Genus Health Dictionary

A genus of nematodes which includes the intestinal roundworm of humans, Ascaris lumbricoides).... ascaris

A genus of intracellular Gram negative bacteria including Chlamydia trachomatis, C. pneumoniae and C. psittaci.... chlamydia

An acute, self-limiting intestinal infection, with diarrhea, fever, and abdominal pain, caused by one of the Shigella genus of gram-negative bacteria. The infection is contracted through food prepared by infected individuals or by direct contact with them. Raw sewage contamination can also be a source.... shigellosis

A mosquito genus in the sub-family Culicine. Various species may transmit arboviral and filarial infections.... aedes

A mosquito genus in the subfamily Anophelinae. Only certain species transmit human malaria and filariasis.... anopheles

This is a big group (genus) of gram-positive (see GRAM’S STAIN) rod-like BACTERIA. Found widely in the air and soil – commonly as spores

– they feed on dead organic matter. As well as infecting and spoiling food, some are pathogenic to humans, causing, for example, ANTHRAX, conjunctivitis (see EYE, DISORDERS OF) and DYSENTERY. They are also the source of some antibiotics (See under MICROBIOLOGY.)... bacillus

A genus of small Gram negative bacilli. Include the agents for Bartonellosis (Carrion’s Disease) caused by B. bacilliformis in South America. Other species include B. henselae , the cause of Cat Scratch Fever and B. quintana, the cause of Trench Fever.... bartonella

A genus of spirochaetes causing Lyme Disease (Borrelia burgdorferi) and Relapsing fever (B. recurrentis; B. duttoni). These zoonotic infections are transmitted through the bites of argassid ticks (tampans).... borrelia

Alstonia venenata

Apocynaceae

San: Visaghni, Anadana;

Mal: Analivegam;

Tam: Sinnappalai;

Kan: Addasarpa

Importance: Alstonia is a large shrub with straight bole and growing upto about 6m height. The roots are useful in skin diseases, erysipelas, leprosy, cobra bite and other venomous bites, epilepsy, fatigue, fever and otalgia. The fruits are useful in syphilis, insanity and epilepsy. The plant is believed to repel snakes.

Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout India in deciduous forests in areas up to 1800m elevation.

Botany: Alstonia venenata R.Br., belonging to the family Apocynaceae, is a large shrub to small tree up to 6m in height with greyish brown bark and bright yellow hard and woody root. Leaves are simple, arranged in whorls of 3-6, membranous, lanceolate, margins wavy, finely acuminate, main nerves numerous, close, parallel and united by inter marginal nerve. Flowers are white, arranged in terminal sub umbellate cymes or in racemes. Fruits are fusiform with stalked and beaked follicles, tapering at both ends. Seeds are many flattened with a tuft of hair at each end (Warrier et al, 1993). Other important species belonging to the genus Alstonia are the following.

1. A. scholaris R. Br.

This tree is common throughout India. The bark is valuable in debility and after effects of fever, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery and catarrhal fever. The milky juice is applied to ulcers and rheumatic pains, mixed with oil and dropped into ear to relieve earache. Ditanin is the active principle of the bark, possessing powerful febrifuge properties. The bark is astringent, tonic and febrifuge (Nadkarni, 1998).

2. A. spectabilis R. Br.

It is a large evergreen tree seen in tropical forests of Andamans. The bark contains alkaloids such as alstonamine, ditamine, echitamine and echitenine (Chopra et al,1980)

Agrotechnology: The plant is propagated mainly by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and germinated ones are to be transferred to polybags. About three months old seedlings are used for transplanting. If seeds are not available, thin stem cuttings can be planted in polybags and rooted cuttings used. Pits of size 60cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing, filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and made into a mound. To this mounds seedlings from polybags are to be transplanted. Irrigation is essential during early stages of growth. Application of organic manure every year is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be done. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Flowers are formed in the first year itself. It can be used for medicinal purposes after seven years of growth. Fruits and roots are the economical parts (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and activity: The plant is a rich source of indole alkaloids. Alkaloids are present in various parts. Stem bark and root contain venenatine, alstovenine, 3-dehydroalstovenine and reserpine. Stem bark contains venoxidine (venenatine Nb -oxide), anhydroalstonatine, kopsinine, venalstonine, venalstonidine(venalstonine-6,7-epoxide), echitovenine and veneserpine. Fruits contain echitovenidine, (+)minovincinine, echitoserpidine, echitoserpine, echitoveniline, 11-methoxy echitovonidine, 11-methoxy (-) minovinicinine, echitoserpiline, (-)vincadifformine, 11-methoxy(-)vincadifformine and venoterpine. Leaves contain echitovenaldine, echitoveniline, alstolenine, deacetylakuammiline, polynuridine, dihydropolynuridine and raucaffrininoline. The yellow tint in bark is because of the presence of 3-alstovenine. A number of indole alkaloids have been further isolated from the plant. In addition to alkaloids fruits contain -amyrin acetate and lupeol ester of -hydroxy acid (Husain et al,1992).

The root is bitter, astringent, thermogenic, depurative, antitoxic, febrifuge and anodyne. The alkaloid alstovenine in lower doses exhibited monoamine oxidase inhibitor activity, while in higher doses it showed marked central stimulant effect. Veninatine exhibited reserpine like activity. Alcoholic extract of the fruits showed initial activation effect on acetylcholine esterase, followed alternately by inhibition and activation of the enzyme.... alstonia

The genus, or variety, of micro-organisms that produce spores which enable them to survive under adverse conditions. They normally grow in soil, water and decomposing plant and animal matter, where they play an important part in the process of PUTREFACTION. Among the important members of the group, or genus, are Clostridium welchii, Cl. septicum and Cl. oedematiens, the causes of gas gangrene (see GANGRENE); Cl. tetani, the cause of TETANUS; and Cl. botulinum, the cause of BOTULISM.... clostridium

The genus of Gram positive bacilli including Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the cause of diphtheria in humans. Genus also includes C. minutissimum, the cause of erythrasma in humans and the diphtheroids which are commensal corynebacteria making up part of the human respiratory tract normal flora.... corynebacterium

A genus of yeasts. Cryptococcus neoformans is widespread in nature, and is present in particularly large numbers in the faeces of pigeons. It occasionally infects humans, as a result of the inhalation of dust contaminated by the faeces of pigeons – causing the disease known as CRYPTOCOCCOSIS.... cryptococcus

Genus of cestodes which includes the hydatid tapeworms, Echinococcus granulosus, E. multilocularis, E. vogeli and E. oligarthrus.... echinococcus

Genus of dermatophyte fungi associated with tinea or ringworm in humans.... epidermophyton

Ficus spp.

Moraceae

The genus Ficus constitutes an important group of trees with immense medicinal value. It is a sacred tree of Hindus and Buddhists. Among the varied number of species, the most important ones are the four trees that constitute the group “Nalpamaram”, namely, F. racemosa, F. microcarpa, F. benghalensis and F. religiosa (Athi, Ithi, Peral and Arayal respectively).

