Flies Health Dictionary

A disease caused by haemoflagellate protozoa and transmitted by blood-feeding tsetse flies of the genus Glossina. East African (Rhodesian) Sleeping Sickness is the more severe zoonotic form caused byTrypanosoma brucei rhodesiense found on the game-rich savannahs of East Central Africa while West African (Gambian) Sleeping Sickness is the more chronic form found in riverine areas of West Central Africa and which has a significant human reservoir although animals such as pigs may also be involved as reservoirs.... sleeping sickness

A two winged insect of the Order Diptera. Includes the housefly and the myiasis - causing flies. Also includes the mosquitoes and the tsetse flies.... fly

An animal that is the carrier of a particular infectious disease (see INFECTION). A vector picks up the infectious agent (bacterium – see BACTERIA; also RICKETTSIA; VIRUS) from an infected person’s blood or faeces and carries it in or on its body before depositing the agent on or into a new host. Fleas, lice, mosquitoes and ticks are among common vectors of disease to humans. When a vector is used by the infectious agent to complete part of its life-cycle – for example, the malarial agent PLASMODIUM conducts part of its life-cycle in the mosquito – the vector is described as biological. If the vector simply carries the agent but is not a host for part of its life-cycle, the vector is described as mechanical. Flies, for example, may carry an infection such as bacterial dysentery from infected faeces to the ?ngers of another ‘host’.... vector

An infestation by fly larvae, which is primarily restricted to tropical areas. In Africa, the tumbu fly lays eggs on wet clothing left outside; the larvae hatch and penetrate the skin to cause boil-like swellings. Other flies may lay eggs in open wounds, on the skin, or in the ears or nose. Sometimes, larvae penetrate deeply into the tissues. Intestinal infestation can occur after eating contaminated food. Preventative measures include keeping flies away from food, covering open wounds, and ironing clothes that have been dried outdoors.

Myiasis of the skin is treated by placing drops of oil over the swelling. The larva comes to the surface, where it can be removed with a needle. In deeper tissues, surgery may be needed. Intestinal myiasis is treated with a laxative. myo- A prefix denoting a relationship to muscle (as in myocarditis).... myiasis

Blood-sucking flies belonging to the genus Simulium. Includes the vectors of human Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) in parts of Africa and Latin America.... blackfly

A family of biting flies known as “biting midges”.... chironomid

Cucurbitaceae

The family Cucurbitaceae includes a large group of plants which are medicinally valuable. The important genera belonging to the family are Trichosanthes, Lagenaria, Luffa, Benincasa, Momordica, Cucumis, Citrullus, Cucurbita, Bryonopsis and Corallocarpus. The medicinally valuable species of these genera are discussed below.

1. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.

Eng: Wild Snake-gourd; San: Meki,Pargavi, Parvara, Patola;

Hin: Palval, Parvar

Ben: Potol;

Mal: Kattupatavalam, Patolam;

Tam: Kombuppudalai;

Tel: Kommupotta

Wild snake-gourd is a slender-stemmed, extensively climbing, more or less scabrous and woolly herb found throughout the plains of N. India, extending to Assam and W. Bengal. Tendrils are 2-4 fid. Leaves are 7.5x5cm in size, ovate-oblong, cordate, acute, sinuate- dentate, not lobed, rigid, rough on both surface and with a petiole of 2cm. Flowers are unisexual. Male flowers are not racemed but woolly outside. Calyx tube is 4.5cm long, narrow, teeth linear and erect. Anthers are free. Fruit is 5.9cm long, oblong or nearly spherical, acute, smooth and orange-red when ripe. Seeds are half-ellipsoid, compressed and corrugated on the margin (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The unripe fruit of this is generally used as a culinary vegetable and is considered very wholesome and specially suited for the convalescent. The tender shoots are given in decoction with sugar to assist digestion. The seeds are useful for disorders of the stomach. The leaf juice is rubbed over the chest in liver congestion and over the whole body in intermittent fevers (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruit is used as a remedy for spermatorrhoea. The fresh juice of the unripe fruit is often used as a cooling and laxative adjunct to some alterative medicines. In bilious fever, a decoction of patola leaves and coriander in equal parts is given. The fruit in combination with other drugs is prescribed in snakebite and scorpion sting (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988).

Fruits contain free amino acids and 5-hydroxy tryptamine. Fatty acids from seeds comprise elaeostearic, linoelic, oleic and saturated acids. The aerial part is hypoglycaemic. Leaf and root is febrifuge. Root is hydragogue, cathartic and tonic. Unripe leaf and fruit is laxative (Husain et al, 1992). The plant is alterative and tonic. Leaves are anthelmintic. Flower is tonic and aphrodisiac. The ripe fruit is sour to sweet, tonic, aphrodisiac, expectorant and removes blood impurities.

The other important species belonging to the genus Trichosanthes are as follows.

T. palmata Roxb. T. cordata Roxb. T. nervifolia Linn.

T. cucumerina Linn.

T. anguina Linn.

T. wallichiana Wight. syn. T. multiloba Clarke

2. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. syn. Cucurbita Lagenaria Linn. ; Roxb.

Eng: Bottle gourd San: Alabu Hin: Lauki, Jangli-khaddu

Ben: Lau, Kodu

Mal: Katuchuram, Churakka

Tam: Soriai-kay

Tel: Surakkaya

Bottle gourd is a large softly pubescent climbing or trailing herb which is said to be indigenous in India, the Molucas and in Abyssinia. It has stout 5-angled stems with bifid tendrils. Leaves are ovate or orbiculate, cordate, dentate, 5-angular or 5-lobed, hairy on both surfaces. Flowers are large, white, solitary, unisexual or bisexual, the males long and females short peduncled. Ovary is oblong, softly pubescent with short style and many ovules. Fruits are large, usually bottle or dumb-bell-shaped, indehiscent and polymorphous. Seeds are many, white, horizontal, compressed, with a marginal groove and smooth. There are sweet fruited and bitter-fruited varieties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit contains a thick white pulp which, in the cultivated variety (kodu) is sweet and edible, while in the smaller wild variety (tamri) it is bitter and a powerful purgative. The seeds yield clear limpid oil which is cooling and is applied to relieve headache. The pulp of the cultivated forms is employed as and adjunct to purgatives and considered cool, diuretic and antibilious, useful in cough, and as an antidote to certain poisons. Externally it is applied as a poultice. The leaves are purgative and recommended to be taken in the form of decoction for jaundice (Nadkarni, 1998). In the case of sweet-fruited variety, the stem is laxative and sweet. The fruit is sweet oleagenous, cardiotonic, general tonic, aphrodisiac, laxative and cooling. In the case of bitter-fruited variety, the leaves are diuretic, antibilious; useful in leucorrhoea, vaginal and uterine complaints and earache. The fruit is bitter, hot, pungent, emetic, cooling, cardiotonic, antibilious; cures asthma, vata, bronchitis, inflammations ulcers and pains.

3. Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb.

Eng: Ridged gourd; San: Dharmargavah, Svadukosataki;

Hin: Tori, Katitori;

Ben: Ghosha

Mal: Peechil, Peechinga;

Tam: Pikangai, Prikkangai;

Tel: Birakaya;

Kan: Kadupadagila

Ridged gourd or ribbed gourd is a large monoecious climber cultivated throughout India. It is with 5-angled glabrous stems and trifid tendrils. Leaves are orbicular-cordate, palmately 5-7 lobed, scabrous on both sides with prominent veins and veinlets. Flowers are yellow, males arranged in 12-20 flowered axillary racemes. Female flowers are solitary, arranged in the axils of the males. Ovary is strongly ribbed. Fruits are oblong-clavate with 10-sharp angles 15-30cm long, tapering towards the base. Seeds are black, ovoid-oblong, much compressed and not winged (Warrier et al, 1995). The leaves are used in haemorrhoids, leprosy, granular-conjunctivitis and ringworm. The seeds are useful in dermatopathy. The juice of the fresh leaves is dropped into the eyes of children in granular conjunctivitis, also to prevent the lids from adhering at night on account of excessive meihomian secretion (Nadkarni, 1998). Fruits are demulcent, diuretic, tonic, expectorant, laxative and nutritive. The seeds are bitter, emetic, cathartic, expectorant and purgative.

The other important species of the genus Luffa are:

L. aegyptiaca Mill.

L. acutangula var. amara Clarke

L. echinata Roxb.

4. Benincasa hispida (Thumb.) Cogn. syn. B. cerifera Savi.

Eng: Ash gourd, White gourd melon; San: Kusmandah;

Hin: Petha, Raksa;

Ben: Kumra

Mal: Kumpalam;

Tam: Pusanikkai;

Kan: Bile Kumbala;

Tel: Bodigummadi

Ash gourd or White gourd melon is a large trailing gourd climbing by means of tendrils which is widely cultivated in tropical Asia. Leaves are large and hispid beneath. Flowers are yellow, unisexual with male peduncle 7.5-10cm long and female peduncle shorter. Fruits are broadly cylindric, 30-45cm long, hairy throughout and ultimately covered with a waxy bloom. The fruits are useful in asthma, cough, diabetes, haemoptysis, hemorrhages from internal organs, epilepsy, fever and vitiated conditions of pitta. The seeds are useful in dry cough, fever, urethrorrhea, syphilis, hyperdipsia and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al,1993). It is a rejuvenative drug capable of improving intellect and physical strength. In Ayurveda, the fresh juice of the fruit is administered as a specific in haemoptysis and other haemorrhages from internal organs. The fruit is useful in insanity, epilepsy and other nervous diseases, burning sensation, diabetes, piles and dyspepsia. It is a good antidote for many kinds of vegetable, mercurial and alcoholic poisoning. It is also administered in cough, asthma or respiratory diseases, heart diseases and catarrah. Seeds are useful in expelling tapeworms and curing difficult urination and bladder stones. The important formulations using the drug are Kusmandarasayana, Himasagarataila, Dhatryadighrita, Vastyamantakaghrita, Mahaukusmandakaghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Fruits contain lupeol, -sitosterol, n-triacontanol, vitamin B, mannitol and amino acids. The fruit is alterative, laxative, diuretic, tonic, aphrodisiac and antiperiodic. Seed and oil from seed is anthelmintic (Husain et al, 1992).

5. Momordica charantia Linn.

Eng: Bitter gourd, Carilla fruit San: Karavellam

Hin: Karela, Kareli

Mal: Kaypa, Paval

Tam: Pavakkai, Paval, Pakar

Tel: Kakara

Bitter gourd or Carilla fruit is a branched climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India. It is a monoecious plant with angled and grooved stems and hairy or villous young parts. Tendrils are simple, slender and elongate. Leaves are simple, orbicular, cordate and deeply divided into 5-7 lobes. Flowers are unisexual, yellow and arranged on 5-10cm long peduncles. Fruits are 5-15cm long with 3-valved capsules, pendulous, fusiform, ribbed and beaked bearing numerous triangular tubercles. Seeds are many or few with shining sculptured surface. The roots are useful in coloptosis and ophthalmopathy. The leaves are useful in vitiated conditions of pita, helminthiasis, constipation, intermittent fever, burning sensation of the sole and nyctalopia. The fruits are useful in skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers, wounds, burning sensation, constipation, anorexia, flatulence, colic, helminthiasis, rheumatalgia, gout, diabetes, asthma, cough, dysmenorrhoea, impurity of breast milk, fever and debility. Seeds are useful in the treatment of ulcers, pharyngodynia, and obstructions of the liver and spleen. The leaves and fruits are used for external application in lumbago, ulceration and bone fractures and internally in leprosy, haemorrhoids and jaundice (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug improves digestion, calms down sexual urge, quells diseases due to pitta and kapha and cures anaemia, anorexia, leprosy, ulcers, jaundice, flatulence and piles. Fruit is useful in gout, rheumatism and complaints of liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1966; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). Kaccoradi taila is an important preparation using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

The seeds give triterpene glycosides, named momordicosides A, B, C, D and E, which are glycosides of cucurbit-5-en-triol, tetraol or pentaol. Leaves and vines give tetracyclic triterpenes-momordicines I, II and III (bitter principles). Immature fruits give several non-bitter and 2 bitter cucurbitacin glycosides. Four of the non-bitter glycosides, momordicosides F1, F2, G and I and the bitter momordicosides; K and L have also been characterized. Fruits, seeds and tissue culture give a polypeptide which contained 17 types of amino acids and showed hypoglycaemic activity. Fruits also give 5-hydroxy tryptamine and a neutral compound charantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin, cholesterol, lanosterol and -sitosterol. Leaf is emetic, purgative and antibilious. Fruit is stomachic, tonic, carminative, febrifuge, antirheumatic and hypoglycaemic. Root is astringent. Fruit and leaf is anti-leprotic. Fruit, leaf and root are abortifacient and anti-diabetic. Leaf and seed is anthelmintic. Seed oil possesses antifeeding and insecticidal properties. Unsaponifiable matter from seed oil exhibited pronounced inhibitory activity against gram negative bacteria. Seed and fruit are hypoglycaemic, cytotoxic and anti-feedant (Husain et al, 1992).

