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for rheumatic pain and cystitis.

ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the berries (sometimes fermented first as a by-product of juniper – brandy manufacture – the oil is considered an inferior product), and 2. the needles and wood. A resinoid, concrete and absolute are also produced on a small scale.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh, woody-balsamic odour. It blends well with vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, mastic, oakmoss, galbanum, elemi, cypress, clary sage, pine, lavender, lavandin, labdanum, fir needle, rosemary, benzoin, balsam tolu, geranium and citrus oils. 2. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet-balsamic, fresh, turpentine-like odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes: pinene, myrcene, sabinene with limonene, cymene, terpinene, thujene and camphene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-sensitizing, may be slightly irritating, generally non-toxic. However, it stimulates the uterine muscle (an abortifacient) and must not be used during pregnancy. Neither should it be used by those with kidney disease due to its nephrotoxic effect. The wood oil is usually adulterated with turpentine oil. It is best to use only juniper berry oil, in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, eczema, hair loss, haemorrhoids, oily complexions, as a skin toner, wounds.

Circulation muscles and joints: Accumulation of toxins, arteriosclerosis, cellulitis, gout, obesity, rheumatism.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Berries and extracts are used in diuretic and laxative preparations; also veterinary preventatives of ticks and fleas. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially spicy fragrances and aftershaves. Extensively used in many food products but especially alcoholic and soft drinks: the berries are used to flavour gin.... juniper

Cymbopogon citratus

FAMILY: Poaceae (Gramineae)

SYNONYMS: 1. Andropogon citratus, A. schoenathus, West Indian lemongrass, Madagascar lemongrass, Guatemala lemongrass. 2. A. flexuosus, Cymbopogon flexuosus, East Indian lemongrass, Cochin lemongrass, native lemongrass, British India lemongrass, ‘vervaine Indienne’ or France Indian verbena.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A fast-growing, tall, aromatic perennial grass up to 1.5 metres high, producing a network of roots and rootlets that rapidly exhaust the soil.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Asia, there are two main types: 1. The West Indian lemongrass which is probably native to Sri Lanka, now cultivated mainly in the West Indies, Africa and tropical Asia. Main oil producers include Guatemala and India 2. The East Indian lemongrass, which is native to east India (Travancore, etc.), now mainly cultivated in western India!

OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties of lemongrass of which the East Indian and the West Indian types are the most common. Chemotypes within each variety are also quite pronounced.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Employed in traditional Indian medicine for infectious illness and fever; modern research carried out in India shows that it also acts as a sedative on the central nervous system. It is also used as an insecticide and for flavouring food. After the distillation process, the exhausted grass is used locally to feed cattle.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, deodorant, febrifuge, fungicidal, galactagogue, insecticidal, nervine, sedative (nervous), tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh and partially dried leaves (grass), finely chopped.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A yellow, amber or reddish-brown liquid with a fresh, grassy-citrus scent and an earthy undertone. 2. A yellow or amber liquid with a fresh, grassy-lemony scent, generally lighter than the West Indian type.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Citral (65–85 per cent), myrcene (12–25 per cent), dipentene, methylheptenone, linalol, geraniol, nerol, citronellol and farnesol, among others. 2. Citral (up to 85 per cent), geraniol, methyl eugenol, borneol, dipentene; constituents vary according to type.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, possible dermal irritation and/or sensitization in some individuals – use with care.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, athlete’s foot, excessive perspiration, insect repellent (fleas, lice, ticks), open pores, pediculosis, scabies, tissue toner.

Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular pain, poor circulation and muscle tone, slack tissue.

Digestive system: Colitis, indigestion, gastro enteritis.

Immune system: Fevers, infectious disease.

Nervous system: Headaches, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories including alcoholic and soft drinks. Also used for the isolation of citral and for the adulteration of more costly oils such as verbena or melissa.... lemongrass

Pinus sylvestris

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: Forest pine, Scots pine, Norway pine, pine needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree, up to 40 metres high with a flat crown. It has a reddish-brown, deeply fissured bark, long stiff needles which grow in pairs, and pointed brown cones.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Eurasia; cultivated in the eastern USA, Europe, Russia, the Baltic States and Scandinavia, especially Finland.

OTHER SPECIES: Like the fir tree, there are numerous species of pine which yield an essential oil from their heartwood as well as from their twigs and needles and are also used to produce turpentine. The oil from the needles of the Scotch pine is one of the most useful and safest therapeutically. Other species which produce pine needle oil include the eastern white pine (P. strobus) from the eastern USA and Canada, the dwarf pine (P. mugo var. pumilio) grown in central and southern Europe, and the black pine (P. nigra) from Austria and Yugoslavia.