1. Ficus racemosa Linn. syn. F. glomerata Roxb.

Eng: Cluster fig, Country fig

San: Udumbarah, Sadaphalah

Hin: Gular, Umar

Ben: Jagya dumur

Mal, Tam,

Kan: Athi

Tel: Udambaramu, Paidi

Gular fig, Cluster fig or Country fig, which is considered sacred, has golden coloured exudate and black bark. It is distributed all over India. Its roots are useful in treating dysentery. The bark is useful as a wash for wounds, highly efficacious in threatened abortions and recommended in uropathy. Powdered leaves mixed with honey are given in vitiated condition of pitta. A decoction of the leaves is a good wash for wounds and ulcers. Tender fruits (figs) are used in vitiated conditions of pitta, diarrhoea, dyspepsia and haemorrhages. The latex is administered in haemorrhoids and diarrhoea (Warrier et al, 1995). The ripe fruits are sweet, cooling and are used in haemoptysis, thirst and vomiting (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer et al, 1957; Moos, 1976). Nalpamaradi coconut oil, Candanasava, Valiya Arimedastaila, Dinesavalyadi Kuzhambu, Abhrabhasma, Valiya candanaditaila, etc. are some important preparations using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

It is a moderate to large-sized spreading laticiferous, deciduous tree without many prominent aerial roots. Leaves are dark green and ovate or elliptic. Fruit receptacles are 2-5cm in diameter, sub- globose or pyriform arranged in large clusters on short leafless branches arising from main trunk or large branches. Figs are smooth or rarely covered with minute soft hairs. When ripe, they are orange, dull reddish or dark crimson. They have a pleasant smell resembling that of cedar apples. The bark is rusty brown with a fairly smooth and soft surface, the thickness varying from 0.5-2cm according to the age of the trunk or bark. Surface is with minute separating flakes of white tissue. Texture is homogeneously leathery (Warrier et al, 1995).

Stem-bark gives gluanol acetate, -sitosterol, leucocyanidin-3-O- -D-glucopyrancoside, leucopelargonidin-3-O- -D-glucopyranoside, leucopelargonidin -3-O- -L-rhamnopyranoside, lupeol, ceryl behenate, lupeol acetate and -amyrin acetate. Stem- bark is hypoglycaemic and anti-protozoal. Gall is CVS active. Bark is tonic and used in rinder pest diseases of cattle. Root is antidysenteric and antidiabetic. Leaf is antibilious. Latex is antidiarrhoeal and used in piles. Bark and syconium is astringent and used in menorrhagia (Husain et al, 1992).

2. Ficus microcarpa Linn. f. syn. F. retusa auct. Non. Linn.

San: Plaksah; Hin,

Ben: Kamarup;

Mal: Ithi, Ithiyal;

Tam: Kallicci, Icci;

Kan: Itti;

Tel: Plaksa

Plaksah is the Ficus species with few branches and many adventitious roots growing downward. It is widely distributed throughout India and in Sri Lanka, S. China, Ryuku Isles and Britain. Plakasah is one of the five ingredients of the group panchvalkala i.e, five barks, the decoction of which is extensively used to clear ulcers and a douche in leucorrhoea in children. This decoction is administered externally and internally with satisfactory results. Plaksah is acclaimed as cooling, astringent, and curative of raktapitta doshas, ulcers, skin diseases, burning sensation, inflammation and oedema. It is found to have good healing property and is used in preparation of oils and ointments for external application in the treatment of ulcers (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957). The stem-bark is used to prepare Usirasava, Gandhataila, Nalpamaradi taila, Valiya marmagulika, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The bark and leaves are used in wounds, ulcers, bruises, flatulent colic, hepatopathy, diarrhoea, dysentery, diabetes, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, haemaorrhages, erysipelas, dropsy, ulcerative stomatitis, haemoptysis, psychopathy, leucorrhoea and coporrhagia (Warrier et al,1995) F. microcarpa is a large glabrous evergreen tree with few aerial roots. Leaves are short- petioled, 5-10cm long, 2-6cm wide and apex shortly and bluntly apiculate or slightly emarginate. Main lateral nerves are not very prominent and stipules are lanceolate. Fruit receptacles are sessile and globose occurring in axillary pairs. It is yellowish when ripe without any characteristic smell. Bark is dark grey or brown with a smooth surface except for the lenticels. Outer bark is corky and crustaceous thin and firmly adherent to inner tissue. Inner bark is light and flesh coloured with firbrous texture (Warrier et al, 1995). It is also equated with many other species of the genus. viz. F. Singh and Chunekar, 1972; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979; Sharma, 1983).

The bark contains tannin, wax and saponin. Bark is antibilious. Powdered leaves and bark is found very good in rheumatic headache. The bark and leaves are astringent, refrigerant, acrid and stomachic.

3. Ficus benghalensis Linn.

Eng: Banyan tree; San: Nyagrodhah, Vatah;

Hin: Bat, Bargad;

Ben: Bar, Bot; Mar: Vada; Mal: Peral, Vatavriksham;

Tam: Alamaram, Peral;

Kan: Ala;

Tel: Peddamarri;

Guj: Vad

Banyan tree is a laticiferous tree with reddish fruits, which is wound round by aerial adventitious roots that look like many legs. It is found in the Sub-Himalayan tract and Peninsular India. It is also grawn throughout India. It is widely used in treatment of skin diseases with pitta and rakta predominance. Stem-bark, root -bark, aerial roots, leaves, vegetative buds and milky exudate are used in medicine. It improves complexion, cures erysepelas, burning sensation and vaginal disorders, while an infusion of the bark cures dysentery, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, nervous disorders and reduces blood sugar in diabetes. A decoction of the vegetative buds in milk is beneficial in haemorrhages. A paste of the leaves is applied externally to abcesses and wounds to promote suppuration, while that of young aerial roots cure pimples. Young twigs when used as a tooth brush strengthen gum and teeth (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss,1976). The drug forms an important constituent of formulations like Nalpamaradi Coconut oil, Saribadyasava, Kumkumadi taila, Khadi ra gulika, Valiyacandanadi taila, Candanasava, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The aerial roots are useful in obstinate vomiting and leucorrhoea and are used in osteomalacia of the limbs. The buds are useful in diarrhoea and dysentery. The latex is useful in neuralgia, rheumatism, lumbago, bruises, nasitis, ulorrhagia, ulitis, odontopathy, haemorrhoids, gonorrhoea, inflammations, cracks of the sole and skin diseases (Warrier et al, 1995).

It is a very large tree up to 30m in height with widely spreading branches bearing many aerial roots functioning as prop roots. Bark is greenish white. Leaves are simple, alternate, arranged often in clusters at the ends of branches. They are stipulate, 10-20cm long and 5-12.5cm broad, broadly elliptic to ovate, entire, coriaceous, strongly 3-7 ribbed from the base. The fruit receptacles are axillary, sessile, seen in pairs globose, brick red when ripe and enclosing male, female and gall flowers. Fruits are small, crustaceous, achenes, enclosed in the common fleshy receptacles. The young bark is somewhat smooth with longitudinal and transverse row of lenticels. In older bark, the lenticels are numerous and closely spaced; outer bark easily flakes off. The fresh cut surface is pink or flesh coloured and exudes plenty of latex. The inner most part of the bark adjoining the wood is nearly white and fibrous (Warrier et al, 1995).