Other important species belonging to the genus Momordica are as follows.

M. dioica Roxb.

M. cochinchinensis Spreng.

M. tuberosa Cogn.

M. balsamina Linn.

6. Cucumis melo Linn. syn. C. melo Linn. var. cultis Kurz., C. pubescens

Willd., C. callosus (Rottl.) Cogn.

Eng: Sweet melon San,

Hin: Kharbuja

Ben: Kharmul

Mal: Mulam

Tam: Chukkari-kai, Thumatti-kai, Mulampazham

Tel: Kharbuja-doshavSweet melon is a creeping annual extensively cultivated throughout India, found wild in India, Baluchistan and tropical Africa. The stem is creeping, angular and scabrous. Leaves are orbicular-reniform in outline, 5-angled or lobed, scabrous on both surfaces and often with soft hairs. Lobes of leaves are not very deep nor acute and with 5cm long petiole. Female peduncle is 5cm. Fruit is spherical, ovoid, elongate or contorted, glabrous or somewhat hairy, not spinous nor tuberculate.

Cucumis melo includes two varieties, namely,

C. melo var. momordica syn. C. momordica Roxb.

C. melo var. utilissimus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. utilissimus Roxb.

The fruit is eaten raw and cooked. Its pulp forms a nutritive, demulcent, diuretic and cooling drink. It is beneficial as a lotion in chronic and acute eczema as well as tan and freckles and internally in cases of dyspepsia. Pulp mixed with cumin seeds and sugar candy is a cool diet in hot season. Seeds yield sweet edible oil which is nutritive and diuretic, useful in painful discharge and suppression of urine. The whole fruit is useful in chronic eczema (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

Seeds contain fatty acids-myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic; asparagine, glutamine, citrulline, lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine, valine, tyrosine, leucine, iso-leucine, methionine, proline, threonine, tryptophan and crystine. Seed is tonic, lachrymatory, diuretic and urease inhibitor. Fruit pulp is eczemic. Fruit is tonic, laxative, galactagogue, diuretic and diaphoretic. The rind is vulnerary (Husain et al, 1992).

7. Cucumic sativus Linn.

Eng: Cucumber, Common cucumber; San: Trapusah;

Hin,

Ben: Khira;

Mal: Vellari

Tam: Vellarikkai, Pippinkai;

Kan: Mullusavte;

Tel: Dosekaya

Cucumber is a climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India, found wild in the Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim. It is a hispidly hairy trailing or climbing annual. Leaves are simple, alternate, deeply cordate, 3-5 lobed with both surfaces hairy and denticulate margins. Flowers are yellow, males clustered, bearing cohering anthers, connective crusted or elevated above the cells. Females are solitary and thickly covered with very bulbous based hairs. Fruits are cylindrical pepo of varying sizes and forms. Seeds are cream or white with hard and smooth testa. The fruits are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, thermoplegia, fever, insomnia, cephalgia, bronchitis, jaundice, haemorrhages, strangury and general debility. The seeds are useful in burning sensation, pitta, constipation, intermittent fevers, strangury, renal calculus, urodynia and general debility (Warrier et al, 1994). The leaves boiled and mixed with cumin seeds, roasted, powdered and administered in throat affections. Powdered and mixed with sugar, they are powerful diuretic (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruits and seeds are sweet, refrigerant, haemostatic, diuretic and tonic. Other important species belonging to the genus are:

C. trigonus Roxb. syn. C. pseudo-colocynthis

C. prophetarum Linn.

8. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader. syn. Cucumis colocynthis Linn.

Eng: Colocynth, Bitter apple; San: Visala, Mahendravaruni;

Hin: Badi indrayan, Makkal

Ben: Makhal;

Mal: Kattuvellari (Valutu), Valiya pekkummatti;

Tel: Etti-puchcha

Tam: Paitummatti, Petummatti;

Colocynth or Bitter apple is found, cultivated and wild, throughout India in warmer areas. It is an extensively trailing annual herb with bifid tendrils angular branching stems and wooly tender shoots. Leaves are deeply divided, lobes narrow thick, glabrous or somewhat hairy. Flowers are unisexual, yellow, both males and females solitary and with pale-yellow corolla. Fruit is a globose or oblong fleshy indehiscent berry, 5-7.5cm in diameter and variegated with green and white. Seeds are pale brown. The fruits are useful in tumours, ascites, leucoderma, ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, urethrorrhea, jaundice, dyspepsia, constipations, elephantiasis, tubercular glands of the neck and splenomegaly (Warrier et al, 1994). It is useful in abnormal presentations of the foetus and in atrophy of the foetus. In addition to the above properties, the root has a beneficial action in inflammation of the breasts, pain in the joints; externally it is used in ophthalmia and in uterine pains. The fruit and root, with or without is rubbed into a paste with water and applied to boils and pimples. In rheumatism, equal parts of the root and long pepper are given in pill. A paste of the root is applied to the enlarged abdomen of children (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit is useful in ascites, biliousness, jaundice, cerebral congestion, colic, constipation dropsy, fever, worms and sciatica. Root is given in cases of abdominal enlargement, cough, asthma, inflammation of the breast, ulcers, urinary diseases and rheumatism. Oil from seeds is used for poisonous bites, bowel complaints, epilepsy and also for blackening the hair (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980). The important formulations using the root and fruit are Abhayarista, Mahatiktakam kasaya, Manasamitravatakam, Cavikasava, Madhuyastyadi taila, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The powder is often used as an insecticide. The extract should never be given without some aromatic to correct its griping tendency (Nadkarni, 1998).

Fruit contains a glycoside- colocynthin, its aglycone- -elaterin, citrulluin, citrullene and citrullic acid. Unripe fruit contains p-hydroxy benzyl methyl ester. Roots contain - elaterin and hentriacontane (Husain et al, 1992). Colocynth is, in moderate doses, drastic, hydrogogue, cathartic and diuretic. In large doses, it is emetic and gastro-intestinal irritant and in small doses, it is expectorant and alterative. Colocynthin is a cathartic and intensely bitter principle. It has a purgative action. All parts of the plant are very bitter. The fruit has been described as cathartic (Nadkarni, 1982).

9. Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. syn. C. lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai.

Eng: Water melon; San: Tarambuja;

Hin: Tarbuj;

Ben: Tarbuz

Mal: Thannimathan;

Tam: Pitcha, Dharbusini

Watermelon is an extensively climbing annual which is largely cultivated throughout India and in all warm countries. It has thick angular branching stems. Tendrils are bifid, stout and pubescent. Leaves are long, deeply divided or moderately lobed, glabrous or somewhat hairy and hardly scabrous. Petiole is a little shorter than the limb and villous. Calyx-lobes are narrowly lanceolate, equalling the tube. Corolla is yellow within, greenish outside and villous. Lobes are ovate-oblong, obtuse and prominently 5-nerved. Fruit is sub-globose or ellipsoid, smooth, greenish or clouded, often with a glaucous waxy coating. Flesh is juicy, red or yellowish white. Seeds are usually margined. C. vulgaris var. fistulosus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. fistulosus has its fruit about the size of small turnip, the seeds of which are used medicinally. The fruit is tasteless when unripe and sweet when ripe. The unripe fruit is used to cure jaundice. Ripe fruit cures kapha and vata and causes biliousness. It is good for sore eyes, scabies and itching. The seeds are tonic to the brain and used as a cooling medicine. An emulsion of the seeds is made into a poultice with the pounded leaves and applied hot in cases of intestinal inflammations (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Fruit juice is good in quenching thirst and it is used as an antiseptic in typhus fever with cumin and sugar. It is used as a cooling drink in strangury and affections of urinary organs such as gonorrhoea; in hepatic congestion and intestinal catarrh. The bitter watermelon of Sind is known as “Kirbut” and is used as a purgative.

Seeds yield a fixed oil and proteids; citrullin. Seeds are cooling, demulcent, diuretic, vermifuge and nutritive. Pulp is cooling and diuretic. Fruit-juice is cooling and refreshing (Nadkarni, 1982).

10. Curcurbita pepo Linn. syn. Pepo vulgaris et P. verrucosus Moench

Meth.

Eng: Pompion, Pumpkin, Vegetable Marrow; San: Karkaru, Kurkaru, Kushmandi

Hin,

Ben: Kadimah, Konda, Kumra, Safedkkadu;

Mal: Mathan, Matha

Tel: Budadegummadi, Pottigummadi

Pompion or Pumpkin is a climbing herb which is considered to be a native of America and cultivated in many parts of India. The stem and leaves are with a harsh prickly armature. Foliage is stiff, more or less rigid and erect. Leaves are with a broad triangular pointed outline and often with deep lobes. Corolla is mostly with erect or spreading (not drooping) pointed lobes, the tube narrowing towards the base. Peduncle is strongly 5-angled and little or much expanding near the fruit. The fruit is cooling and astringent to the bowels, increases appetite, cures leprosy, ‘kapha and vata’, thirst, fatigue and purifies the blood. The leaves are used to remove biliousness. Fruit is good for teeth, throat and eyes and allays thirst. Seeds cure sore chests, haemoptysis, bronchitis and fever. It is good for the kidney and brain. The leaves are used as an external application for burns. The seeds are considered anthelmintic. The seeds are largely used for flavouring certain preparations of Indian hemp, and the root for a nefarious purpose, viz., to make the preparation more potent. The seeds are taeniacide, diuretic and demulcent. The fruit is cooling, laxative and astringent. The leaves are digestible, haematinic and analgesic.

The other important species belonging to the genus Cucurbita is C. maxima Duchena, the seeds of which are a popular remedy for tape-worm and oil as a nervine tonic (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

11. Corallocarpus epigaeus Benth. ex Hook. f. syn. Bryonia epigaea Wight.

San: Katunahi;

Hin: Akasgaddah;

Mal: Kadamba, Kollankova

Tam: Akashagarudan, Gollankovai;

Tel: Murudonda, Nagadonda

Corallocarpus is a prostrate or climbing herb distributed in Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Deccan, Karnataka and Sri Lanka. It is monoecious with large root which is turnip-shaped and slender stem which is grooved, zigzag and glabrous. Tendrils are simple, slender and glabrous. Leaves are sub-orbicular in outline, light green above and pale beneath, deeply cordate at the base, angled or more or less deeply 3-5 lobed. Petiole is long and glabrous. Male flowers are small and arranged at the tip of a straight stiff glabrous peduncle. Calyx is slightly hairy, long and rounded at the base. Corolla is long and greenish yellow. Female flowers are usually solitary with short, stout and glabrous peduncles. Fruit is stalked, long, ellipsoid or ovoid. Seeds are pyriform, turgid, brown and with a whitish corded margin. It is prescribed in later stages of dysentery and old veneral complaints. For external use in chronic rheumatism, it is made into a liniment with cumin seed, onion and castor oil. It is used in case of snakebite where it is administered internally and applied to the bitten part. The root is given in syphilitic rheumatism and later stages of dysentery. The plant is bitter, sweet, alexipharmic and emetic. The root is said to possess alterative and laxative properties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Root contains a bitter principle like Breyonin (Chopra et al, 1980).

Agrotechnology: Cucurbits can be successfully grown during January-March and September- December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers.

Pits of 60cm diameter and 30-45cm depth are to be taken at the desired spacing. Well rotten FYM or vegetable mixture is to be mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are to be sown at 4-5/pit. Unhealthy plants are to be removed after 2 weeks and retained 2-3 plants/pit. FYM is to be applied at 20-25t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35kg/ha) and full dose of P (25kg) and K (25kg). The remaining dose of N (35kg) can be applied in 2 equal split doses at fortnightly intervals. During the initial stages of growth, irrigation is to be given at an interval of 3-4 days and at alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods. For trailing cucumber, pumpkin and melon, dried twigs are to be spread on the ground. Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and ash gourd are to be trailed on Pandals. Weeding and raking of the soil are to be conducted at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season. The most dreaded pest of cucurbits is fruit flies which can be controlled by using fruit traps, covering the fruits with polythene, cloth or paper bags, removal and destruction of affected fruits and lastly spraying with Carbaryl or Malathion 0. 2% suspension containing sugar or jaggery at 10g/l at fortnightly intervals after fruit set initiation. During rainy season, downy mildew and mosaic diseases are severe in cucurbits. The former can be checked by spraying Mancozeb 0.2%. The spread of mosaic can be checked by controlling the vectors using Dimethoate or Phosphamidon 0.05% and destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts. Harvesting to be done at least 10 days after insecticide or fungicide application (KAU,1996).... cucurbits

The process by which a disease is transmitted via micro-organisms from one person to another. The micro-organism may be a bacterium (see BACTERIA), a RICKETTSIA, a VIRUS, a protozoon – single-celled animal organism – or a metazoon – multicellular animal organism. Invasion of the body by a metazoon (e.g. by an intestinal worm) is more often known as an infestation.