Many varieties, such as the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), are used to produce turpentine. In addition, the oil commonly known as Siberian pine needle oil is actually from the Siberian fir (Abies sibirica). See also dwarf pine and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The young macerated shoots are added to the bath for nervous exhaustion, circulatory disorders, slow, healing wounds, arthritis, rheumatism and skin disorders. It was used by the American Indians to prevent scurvy, and to stuff mattresses to repel lice and fleas.

As an inhalation it helps relieve bronchial catarrh, asthma, blocked sinuses, etc. The pine kernels are said to be excellent restoratives for consumptives, and after long illness.

ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, hepatic), antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cholagogue, choleretic, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, hypertensive, insecticidal, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (adrenal cortex, circulatory, nervous), vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by dry distillation of the needles. 2. Gum turpentine is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin: see entry on turpentine. (An inferior essential oil is also produced by dry distillation from the wood chippings, etc.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pine needle oil is a colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, dry-balsamic, turpentine-like aroma. It blends well with cedarwood, rosemary, tea tree, sage, lavender, juniper, lemon, niaouli, eucalyptus and marjoram. 2. See entry on turpentine.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 50–90 per cent monoterpene hydrocarbons: pinenes, carene, dipentene, limonene, terpinenes, myrcene, ocimene, camphene, sabinene; also bornyl acetate, cineol, citral, chamazulene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization. Avoid in allergic skin conditions.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Cuts, lice, excessive perspiration, scabies, sores.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.

Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urinary infection.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu.

Nervous system: Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions, neuralgia.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, toiletries (especially bath products) and, to a limited extent, perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in major food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.... pine, scotch

Pinus palustris and other Pinus species

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: Terebinth, therebentine, gum thus, gum turpentine, turpentine balsam, spirit of turpentine (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: ‘Gum turpentine’ is a term loosely applied to the natural oleoresin formed as a physiological product in the trunks of various Pinus, Picea and Abies species. Turpentine refers both to the crude oleoresin (a mixture of oil and resin) and to the distilled and rectified essential oils.

DISTRIBUTION: All over the world. The largest producer is the USA, also Mexico, France, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Scandinavia, New Zealand, Tasmania, India, China, the USSR, etc.

OTHER SPECIES: Apart from the longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), which is the leading source of American gum turpentine, other sources in the USA include the slash pine (P. elliottii) and the Mexican white pine (P. ayacahuite). In India the chir pine (P. roxburghii); in Tasmania the lodgepole pine (P. contorta var. latifolia); in China the masson or Southern red pine (P. massoniana); in Europe and Scandinavia the Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) and the sea pine (P. pinaster), as well as many others. See Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Known to Galen and Hippocrates for its many applications, especially with regard to pulmonary and genito-urinary infections, digestive complaints and externally as a treatment for rheumatic or neuralgic pain and skin conditions. In China the oleoresin has been used (both internally and externally) for centuries for excess phlegm, bronchitis, rheumatism, stiff joints, toothache, boils, sores, ringworm and dermatitis.

The turpentine essence or spirit of turpentine is said to be four times more active than the crude turpentine.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, diuretic, cicatrisant, counter-irritant, expectorant, haemostatic, parasiticide, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleoresin, then rectified. ‘It has to be purified because it is viscous, coloured and acidic.’.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless, water white mobile liquid with a fresh, warm balsamic, familiar odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly alphapinene (approx. 50 per cent), betapinene (25–35 per cent) and carene (20–60 per cent) in the American oils. In European oils the alpha pinene can constitute up to 95 per cent – constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA: Environmental hazard – marine pollutant. Relatively non-toxic and non-irritant; possible sensitization in some individuals. Avoid therapeutic use or employ in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Use with care for:

Skin care: Boils, cuts, fleas, insect repellent, lice, ringworm, scabies, wounds.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sciatica.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, whooping cough.

Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, urethritis.

Immune system: Colds.

Nervous system: Neuralgia.

OTHER USES: Used in many ointments and lotions for aches and pains; and in cough and cold remedies. Neither oil nor oleoresin is used in perfumery work, although resin derivatives are used as fixative agents and in pine and industrial perfumes. Mainly known as a paint and stain remover, solvent and insecticide. Also used as a starting material for the production of terpineol, etc.... turpentine