The bark yields flavanoid compounds A, B and C; A and C are identified as different forms of a leucoanthocyanidin and compound B a leucoanthocyanin. All the 3 were effective as hypoglycaemic agents. Leaves give friedelin, -sitosterol, flavonoids- quercetin-3-galactoside and rutin. Heart wood give tiglic acid ester of taraxasterol. Bark is hypoglycemic, tonic, astringent, antidiarrhoeal and antidiabetic. Latex is antirheumatic. Seed is tonic. Leaf is diaphoretic. Root fibre is antigonorrhoeic. Aerial root is used in debility and anaemic dysentery (Husain et al, 1992).

.4. Ficus religiosa Linn.

Eng:Peepal tree, Sacred fig; San:Pippalah, Asvatthah; Hin:Pippal, Pipli, Pipar; Mal:Arayal

Ben: Asvatha;

Tam: Arasu, Asvattam;

Kan: Aswatha;

Tel: Ravi; Mar: Ashvata, Pimpala

Peepal tree or Sacred fig is a large deciduous tree with few or no aerial roots. It is common throughout India, often planted in the vicinity of the temples. An aqueous extract of the bark has an antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. It is used in the treatment of gonorrhoea, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids and gastrohelcosis. A paste of the powdered bark is a good absorbent for inflammatory swellings. It is also good for burns. Leaves and tender shoots have purgative properties and are also recommended for wounds and skin diseases. Fruits are laxative and digestive. The dried fruit pulverized and taken in water cures asthma. Seeds are refrigerant and laxative. The latex is good for neuralgia, inflammations and haemorrhages (Warrier et al, 1995). Decoction of the bark if taken in honey subdues vatarakta (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1957; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). The important preparations using the drug are Nalpamaradi taila, Saribadyasava, Candanasava, Karnasulantaka, Valiyamarma gulika etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994). branches bearing long petioled, ovate, cordate shiny leaves. Leaves are bright green, the apex produced into a linear-lanceolate tail about half as long as the main portion of the blade. The receptacles occurring in pairs and are axillary, depressed globose, smooth and purplish when ripe. The bark is grey or ash coloured with thin or membranous flakes and is often covered with crustose lichen patches. The outer bark is not of uniform thickness, the middle bark in sections appear as brownish or light reddish brown. The inner part consists of layers of light yellowish or orange brown granular tissue (Warrier et al, 1995).

Bark gives -sitosterol and its glucoside. Bark is hypoglycaemic. Stem bark is antiprotozoal, anthelmintic and antiviral. Bark is astringent, antigonorrheic, febrifuge, aphrodisiac and antidysenteric. Syconium, leaf and young shoot is purgative (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology: Ficus species can be cultivated in rocky areas, unused lands, or other wastelands of the farmyard. The plant is vegetatively propagated by stem cuttings. A few species are also seed propagated. Stem cuttings of pencil thickness taken from the branches are to be kept for rooting. Rooted cuttings are to be transplanted to prepared pits. No regular manuring is required. Irrigation is not a must as a plant is hardy. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Bark can be collected after 15 years. Ficus species generally has an economic life span of more than hundred years. Hence bark can be regularly collected from the tree. Root, bark, leaves, fruits and latex form the economic parts (Prasad et al,1995).... ficus

A bacteria genus of the Enterobacteriaceae. K. pneumoniae is implicated in much pneumonia, particularly when it is a secondary infection following a simple chest cold.... klebsiella

A genus of gram-positive, acid-resistant bacteria in the Lactobacillaceae family. We know of lactobacillus because of its use in making yogurt and the conventional wisdom of taking it in one form or another after antibiotic therapy, but it is an integral part of the colon and mouth flora, and is the critical acidifying agent in vaginal flora. There is a growing body of rather ignored data showing the value of regular consumption of a lactobacillus-containing food in immunosuppression, slow virus, and candidiasis conditions.... lactobacillus

A group, or genus, of spiral micro-organisms, normally found in rodents and other small mammals in which they cause no harm. When transmitted to humans by these animals, either directly or indirectly as through cows, they give rise to various forms of illness (see LEPTOSPIROSIS).... leptospira

A zoonotic disease caused by the spirochaete Borrelia burgdorferi and other species of the genus. Common in Europe and the USA and transmi tted by Ixodid ticks.... lyme disease

A gram-positive (see GRAM’S STAIN) rod-like genus of aerobic BACTERIA, some species of which are harmful to humans and animals. For example, M. tuberculosis (Koch’s bacillus) and

M. leprae cause, respectively, TUBERCULOSIS and LEPROSY.... mycobacterium

A genus of cell wall defective bacteria which includes the cause of primary atypical pneumonia, Mycoplasma pneumoniae.... mycoplasma

A genus of nematodes that includes the nodular worms.... oesophagostomum

A genus of soft ticks (argassids or tampans). Includes the species O. moubata that transmits relapsing fever caused by Borrelia duttoni.... ornithodoros

A widespread genus of gram-negative motile-rod bacteria, some of them can cause moderate GI infections, while several can produce metabolites in food that cause serious toxic reaction when the food is eaten... salmonella

A disease caused by parasites o f the genus Schistosoma , also known as bilharzia, which has an aquatic snail intermediate host.... schistosomiasis

A fairly well-defined, interbreeding group of plants or animals. The lowest taxonomic grouping of closelyrelated varieties - below a Genus. See Taxonomy .... species

Staphylococcus is a genus of gram-positive bacterium (see GRAM’S STAIN; BACTERIA) which under the microscope appears in small masses like bunches of grapes. It is one of the most common infectious micro-organisms and is found, for example, in the PUS discharged from BOILS (FURUNCULOSIS). (See also MICROBIOLOGY.)... staphylococcus

A genus of intestinal nematodes which includes Strongyloides stercoralis in humans and S. fu?lleborni in monkeys and humans.... strongyloides

A genus of cestodes (tapeworms), which include Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), T. solium (pork tapeworm) and T. asiatica (Asian pork tapeworm). All have human final (definitive) hosts.... taenia

Cassia senna

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Svarnapatri;

Hin: Sanay, Sana Ka Patt;

Ben: Sonamukhi;

Mal: Sunnamukki, Chonnamukki, Nilavaka;

Tam: Nilavirai, Nilavakai;

Tel: Netatangedu

Importance: Indian Senna or Tinnevelly senna is a shrub very highly esteemed in India for its medicinal value. The leaves are useful in constipation, abdominal disorders, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, splenomegaly, hepatopathy, jaundice, helminthiasis, dyspepsia, cough, bronchitis, typhoid fever, anaemia, tumours and vitiated conditions of pitta and vata (Warrier et al,1994). It is used in Ayurvedic preparations; “Pancha Sakara Churna”, “Shat Sakara Churna” and “Madhu Yastyadi Churna” used for constipation. Its use is widespread in Unani system and some of the important products of this system containing senna are “Itrifal Mulayyin”, “Jawarish Ood Mulayyin”, “Hab Shabyar”, “Sufuf Mulliyin”, “Sharbat Ahmad Shahi”, etc. used as a mild laxative (Thakur et al, 1989).