The skin is an important protection against micro-organisms entering the body tissues. A large measure of protection is a?orded by the factors which ensure IMMUNITY against diseases.

Modes of infection The infective material may be transmitted to the person by direct contact with a sick person, when the disease is said to be contagious, although such a distinction is purely arti?cial. Di?erent diseases are especially infectious at di?erent periods of their course. Protecting people can be di?cult, since some diseases are infectious before the patient shows any symptoms (see INCUBATION).

Infection may be conveyed on dust, in drinking-water, in food (particularly milk), in the body’s waste products and secretions, or even on clothes and linen which have been in contact with the infected individual (called fomites).

Some people who have recovered from a disease, or who have simply been in contact with an infectious case, harbour the infectious agent. This is particularly the case in typhoid fever (see ENTERIC FEVER), the bacillus continuing to develop in the gall-bladder of some people who have had the disease for years after the symptoms have disappeared. In the case of CHOLERA, which is ENDEMIC in some developing countries with hot climates, 80 per cent or more of the population may harbour the bacillus and spread infection when other circumstances favour this. Similarly in the case of DYSENTERY, people who have completely recovered may still be capable of infecting dust and drinking-water by their stools. DIPHTHERIA and meningococcal MENINGITIS, which is particularly liable to infect children, are other examples.

Flies can infect milk and other food with the organisms causing typhoid fever and food poisoning. Mosquitoes carry the infective agents of MALARIA, DENGUE and YELLOW FEVER, these undergoing part of their development in the body of the mosquito. Fleas convey the germ of plague from rats to humans, and lice are responsible for inoculating TYPHUS FEVER and one form of RELAPSING FEVER by their bite. A tick is responsible for spreading another form of relapsing fever, and kala-azar (LEISHMANIASIS) is spread by the bites of sand?ies.

Noti?able diseases Certain of the common and most serious infectious diseases are noti?able in the United Kingdom. A doctor diagnosing someone infected by a noti?able disease must inform the authorities. For the current list of noti?able infectious diseases in the UK, see the main entry for NOTIFIABLE DISEASES.

Prevention is an important aspect of the control of infectious diseases, and various steps can be taken to check the spread of such infections as dysentery, tuberculosis, malaria and others. (See also IMMUNITY; INCUBATION.)... infection

A genus of flies (Diptera) which includes the housefly, M.domestica, a potential mechanical vector of enteric viral, bacterial and parasitic pathogens. Can also mechanically transmit trachoma.... musca

A group of biting flies commonly called sandflies including the genus Phlebotomus, sometimes vectors of leishmaniasis.... phlebotomine

A family of biting flies commonly called blackflies including the important Simulium, sometimes vectors of onchocerciasis.... simuliid

A family of biting flies commonly called horseflies or deerflies (genus Tabanus), sometimes vectors of loiasis.... tabanid

A tropical disease, also called river blindness, caused by the worm ONCHOCERCA VOLVULUS.

The disease is a type of filariasis transmitted by simulium flies.

The worms’ dead larvae can lead to blindness if they cause an allergic reaction in or near the eyes.

Treatment is with anthelmintic drugs.... onchocerciasis

A persistent infectious disease of the cornea and conjunctiva. Trachoma is caused by CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS and is spread by direct contact and possibly by flies (see chlamydial infections). It is uncommon in the UK, but, worldwide, is the most common cause of blindness.... trachoma

The bites of tsetse flies, which are found in Africa, can be painful. The flies, resembling brown houseflies, spread sleeping sickness.... tsetse fly bites

n. a genus of bloodsucking flies, commonly called deer flies. Female flies, found in shady wooded areas, bite humans during the day. Certain species in Africa may transmit the tropical disease *loiasis to humans. In the USA C. discalis is a vector of *tularaemia.... chrysops

Usually contracted in a tropical country during foreign travel. Likely to be associated with amoebic dysentery by the organism Entamoeba histolytica from contaminated drinking water or decaying foods (uncooked vegetables), foods exposed to flies. Onset of the disease may not be apparent until years after original infection. It presents with tenderness over the liver. On palpation, liver area is tender and the diaphragm elevated.

Symptoms. Fever, sweating, constitutional upset.

Differential diagnosis: diverticulitis, Crohn’s disease, salmonella, carcinoma, bacillary dysentery.

Alte rnative s:– Blue Flag, Boneset, Burdock, Chaparral, Echinacea, Elecampane, Elder flowers, Eucalyptus, Fringe Tree, Milk Thistle, Marshmallow, Queen’s Delight, Thyme (garden), Wild Indigo, Wild Yam, Yarrow, Yellow Dock.

Tea. Combine: equal parts, Yarrow, Burdock leaves, Marshmallow leaves. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water: infuse 10-15 minutes; 1 cup freely.

Decoction. Echinacea 2; Fringe Tree bark 1; Yellow Dock root 1. 2 teaspoons to 2 cups water gently simmered 20 minutes. Half a cup freely.

Formula: Combine: Echinacea 2; Fringe Tree bark 1; Boneset 1; Goldenseal quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 2-4ml. Tinctures: 4-8ml. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules, or one-third teaspoon). In water, honey, or cup of Fenugreek tea.

Cold puree. Pass Garlic corm through food blender. Eat with a spoon as much as tolerated. Blend with adjutants: carrots, raisins, apple. ... amoebic liver abscess

An abnormal condition of early childhood where the child is unable to make contact and develop relationships with people. Scanning techniques show that blood-flow in the frontal and temporal lobes is impaired. A passive child fails to become emotionally involved with other people and isolates himself. When the even tenor of his existence is disturbed he flies into a rage or retires into anxious brooding. Diagnosis is assisted by recognising young children being socially withdrawn and teenagers developing peculiar mannerisms and gait.

A child may avoid looking a person in the face, occupying himself or herself elsewhere to avoid direct contact. Obsessional motions include erratic movements of the fingers or limbs or facial twitch or grimace. Corrective efforts by parents to educate into more civilised behaviour meet with instant hostility, even hysteria. Hyperactivity may give rise to tantrums when every degree of self-control is lost. For such times, harmless non habit-forming herbal sedatives are helpful (Skullcap, Valerian, Mistletoe).

A link has been discovered between a deficiency of magnesium and autism. Magnesium is essential for the body’s use of Vitamin B6. Nutritionists attribute the condition stemming from an inadequate intake of vitamins and minerals at pregnancy. Alcohol in the expectant mother is a common cause of such deficiencies. Personal requirements of autistic children will be higher than normal levels of Vitamin B complex (especially B6) C, E and Magnesium.

Such children grow up to be ‘temperamental’, of extreme sensibility, some with rare talents. Medicine is not required, but for crisis periods calm and poise can be restored by:–

Motherwort tea: equal parts, Motherwort, Balm and Valerian: 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 10-15 minutes; 1 cup 2-3 times daily. Honey renders it more palatable.

Alternatives:– Teas, tablets or other preparations: Hops, German Chamomile, Ginseng, Passion flower, Skullcap, Devil’s Claw, Vervain, Mistletoe, Ginkgo.

Diet. Lacto-vegetarian. 2-3 bananas (for potassium) daily.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamin B-complex, Vitamin B6 50mg, Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc. Aromatherapy. Inhalation of Lavender oil may act as a mood-lifter.

Note: A scientific study revealed a link with the yeast syndrome as associated with candidiasis. ... autism

(larva migrans) a skin disease caused either by larvae of certain nematode worms (e.g. Ancylostoma braziliense) normally parasitic in dogs and cats or by the maggots of certain flies (see Hypoderma; Gasterophilus). The larvae burrow within the skin tissues, their movements marked by long thin red lines that cause the patient intense irritation. The nematode infections are treated with albendazole, ivermectin, or tiabendazole; maggots can be surgically removed.... creeping eruption

(chlorophenothane, dicophane) n. a powerful insecticide that was formerly widely used against lice, fleas, flies, bed bugs, cockroaches, and other disease-carrying and destructive insects. It is a relatively stable compound that is stored in animal fats, and the quantities now present in the environment – in the form of stores accumulated in animal tissues – have led to its use being restricted. Acute poisoning, from swallowing more than 20 g, produces nervous irritability, muscle twitching, convulsions, and coma, but only a few fatalities have been reported.... ddt

n. a genus of nonbloodsucking flies inhabiting lowland woods and forests of South and Central America. The parasitic maggots of D. hominis can cause a serious disease of the skin in humans (see myiasis). The maggots burrow into the skin, after emerging from eggs transported by bloodsucking insects (e.g. mosquitoes), and produce painful boil-like swellings. Treatment involves surgical removal of the maggots.... dermatobia

n. an insecticide that attacks the central nervous system of insects and has proved useful in the control of various beetles, flies, and larvae that attack crops. Because of its persistence in and contamination of the environment, its use in the UK is now severely restricted.... dieldrin

Amoebiasis. Ulcerative colitis of the large bowel chiefly with entamoeba histolytica from infected food, water, or by ‘carriers’. Penetration through colon walls may lead to increased peristalsis. Period of infection – one to six months. Travelling upwards via the portal vein. Symptoms: may invade the liver causing abscess. Colic, changed bowel habits. Where severe – fever, bloody stools and pain in iliac fossa.

Treatment by or in liaison with general medical practitioner.

Attention to water supply. Water should be boiled for five minutes to destroy cysts. Avoid fruits and salad materials from unhygienic sources and exposure to flies.

Alternatives. Agrimony, Balm, Bayberry, Bistort, Blue Flag, Burdock, Calamus, Catechu (black), Cranesbill, Echinacea, Fenugreek, Garlic, Goldenseal, Holy Thistle, Ipecacuanha, Ladies Mantle, Marshmallow, Mullein, Nettles, Pulsatilla, Raspberry leaves, Red Clover, Shepherd’s Purse, Slippery Elm, Spurge (hirta), Tormentil root, Thyme (garden), Wild Yam, Witch Hazel, Yarrow.

Tea. Equal parts: Holy Thistle, Marshmallow, Thyme. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes; 1 cup thrice daily or every 2 hours acute cases.

Decoction. Combine, Wild Yam 1; Marshmallow root 1; Echinacea 2. One heaped teaspoon to two cups water. Simmer gently 20 minutes. Half-1 cup thrice daily: every 2 hours acute cases.

Formula. Equal parts: Bayberry, Burdock, Echinacea, Peppermint. Dose: Liquid extract: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: one to two 5ml teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half teaspoon) in water, honey or fruit juice, thrice daily: every 2 hours for acute cases.

Practitioner. (1) Tincture Ipecacuanha (BP 1973). Dose: 0.25-1ml as prescribed.

(2) Formula. Liquid Extract Echinacea 15ml; Liquid Extract Monsonia ovata 4ml; Liquid Extract Marigold 4ml; Tincture Goldenseal 2ml; Oil Cinnamon 1ml. Distilled water to 240ml (8oz). Dose: 1 dessertspoon (8ml) every 3 hours. (A. Barker)

Preventative: two Garlic capsules at night.

Note: Fenugreek tea: frequent cupfuls. Good results reported. Drink plenty of fluids: milk, oatmeal porridge, vegetable juices. ... dysentery, amoebic

Any infectious illness caused by eating food contaminated with viruses, bacteria, worms, or other organisms. There are 2 mechanisms by which food can become infected. First, many animals that are kept or caught for food may harbour disease organisms in their tissues or organs; and, if meat or milk from such an animal is eaten without being thoroughly cooked or pasteurized, the organisms may cause illness in their human host. In the , the only common infection of this type is food poisoning. Second, food may be contaminated with organisms spread from an infected person or animal, usually by flies moving from faeces to food.

Immunization is available against certain food- and water-borne infections such as typhoid fever.... food-borne infection

Relatively few insect species cause disease directly in humans. Some parasitize humans, living under the skin or on the body surface (see lice; chigoe; myiasis). The most troublesome insects are flies and biting insects. Flies can carry disease organisms from human or animal excrement via their feet or legs and contaminate food or wounds.