Distribution: The plant is of Mediterranean origin. It is found in Somalia, Saudi Arabia, parts of Pakistan and Kutch area of Gujarat. It is largely cultivated in Tirunelveli, Ramanathapuram, Madurai and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu.

Botany: The genus Cassia, belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae, comprises of a number of species, namely,

C. senna Linn. syn. C. angustifolia Vahl.

C. absus Linn.

C. alata Linn.

C. auriculata Linn.

C. burmanni Wight. syn. C. obovata (Linn.) Collad.

C. glauca Lam.

C. javanica Linn.

C. mimosoides Linn.

C. obtusifolia Linn. syn. C. tora Linn.

C. occidentalis Linn.

C. pumila Lam.

C. slamea Lam.

C. acutifolia Delile.

C. sophera Linn.

C. senna is a shrub or undershrub, 60-75cm in height with pale subterete or obtusely angled erect or spreading branches. Leaves are paripinnate. Leaflets are 5-8 in number, ovate-lanceolate and glabrous. Flowers are yellowish, many and arranged in axillary racemes. Fruits are flat legumes, greenish brown to dark brown and nearly smooth (Chopra et al,1980, Warrier et al,1994).

In commerce, the leaves and pods obtained from C. senna are known as “ Tinnevelly Senna” and those from C. acutifolia Delile. as “Alexandrian Senna”. The leaves of C. acutifolia are narrower than C. senna, otherwise both resemble to a large extent (Thakur et al, 1989). All the true Sennas have the portions of their leaves unequally divided. In some kinds the lower part of one side is reduced to little more than a line in breadth, while the other is from a quarter to half an inch in breadth. The drug known under the name of East Indian Senna is nearly free from adulteration; and as its properties appear identical with those of the Alexandrian and the price being less, it probably will supersede it in general practice. Its size and shape readily identify it (Graves, 1996).

Agrotechnology: The plant requires a mild subtropical climate with warm winters which are free from frost for its growth. Semiarid areas with adequate irrigation facilities are ideal for cultivation. Areas having high rainfall, humidity and poor drainage are not suitable. Light or medium loamy soils with adequate drainage and pH varying from 7.0-8.2 are preferable. In South India both summer and winter crops are possible. The plant is propagated by seeds. The seed rate required is 15-20kg/ha. Seeds are sown in October-November (winter rainfed crop) or in February-March (irrigated crop). Higher seed rate is required for unirrigated crop. Seeds are sown in lines 30cm apart. Application of 5-10t of FYM/ha before planting or raising a green manure crop is beneficial. About 40kg N and 25-50kg P2O5/ha applied as basal dressing and 40kg N/ha applied in 2 split dozes as top dressing gave better yield. While the rainfed crop is grown without irrigation, the irrigated crop requires 5-8 light irrigations during the entire growing season. The crop requires 2-3 weedings and hoeings in order to keep it free from weeds. Alternaria alternata causes leaf spot and dieback but the disease is not serious. In North India, the plant is attacked by the larvae of butterfly Catopsilia pyranthe which can be controlled by planting the crop in March-April instead of June-July. Under irrigated conditions, the first crop is obtained after 90 days of planting. The leaves are stripped by hand when they are fully green, thick and bluish-green in colour. The second crop is taken 4 weeks after the first harvest and the third 4-6 weeks after the second one. The last harvest of leaves is done when the entire crop is harvested along with the pods. Yield under irrigated conditions is nearly1.4t of leaves and 150kg pods/ha and under unirrigated conditions is 500-600kg leaves and 80-100kg pods/ha. The leaves are dried in thin layers under shade so as to retain the green colour and the pods are hung for 10-12 days to get dried. The leaves and pods are cleaned, graded and marketed (Husain et al, 1993).

Properties and Activity: Leaves contain glucose, fructose, sucrose and pinnitol. Mucilage consists of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose and galacturonic acid. Leaves also contain sennoside-C(8,8’- diglucoside of rhein-aloe-emodin-dianthrone). Pods contain sennosides A and B, glycoside of anthraquinones rhein and chrysophanic acid. Seeds contain -sitosterol (Husain et al, 1992). Leaves and pods also contain 0.33% -sterol and flavonols-kaempferol, kaempferin, and iso-rhamnetin. Sennoside content of C. acutifolia is higher ranging from 2.5% to 4.5% as compared to C. angustifolia ranging from 1.5 % to 2.5%.

The purgative activity of Senna is attributed to its sennosides. The pods cause lesser griping than the leaves. Leaf and pod is laxative. The leaves are astringent, bitter, sweet, acrid, thermogenic, cathartic, depurative, liver tonic, anthelmintic, cholagogue, expectorant and febrifuge.... indian senna

The name of a genus of spirochaetal microorganisms which consist of slender spirals and which progress by means of bending movements. Treponema pallidum (formerly called Spirochaeta pallida) is the causative organism of SYPHILIS.... treponema

A genus of nematode worms which cause the zoonotic infection trichinellosis (trichinosis). Includes five species, all of which can infect humans, Trichinella spiralis, T. nativa, T. nelsoni, T. britovi and T.pseudospiralis... trichinella

A genus of microscopic parasites, several of which are responsible for causing SLEEPING SICKNESS and some allied diseases.... trypanosoma

A disease caused by parasites of the genus Trypanosoma and including sleeping sickness in Africa and Chagas disease in Central and South America.... trypanosomiasis

A biting fly found in Africa, genus Glossina, which may transmit sleeping sickness.... tsetse

A genus of fleas infesting rats. The tropical rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis and other species of the genus are major vectors of Bubonic Plague and murine typhus.... xenopsylla

A genus of BACTERIA which includes the causative organism of PLAGUE, Yersinia pestis.... yersinia

Croton tiglium

Euphorbiaceae

San: Jepalah, Dantibijah

Hin: Jamalgota

Ben: Jaypal Mal: Nirvalam

Tam: Nervalam, Sevalamkottai

Tel: Nepala

Importance: Purging croton or croton oil plant, a small evergreen tree with separate male and female flowers, is one among the seven poisons described in Ayurveda. The drug is well known for its drastic purgative property. The drug is found to be useful in ascites, anasarca, cold, cough, asthma, constipation, calculus, dropsy, fever and enlargement of the abdominal viscera. The seed paste is a good application for skin diseases, painful swellings and alopacia. The seed-oil is useful in chronic bronchitis, laryngeal affections, arthritis and lock jaw. Misraka-sneham is an important preparation using the drug (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980; Sharma, 1983).

Distribution: It is distributed throughout North India. It is cultivated in Assam, West Bengal and South India.

Botany: Croton tiglium Linn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is a small evergreen tree, 4.5-6.0m in height with ash coloured smooth bark and young shoots sprinkled with stellate hairs. Leaves are oblong to ovate-lanceolate, obtuse or rounded at the 2-glanded box, acuminate, membraneous, yellowish green and minutely toothed. Flowers are small, unisexual, males on slender pedicels, females larger and on short thick pedicels. Fruits are ovoid or oblong trigonous capsules. Seeds are smooth, testa black and enclosing reddish brown oily endosperm (Warrier et al,1994). Other species belonging to the genus Croton are as follows:

C. aromaticus Linn. C. caudatus Geisel C. jouera Roxb.

C. malabaricus Bedd.

C. oblongifolius Roxb.

C. polyandrus Roxb. syn. Baliospermum montanum Muell-Arg.

C. reticulatus(Chopra et al, 1980)

Agrotechnology: The plant is propagated by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and about 2 months old seedlings are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing and filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and formed into a mound. The seedlings are to be planted on these mounds. Irrigation during summer months is beneficial. Application of organic manure after every 6 months is desirable. Weeding is to be carried out one month after transplanting. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Fruits are formed at the end of first year. Fruits when ripen and start to crack are to be collected, dried in sun, then the outer shell is removed and again dried for one day before marketing (Prasad et al,1997).

Properties and activity: Oil contains phorbol myristate acetate (Husain et al, 1992). Seeds contain upto 20% protein and 30-50% lipids. Iso-guanine-D-ribose (crotoniside) and saccharose were isolated from the seeds. In fractionation of croton oil, liquid-liquid distribution procedures proved to be the separation tools of choice. The per hydrogenated parent hydrocarbon of phorbol is a perhydrocyclopropabenzulene called tigliane and phorbol is 1, 1a , 1b , 4, 4a, 7a , 7b, 8, 9, 9a-decahydro-4a , 7 , 9 , 9a - tetrahydroxy-3-(hydroxymethyl)-1, 1, 6, 8 tetramethyl-5-H-cyclopropa[3,4] benz [1.2-e]azulen-5- one. Phorbol, a tetracylic diterpene with a 5, 7, 6 and 3- membered ring has 6 oxygen functions. Phorbol accounts for 3.4% and 4- deoxy- 4 - phorbol for 0.29% of the weight of croton oil. Twenty- five phorbol-12, 13-diesters have been detected (Hecker et al, 1974). A toxin croton 1, mol. wt 72,000 has been isolated from the seeds (Lin et al, 1978).

Phorbol myristate acetate activates nitroblue tetrazolium reduction in human polymorphs. Seed and oil is purgative, rubefacient and anti-dote for snakebite. The seeds and oil are acrid, bitter, thermogenic, emollient, drastic purgative, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, vermifuge, deterent, diaphoretic, expectorant, vesicant, irritant and rubefacient.... purging croton

Aristolochia bracteolata

Aristolochiaceae

San: Kitamari

Hin: Kiramar, Kitamar Mal: Attuthottappala, Atuthinnappala

Tam: Atutinnappalai

Importance: The bracteated birthwort or worm killer is a perennial prostrate herb. As the name suggests it is a killer of intestinal worms especially roundworms. It is also used in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, constipation, inflammations, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, foul ulcers, boils, syphilis, gonorrhoea, dyspepsia, colic, skin diseases, eczema, artheralgia and intermittent fevers. The plant is an insect repellent due to the presence of aristolochic acid, which is poisonous to man and livestock. Plant is also used against scorpion sting. Seeds ground in water to form a lotion and used for softening hair. Powdered root is used in fertility control.

Distribution: The plant is found in Sri Lanka, Arabian countries and tropical Africa. In India, the plant is grown in Deccan and Carnatic Plateau.

Botany: Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. syn. A. bracteata Retz. belongs to the family Aristolochiaceae. It is a perennial prostrate herb with weak, glabrous stems. Leaves are simple, alternate, reniform or broadly ovate, cordate at the base with a wide sinus upto 7.5cm in diameter, reticulately veined. Flowers are solitary with a large sessile orbicular bract at the base. Perianth tube is cylindric with dark purple tip having revolute margins. Fruits are oblong-ellipsoid 12-ribbed glabrous capsules. Seeds are deltoid with slightly cordate base (Warrier et al, 1993) Another important species belonging to the genus Aristolochia is A. indica Linn. The plant grows wild throughout the low hills and plains of India from Nepal to West Bengal and South India. It is a valuable anti-dote to snake bite and to bites of poisonous insects as scorpion, etc. It is given in cases of cholera and diarrhoea after macerating with black pepper corns. The juice of the leaves has stimulant, tonic and antiperiodic properties.

Agrotechnology: Shady areas and well-drained soils are most suited to Aristolochia. The plant can be seed propagated. 3-month-old seedlings raised in polybags are required for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken at a distance of 3m and filled with sand, topsoil and dried cowdung. To these pits, the seedlings are to be transplanted. Regular irrigation and organic manure application is beneficial. The plant is to be trailed on iron wires tied to poles. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Plant attains good spread within one year. Leaves can be collected for the next 10 years. Roots and leaves constitute the economi c parts (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Leaves and fruits yield ceryl alcohol, -sitosterol and aristolochic acid. Root contains aristolochic acid. Seeds give an alkaloid magnoflorine, aristolochic acid, fatty oil comprising palmitic, stearic, lignoseric and oleic acids and -sitosterol.

The plant is anthelmintic, cathartic, antiperiodic and emmenagogue. Leaf is antigonorrhoeic, larvicidal and used in eczema on children’s leg and ulcers. The plant is oxytocic (Husain et al,1992).... worm killer

A genus of Gram negative rods that can cause wound infections, especially in Aquaculture workers. Certain pathotypes can also be the cause of diarrhoea, including Travellers’ Diarrhoea.... aeromonas

Albizia tea is largely-spread worldwide and it provides plenty of health benefits to consumers. It is mainly recommended to patients suffering from ailments afflicting the nerve and brain. Albizia Tea description Albizia is a genus of more than 150 species of trees, occurring in large areas of the world, but mainly in the Old World tropics. It is regarded as an invasive species, growing in dry plains and sandy valleys. The parts considered to have healthy properties are the flowers and the bark. The heads of the Albizia flower are said to have sedative and tonic properties, whereas the bark has proven a stimulant and diuretic action. In ancient traditional Chinese literature, the use of the Albizia herb was related to promoting joy, assuaging sorrow and brightening the eyes. Albizia tea is made from dried blossoms of the abovementioned plant. Albizia Tea brewing To prepare Albizia tea:

• steep the dried blossoms in a 12-gram cup of hot water (5 minutes)
• alternatively, place a teaspoon of dried Albizia herb powder in newly-boiled water and similarly steep for about 5 minutes
• drink the tea slowly

Albizia Tea benefits Albizia tea has proved its efficiencyin:

• fighting insomnia
• improving the mood, uplifting the spirit and fighting depression, melancholy and anxiety
• fighting irritability
• strengthening mental health
• relieving stress
• relieving tightness in the chest

Albizia Tea side effects Albizia tea may interfere with other drugs that one intakes. Before drinking Albizia tea, consumers should consider consulting a licensed health care provider to avoid any possible inconvenience. However, Albizia is not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women, because there is little scientific evidence that it does not harm the baby. Albizia tea is a healthy type of tea, extensively used to treat insomnia and improve the mood, but it is also recommended to consumers willing to strengthen their mental health.... albizia tea fights insomnia

(Lour.) Spach.