A number of serious diseases are spread by biting insects.

These include malaria and filariasis (transmitted by mosquitoes), sleeping sickness (tsetse flies), leishmaniasis (sandflies), epidemic typhus (lice), and plague (rat fleas).

Mosquitoes, sandflies, and ticks can also spread illnesses such as yellow fever, dengue, Lyme disease, and some types of viral encephalitis.

Organisms picked up when an insect ingests blood from an infected animal or person are able to survive or multiply in the insect.

Later, the organisms are either injected into a new human host via the insect’s saliva or deposited in the faeces at or near the site of the bite.

Most insect-borne diseases are confined to the tropics and subtropics, although tick-borne Lyme disease occurs in some parts of the.

The avoidance of insect-borne disease is largely a matter of keeping flies off food, discouraging insect bites by the use of suitable clothing and insect repellents, and, in parts of the world where malaria is present, the use of mosquito nets and screens, pesticides, and antimalarial tablets.... insects and disease

n. a large group of insects, including *mosquitoes, gnats, midges, house flies, and *tsetse flies, that possess a single pair of wings. The mouthparts of many species, e.g. mosquitoes and tsetse flies, are specialized for sucking blood; these forms are important in the transmission of disease (see vector). See also fly.... diptera

n. a genus of very small flies, commonly called fruit flies, that breed in decaying fruit and vegetables. D. melanogaster has been extensively used in genetic research as it has only four pairs of chromosomes and those in its salivary glands are easily recognizable. Adult D. repleta sometimes feed on faecal matter and may transmit disease organisms.... drosophila

n. a genus of widely distributed non-bloodsucking beelike flies. The parasitic maggots normally live in the alimentary canal of horses but, rarely, can also infect humans and cause an inflamed itching eruption of the skin (see creeping eruption).... gasterophilus

n. a genus of small flies. The adults of H. pallipes are suspected of transmitting *yaws in the West Indies. Other species of Hippelates may be involved in the transmission of conjunctivitis.... hippelates

a small widely distributed bloodsucking insect of the genus Simulium. Black flies are also known as buffalo gnats from their humpbacked appearance. Female flies can inflict painful bites and constitute a serious pest at certain times of the year. S. damnosum in Africa and S. ochraceum in Central America and Venezuela transmit the parasites causing *onchocerciasis.

black hairy tongue (BHT) a harmless condition characterized by the appearance of elongated filiform *papillae on the upper surface of the tongue. The usual cause is an overgrowth of bacteria that accumulate on the papillae and create pigments giving the tongue a black appearance. Known predisposing factors include smoking, excessive consumption of tea and/or coffee, poor oral hygiene, trigeminal *neuralgia, and *dry mouth.... black fly

n. a genus of non-bloodsucking beelike insects – the warble flies – widely distributed in Europe, North America, and Asia. Cattle are the usual hosts for the parasitic maggots, but rare and accidental infections of humans have occurred (see myiasis), especially in farm workers. The maggots migrate beneath the skin surface, producing an inflamed linear lesion similar to that of *creeping eruption.... hypoderma

n. a member of a large group of mainly land-dwelling *arthropods. The body of the adult is divided into a head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears a single pair of sensory antennae; the thorax bears three pairs of legs and, in most insects, wings (these are absent in some parasitic groups, such as lice and fleas). Some insects are of medical importance. Various bloodsucking insects transmit tropical diseases, for example the female Anopheles mosquito transmits malaria and the tsetse fly transmits sleeping sickness. The bites of lice can cause intense irritation and, secondarily, bacterial infection. The organisms causing diarrhoea and dysentery can be conveyed to food on the bodies of flies. See also myiasis.... insect

n. (pl. larvae) the preadult or immature stage hatching from the egg of some animal groups, e.g. insects and nematodes, which may be markedly different from the sexually mature adult and have a totally different way of life. For example, the larvae of some flies are parasites of animals and cause disease whereas the adults are free-living. —larval adj.... larva

n. a genus of parasitic nematode worms (see filaria). The adult eye worm, L. loa, lives within the tissues beneath the skin, where it causes inflammation and swelling (see loiasis). The motile embryos, present in the blood during the day, may be taken up by bloodsucking Chrysops flies. Here they develop into infective larvae, ready for transmission to a new human host.... loa

n. a small winged bloodsucking insect belonging to a large group – the *Diptera (two-winged flies). Its mouthparts are formed into a long proboscis for piercing the skin and sucking blood. Female mosquitoes transmit the parasites responsible for several major infectious diseases, such as *malaria. The mosquito-borne zika virus has recently been shown to cause *microcephaly. See Anopheles; Aëdes; Culex.... mosquito

n. a genus of widely distributed nonbloodsucking flies, occurring wherever sheep and goats are raised. The parasitic larvae of O. ovis, the sheep nostril fly, may occasionally and accidentally infect humans. By means of large mouth hooks, it attaches itself to the conjunctiva of the eye, causing a painful *myiasis that may result in loss of sight. This is an occupational disease of shepherds. Larvae can be removed with forceps following anaesthesia.... oestrus

n. a genus of non-bloodsucking flies, commonly known as blowflies. The maggot of P. regina normally breeds in decaying meat but it has occasionally been found in suppurating wounds, giving rise to a type of *myiasis.... phormia

n. a skin disease, prevalent in tropical America, that is caused by the spirochaete *Treponema carateum. The disease is thought to be transmitted either by direct contact between individuals or by flies that carry the infective spirochaetes on their bodies. Symptoms include thickening and eventual loss of pigment of the skin, particularly on the hands, wrists, feet, and ankles. Pinta is treated with penicillin G.... pinta

n. a genus of widely distributed non-bloodsucking flies, the flesh flies. Maggots are normally found in carrion or excrement but occasionally females will deposit their eggs in wounds or ulcers giving off a foul-smelling discharge; the presence of the maggots causes a serious *myiasis. Rarely, maggots may be ingested with food and give rise to an intestinal myiasis.... sarcophaga

n. a genus of flies. S. funicola, the eye fly of India, feeds on the secretions of the tear glands and in landing on or near the eyes contributes to the spread of *conjunctivitis.... siphunculina

n. a genus of parasitic protozoans that move by means of a long trailing flagellum and a thin wavy membrane, which project from the body surface. Trypanosomes undergo part of their development in the blood of a vertebrate host. The remaining stages occur in invertebrate hosts, which then transmit the parasites back to the vertebrates. T. rhodesiense and T. gambiense, which are transmitted through the bite of *tsetse flies, cause *sleeping sickness in Africa. T. cruzi, carried by *reduviid bugs, causes Chagas’ disease in South America.... trypanosoma

n. a large bloodsucking fly of tropical Africa belonging to the genus Glossina. Tsetse flies, which have slender forwardly projecting biting mouthparts, feed during the day on humans and other mammals. They transmit the blood parasites that cause *sleeping sickness. G. palpalis and G. tachinoides, which are found along river banks, transmit Trypanosoma gambiense; G. morsitans, G. swynnertoni, and G. pallidipes, which are found in savannah country, transmit T. rhodesiense.... tsetse

(rabbit fever) n. a disease of rodents and rabbits, caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis, that is transmitted to humans by deer flies (see Chrysops), by direct contact with infected animals, by contamination of wounds, or by drinking contaminated water. Symptoms include an ulcer at the site of infection, inflamed and ulcerating lymph nodes, headache, aching pains, loss of weight, and a fever lasting several weeks. Treatment with chloramphenicol, streptomycin, or tetracycline is effective.... tularaemia

n. a genus of non-bloodsucking flies. Females of the species W. magnifica and W. vigil deposit their parasitic maggots in wounds and the openings of the body. This causes *myiasis, particularly in children.... wohlfahrtia

(pian, framboesia) n. a tropical infectious disease caused by the spirochaete Treponema pertenue in the skin and its underlying tissues. Yaws occurs chiefly in conditions of poor hygiene. It is transmitted by direct contact with infected persons and their clothing and possibly also by flies of the genus Hippelates. The spirochaetes enter through abrasions on the skin. Initial symptoms include fever, pains, and itching, followed by the appearance of small tumours, each covered by a yellow crust of dried serum, on the hands, face, legs, and feet. These tumours may deteriorate into deep ulcers. The final stage of yaws, which may appear after an interval of several years, involves destructive and deforming lesions of the skin, bones, and periosteum (see also gangosa; goundou). Yaws, which commonly affects children, is prevalent in hot humid lowlands of equatorial Africa, tropical America, the Far East, and the West Indies. It responds well to antibiotics.... yaws

Cinnamomum camphora

FAMILY: Lauraceae

SYNONYMS: Laurus camphora, true camphor, hon-sho, laurel camphor, gum camphor, Japanese camphor, Formosa camphor.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, handsome, evergreen tree, up to 30 metres high, not unlike the linden. It has many branches bearing clusters of small white flowers followed by red berries. It produces a white crystalline substance, the crude camphor, from the wood of mature trees over fifty years old.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Japan and Taiwan principally, also China; cultivated in India, Ceylon, Egypt, Madagascar, southern Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of camphor: the ho-sho variety produces ho leaf and ho wood oil; the Chinese variety produces apopin oil; the Japan and Taiwan type, known as hon-sho or true camphor, produces two chemotypes: camphor-safrol (Japan) and camphor-linalol (Taiwan). All these are to be distinguished from the Borneo camphor or borneol which is of different botanical origin.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A long-standing traditional preventative of infectious disease; a lump of camphor would be worn around the neck as a protection. In addition it was used for nervous and respiratory diseases in general, and for heart failure! However, in its crude form it is very poisonous in large doses, and has been removed from the British Pharmacopoeia.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, counter-irritant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, rubefacient, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Crude camphor is collected from the trees in crystalline form. The essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the wood, root stumps and branches and then rectified under vacuum and filter pressed to produce three fractions, known as white, brown and yellow camphor.

CHARACTERISTICS: White camphor is the lightest (lowest boiling) fraction, a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sharp, pungent camphoraceous odour. Brown camphor is the middle fraction. Yellow camphor, a blue-green or yellowish liquid, is the heaviest.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1 White camphor contains mainly cineol, with pinene, terpineol, menthol, thymol and no safrol. 2. Brown camphor contains up to 80 per cent safrol and some terpineol. 3. Yellow camphor contains mainly safrol, sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols.

SAFETY DATA: Brown and yellow camphor (containing safrol) are toxic and carcinogenic and ‘should not be used in therapy, either internally or externally.’. White camphor does not contain safrol and is relatively non-toxic, non-sensitizing and non-irritant. It is, however, an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE White camphor may be used with care for:

Skin care: Acne, inflammation, oily conditions, spots; also for insect prevention (flies, moths, etc).

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, etc.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, coughs.

Immune System: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious disease.

OTHER USES: White and brown camphor are used as the starting material for the isolation of many perfumery chemicals, for example safrol and cineol. White camphor is used as a solvent in the paint and lacquer industry, and for the production of celluloid. Fractions of white oil are used as fragrance and masking agents in detergents, soaps, disinfectants and household products.... camphor

Tanacetum vulgare

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Chrysanthemum vulgare, C. tanacetum, buttons, bitter buttons, bachelor’s buttons, scented fern, cheese.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hardy perennial wayside herb, up to 1 metre high with a smooth stem, dark ferny leaves and small, round, brilliant yellow flowers borne in clusters. The whole plant is strongly scented.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to central Europe; naturalized in North America and now found in most temperate regions of the world. The essential oil is mainly produced in France, Germany, Hungary, Poland and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the medicinal herb feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), the marigolds and daisy family.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Traditionally used to flavour eggs and omelettes. It has a long history of medicinal use, especially among gypsies, and is regarded as something of a ‘cure all’. It was used to expel worms, to treat colds and fever, prevent possible miscarriage and ease dyspepsia and cramping pains. Externally, the distilled water was used to keep the complexion pale, and the bruised leaves employed as a remedy for scabies, bruises, sprains and rheumatism. It was also used generally for nervous disorders and to keep flies and vermin away.

The flowers are still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific (used externally) for worms in children.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the whole herb (aerial parts).

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow, olive or orange liquid (darkening with age) with a warm, sharp spicy herbaceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (66–81 per cent), camphor, borneol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin – poisonous due to high thujone content. Abortifacient.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in aromatherapy whether internally or externally.’.

OTHER USES: Occasionally used in herbaceous-type perfumes. The oil used to be used in alcoholic drinks – it is no longer used for flavouring.... tansy