Synonym: A. macrorrhiza (Linn.) G. Don

Family: Araceae.

Habitat: A genus of topical Asia, Malayasia and the Pacific. Found wild and cultivated all over India.

English: Giant Taro.

Ayurvedic: Maanaka, Maana, Maankanda, Kasaalu, Hastikarni.

Siddha/Tamil: Merukan kizhangu.

Action: Rootstock—mild laxative, diuretic (in anasarca); used in inflammations and diseases of abdomen and spleen. Leaf—astringent, styptic, antitumour. Root and leaf—rubefacient. Tubers—used as vegetable after eliminating oxalate content.

All parts of the plant, except tubers, contain cyanogenic principle, a mixture of triglochinin and iso- triglochinin. The tubers contain sterols and high concentration of soluble oxa- lates (prolonged use may lead to calcium deficiency and oxaluria.) The tubers contain a trypsin/chymotrypsin inhibitor. The plant contains HCN (0.0027%). It is found to be mitogenic to human peripheral blood lymphocytes.

Dosage: Tuber—5-10 g powder. (CCRAS.)... alocasia indica

A genus of spiders which includes the Australian Funnel Web spiders.... atrax

Blood sucking hemipterans belonging to the genus Cimex. Not important in the transmission of disease but can cause irritating allergic response to their saliva.... bedbugs

The actual amount of existing material within a species or genus.... biomass

Blood-sucking flies belonging to the genus Simulium. Includes the vectors of human Onchocerciasis (River Blindness) in parts of Africa and Latin America.... blackfly

A genus of Gram negative rods including Burkholderia pseudomallei which can cause a severe infection of humans, called melioidosis in tropical regions including Australia and S.E.Asia.... burkholderia

Altough Cibotium tea is not very popular and sometimes hard to find within the United States, it is worth trying, as it has many health benefits. About Cibotium Tea Cibotium is a genus of fern tropical tree - subject to much confusion and revision. There are approximately eleven species distributed in South Eastern Asia, Central America, Hawaii and Mexico. Amoung them, Cibotium barometz is well known and used in Asian medicine as it is belived to be a very powerful tonifying agent for the lungs and kidneys. The fronds of this fern are lacy and have a light green color. The trunk of the fern usually develops orange to brown hairs over time. For their part, the rhizomes or roots have long, soft, golden-yellow hair coverings and these have given it its nicknames such as “golden hair dog” or “yellow dog hair”. The rhizomes are the most used parts in traditional Chinese medicine. The cibotium rhizomes containe tannins, pigments, cibotiumbarosides A and B, as well as cibotiglycerol. Cibotium tea benefits can be felt if you take one cup, 2 to 3 times per day. Cibotium Tea drink For a tasty Cibotium tea you can use 2 to 4 grams of powdered rhizomes and dissolve them in a cup of newly-boiled water. Let them infuse for about 5 minutes and drink. Benefits of Cibotium Tea The following are the cibotium tea benefits attributed to this brew: It is believed to help expel “wind” and moisture and ease weakness. This tea is believed to help strengthen the sinews and the bones of the lower back. Cibotium tea, in combination with other herbs such as cinnamon twigs, is believed to help ease aches, pains and stiffness in the back and in the knees. Cibotium tea may fight chronic rheumatism. It may also be helpful in dizziness, tinnitus and blurred vision caused by yin deficiency in the kidney and liver, according to traditional Chinese medicine. Side effects of Cibotium Tea Generally, there are no known side-effects or drug interactions associated with Cibotium tea. However, patients who are dehydrated, or have a dry mouth, dark yellow/brown urine, or a bitter taste in the mouth should not use this type of tea. As always, consult with a qualified health care provider before taking cibotium or any other dietary supplement.   Cibotium tea is mostly safe for health and if you keep your moderation you can easily enjoy its benefits.... cibotium tea

Asparagus racemosus

Liliaceae

San, Mar, Hin, Mal: Satavari;

Ben: Shatamuli,

Guj: Ekalkanto,

Tel: Pilligadalu, Philithaga

Tam: Ammaikodi, Kilwari,

Kan: Aheruballi, Ori: Manajolo

Importance: Asparagus is a climbing undershrub with widespread applications as diuretic, cooling agent and an excellent safe herbal medicine for ante-natal care. It is useful in nervous disorders, dyspepsia, diarrhoea, tumours, inflammations, vitiated conditions of vata and pitta, burning sensation, hyperdipsia, ophthalmopathy, nephropathy, hepatopathy, strangury, scalding of urine, throat infections, tuberculosis, cough, bronchitis, gleet, gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, leprosy, epilepsy, fatigue, hyperacidity, colic haemorrhoids, hypertension, abortion, agalactia, cardiac and general debility (Warrier et al, 1993).

Shatavari is described in Rigveda and Atharvaveda. In Ayurvedic classics it is prescribed as a cooling agent and uterine tonic. It is the main ingredient in ayurvedic medicines like shatavari gulam and shatavari ghrtam. Besides quenching thirst, its root juice helps in cooling down the body from summer heat, curing hyper-acidity and peptic ulcer. It contains good amount of mucilage which soothes the inner cavity of stomach. It relieves burning sensation while passing urine and is used in urinary tract infections. It contains an anticancer agent asparagin which is useful against leukaemia. It also contains active antioxytocic saponins which have got antispasmodic effect and specific action on uterine musculature. It is very good relaxant to uterine muscles, especially during pregnancy and is used to prevent abortion and pre-term labour on the place of progesterone preparations. Its powder boiled with milk is generally used to prevent abortion. It increases milk production in cows and buffaloes. Its preparations in milk helps in increasing breast milk in lactating women. Its proper use helps in avoiding excessive blood loss during periods. It clears out infections and abnormalities of uterine cavity and hence it is used to rectify infertility in women. The leaves are used to prepare toilet soaps. The plant has also ornamental value both for indoor and out door decorations (Syamala, 1997).

Distribution: The plant is found wild in tropical and subtropical India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is distributed from mean sea level upto 1500m in the Himalayas from Kashmi r eastwards. The crop is cultivated in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Predesh and northern states in India. However, most of the requirement of the industry is met through wild collections from forests. It is also grown in gardens.

Botany: Satavari, Asparagus racemosus Willd. belongs to the lily family, Liliaceae. Asparagus adscendens Roxb., A. filicinus Lam., A. gonoclados Baker, A. officinalis Linn. and A. sarmentosus Willd. are the other important medicinal plant species of the genus. A. racemosus Willd. is an armed climbing undershrub with woody terete stems and recurved or rarely straight spines. The tuberous succulent roots are 30cm to 100cm or more in length, fascicled at the stem base, smooth tapering at both ends. Young stems are very delicate, brittle and smooth. Leaves are reduced to minute chaffy scales and spines; cladodes triquetrous, curved in tufts of 2-6. Flowers are white fragrant in simple or branched recemes on the naked nodes of the main shoots or in the axils of the thorns. Fruits are globular or obscurely 3-lobed, pulpy berries, purplish black when ripe; seeds with hard and brittle testa.

Agrotechnology: The plant comes up well under a wide range of tropical and subtropical climate. Fertile moist sandy loam soils are ideal for its cultivation though it grows in a wide range of soils. Better root development is observed in soils in increased proportion of sand. However, a decline in the yield of the crop is noticed in soils containing previous year’s residue of the roots. Asparagus plant is best grown from its tuberous roots even though it can be successfully propagated through seeds. Since root tubers are of commercial value seed propagation provides economic advantage to the farmers. Seeds usually start germinating after 40 days and average germination is 70% (Tewari and Misra, 1996).

For the cultivation of the crop, the land is ploughed well with pre-monsoon showers and seed nurseries are raised on seed beds of approximately 1m width, 15cm height and suitable length. Seed nursery should be irrigated regularly and kept weed free. With the onset of monsoon in June-July the main field is ploughed thoroughly and pits of size 30cm cube are dug at a spacing of 60-100cm. Tiwari and Misra (1996) have reported that irrespective of more number of roots and higher fresh weight per plant under wider spacings, the per hectare yields were highest in the closer spacing of 30cm x 30cm. The pit is filled with a mixture of top soil and well decomposed FYM or compost applied at 10 - 15 t/ha and the seedlings are transplanted. Application of N, P2O5 and K2O at 60:30:30 kg/ha increases the root yield. Regular irrigation and weeding are required to realize higher yields. Standards are to be provided for training the plant (Sharma et al, 1992). Few pests and diseases are observed on this crop. Harvesting the crop after two years provided higher root yield than annual harvests in pots as well as in field experiments. Irrigating the field prior to harvest enables easy harvesting of the root tubers. The average yield is 10 - 15 t/ha of fresh root tubers though yields over 60t/ha have been reported.

Properties and activity: Asparagus roots contain protein 22%, fat 6.2%, Carbohydrate 3.2%, Vitamin B 0.36%, Vitamin C 0.04% and traces of Vitamin A. It contains several alkaloids. Alcoholic extract yields asparagin- an anticancer agent. It also contains a number of antioxytocic saponins, viz. Shatavarisn - I to IV (Syamala, 1997). Leaves contain rutin, diosgenin and a flavonoid glycoside identified as quercetin - 3 - glucuronide. Flowers contain quercetin hyperoside and rutin. Fruits contain glycosides of quercetin, rutin and hyperoside while fully ripe fruits contain cyanidin - 3 - galactoside and cyanidin - 3 - glucorhamnoside.

Root is demulcent, diuretic, aphrodisiac, tonic, alterative, antiseptic, antidiarrhoeal, glalctogogue and antispasmodic. Aerial part is spasmolytic, antiarrhythmic and anticancer. Bark is antibacterial and antifungal.... asparagus

A genus of nematode which includes Capillaria hepatica and C. philippinensis both of which can infect humans.... capillaria

A genus of aerobic and anaerobic gram-positive (see GRAM’S STAIN) bacteria, widely distributed and best known as parasites and pathogens in humans. C. diphtheria, a prime example, causes diphtheria.... corynebacteria

Bauhinia variegata

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Kancanarah, Kovidarah;

Hin: Kancanar;

Ben: Rakta Kanchan;

Tam: Sigappu-mandarai

Mal: Mandaram, Chuvannamandaram, Malayakatti, Kongu, Kongumandaram;

Tel: Daeva Kanchanamu, Mandara;

Kan: Ullipe, Kanchavala, Kempu Mandara

Importance: In traditional medicine, Bauhinia is extensively used in glandular diseases and as an antidote to poison. The drug is also reported to be useful in dysentery, diarrhoea, piles and worms (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma et al, 1983). They are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, diarrhoea, dysentery, skin diseases, leprosy, intestinal worms, tumours, wounds, ulcers, inflammations, scrofula, protoptosis, haemorrhoids, haemoptysis, cough, menorrhagia and diabetics. Usirasavam and Candanasavam are some of the preparations using the drug. An important Ayurvedic preparation, “Kanchnar Guggal” contains bark of this plant. In Unani system, the flowers are used in “Hab Mussafi Khun”, for skin diseases, the bark is used in “Sufuf Kalan”-an aphrodisiac.

Distribution: The plant is distributed in the Sub-Himalayan tracts from the Indus eastwards and throughout the dry forests of India, ascending to 1300m. It is also cultivated throughout the plains.

Botany: Bauhinia variegata Linn. syn. B.

candida Roxb. belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae is a moderate sized deciduous tree with vertically cracked grey bark, wood moderately hard, greyish brown with irregular darker patches. Leaves are of 2 leaflets, connate for about two-thirds up. Leaflets are ovate with rounded apex, 10-15cm long, pubescent beneath when young and coriaceous. Flowers are white or pink, the uppermost petal darker and variegated usually appearing before the leaves in short axillary or terminal racemes. Stamens are 5 and stamenodes absent. Fruits are flat dehiscent pods with 10-15 seeds (Warrier et al, 1993).

Other important species of the genus Bauhinia are as follows.

1. B. tomentosa Linn.

It is the yellow or golden flowered one, commonly known as Manja Mandaram. It is found in Africa and Asia. In India it is found wild in dry deciduous forests and often cultivated. The plant is antidysenteric, antidote for snakebite and scorpion sting and also used in liver complaints. The bark is astringent. Root bark is vermifuge. Fruit is diuretic. Seed is tonic, wound healing and aphrodisiac.

2. B. purpurea Linn.

Pink Bauhinia or Camel’s Foot tree is found in South and S. E. Asia. In India, it is found in deciduous forests. Root is carminative and tonic. Bark is astringent and antidiarrhoeal and is used in ulcer and goitre. Flowers are laxative. The experimental studies conducted by Sijoria and Prasad (1979) on animals indicate that B. purpurea is very effective in normalising the thyroid gland.

3. B. racemosa Lam.

The plant is found in Sub-Himalayan tracts, in U.P, West Bengal, Central and South India. The leaf is anticephalalgic and antimalarial. Bark is astringent, antidiarrhoeal. The seeds are antibacterial. Stem-bark is CVS and CNS active, hypothermic and anticancerous.

4. B. malabarica Roxb.

Malabar Mountain Ebony is found in Sub-Himalayan tracts, from Kumaon to West Bengal, ascending to 1350m, Assam, Bihar and South India. The flowers of this plant are antidysenteric.

5. B. retusa Roxb.

The plant is distributed in north-western Himalayas from the Beas eastwards, Himachal Pradesh, U.P., Orissa, M.P. and A.P. The gum of the plant is emmenagogue, diuretic and can be used externally in sores. The seed is hypoglycaemic and hypocholesterolaemic. The aerial part is CVS active and has effect on respiration.

6. B. vahlii W.&A.

Camel’s Foot climber is found in Punjab, Bihar, Assam, Madhy Pradesh, Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Leaf is demulcent. Seed is tonic and aphrodisiac. Stem is CVS active, antiarrhythmic and spasmolytic.

Agrotechnology: Well drained hilly areas are ideal for the cultivation of Bauhinia. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are formed in February-March. Seeds are to be collected from the dried pods, soaked in water for 12 hours before sowing in seedbeds. At four-leaved stage they are to be transferred to polybags. Two month old seedlings from polybags are used for field planting. Pits of size 60cm cube are to be taken and filled with 10kg dried cowdung mixed with topsoil and formed into a mound. On these seedlings are to be planted at a distance of 6-7.5m. Irrigation is to be given in the first year. Two weedings and application of organic manure once is required in a year. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests and diseases. The plant flowers on the third year. At the end of tenth year the tree can be cut and wood used for medicinal purposes (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Flowers contain flavanoids-kaempferol-3-galactoside and kaempferol-3- rhamnoglucoside. Stem bark yields hentriacontane, octacosanol and stigmasterol. Stem yields -sitisterol, lupiol and a flavanone glycoside-5, 7-dimethoxy flavanone 4-O- -L- rhamnopyranoside- -D-glucopyranoside. Seeds possess human blood agglutinating activity. Stem bark is hypothermic, CNS active and depressant. Bud, flower, leaf and stembark are antibacterial. Stem possesses juvenoid activity. Bark is alterative, tonic, antileprotic and antirheumatic. Bud is antidysenteric. Root is carminative and antidote for snakebite. Bark, flower and root promote suppuration. Bark and bud are astringent and vermifuge (Husain et al, 1992).... bauhinia

Cucurbitaceae

The family Cucurbitaceae includes a large group of plants which are medicinally valuable. The important genera belonging to the family are Trichosanthes, Lagenaria, Luffa, Benincasa, Momordica, Cucumis, Citrullus, Cucurbita, Bryonopsis and Corallocarpus. The medicinally valuable species of these genera are discussed below.

1. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.

Eng: Wild Snake-gourd; San: Meki,Pargavi, Parvara, Patola;

Hin: Palval, Parvar

Ben: Potol;

Mal: Kattupatavalam, Patolam;

Tam: Kombuppudalai;

Tel: Kommupotta

Wild snake-gourd is a slender-stemmed, extensively climbing, more or less scabrous and woolly herb found throughout the plains of N. India, extending to Assam and W. Bengal. Tendrils are 2-4 fid. Leaves are 7.5x5cm in size, ovate-oblong, cordate, acute, sinuate- dentate, not lobed, rigid, rough on both surface and with a petiole of 2cm. Flowers are unisexual. Male flowers are not racemed but woolly outside. Calyx tube is 4.5cm long, narrow, teeth linear and erect. Anthers are free. Fruit is 5.9cm long, oblong or nearly spherical, acute, smooth and orange-red when ripe. Seeds are half-ellipsoid, compressed and corrugated on the margin (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The unripe fruit of this is generally used as a culinary vegetable and is considered very wholesome and specially suited for the convalescent. The tender shoots are given in decoction with sugar to assist digestion. The seeds are useful for disorders of the stomach. The leaf juice is rubbed over the chest in liver congestion and over the whole body in intermittent fevers (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruit is used as a remedy for spermatorrhoea. The fresh juice of the unripe fruit is often used as a cooling and laxative adjunct to some alterative medicines. In bilious fever, a decoction of patola leaves and coriander in equal parts is given. The fruit in combination with other drugs is prescribed in snakebite and scorpion sting (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988).

Fruits contain free amino acids and 5-hydroxy tryptamine. Fatty acids from seeds comprise elaeostearic, linoelic, oleic and saturated acids. The aerial part is hypoglycaemic. Leaf and root is febrifuge. Root is hydragogue, cathartic and tonic. Unripe leaf and fruit is laxative (Husain et al, 1992). The plant is alterative and tonic. Leaves are anthelmintic. Flower is tonic and aphrodisiac. The ripe fruit is sour to sweet, tonic, aphrodisiac, expectorant and removes blood impurities.

The other important species belonging to the genus Trichosanthes are as follows.

T. palmata Roxb. T. cordata Roxb. T. nervifolia Linn.

T. cucumerina Linn.

T. anguina Linn.

T. wallichiana Wight. syn. T. multiloba Clarke

2. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. syn. Cucurbita Lagenaria Linn. ; Roxb.

Eng: Bottle gourd San: Alabu Hin: Lauki, Jangli-khaddu

Ben: Lau, Kodu

Mal: Katuchuram, Churakka

Tam: Soriai-kay

Tel: Surakkaya

Bottle gourd is a large softly pubescent climbing or trailing herb which is said to be indigenous in India, the Molucas and in Abyssinia. It has stout 5-angled stems with bifid tendrils. Leaves are ovate or orbiculate, cordate, dentate, 5-angular or 5-lobed, hairy on both surfaces. Flowers are large, white, solitary, unisexual or bisexual, the males long and females short peduncled. Ovary is oblong, softly pubescent with short style and many ovules. Fruits are large, usually bottle or dumb-bell-shaped, indehiscent and polymorphous. Seeds are many, white, horizontal, compressed, with a marginal groove and smooth. There are sweet fruited and bitter-fruited varieties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit contains a thick white pulp which, in the cultivated variety (kodu) is sweet and edible, while in the smaller wild variety (tamri) it is bitter and a powerful purgative. The seeds yield clear limpid oil which is cooling and is applied to relieve headache. The pulp of the cultivated forms is employed as and adjunct to purgatives and considered cool, diuretic and antibilious, useful in cough, and as an antidote to certain poisons. Externally it is applied as a poultice. The leaves are purgative and recommended to be taken in the form of decoction for jaundice (Nadkarni, 1998). In the case of sweet-fruited variety, the stem is laxative and sweet. The fruit is sweet oleagenous, cardiotonic, general tonic, aphrodisiac, laxative and cooling. In the case of bitter-fruited variety, the leaves are diuretic, antibilious; useful in leucorrhoea, vaginal and uterine complaints and earache. The fruit is bitter, hot, pungent, emetic, cooling, cardiotonic, antibilious; cures asthma, vata, bronchitis, inflammations ulcers and pains.

3. Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb.

Eng: Ridged gourd; San: Dharmargavah, Svadukosataki;

Hin: Tori, Katitori;

Ben: Ghosha

Mal: Peechil, Peechinga;

Tam: Pikangai, Prikkangai;

Tel: Birakaya;

Kan: Kadupadagila

Ridged gourd or ribbed gourd is a large monoecious climber cultivated throughout India. It is with 5-angled glabrous stems and trifid tendrils. Leaves are orbicular-cordate, palmately 5-7 lobed, scabrous on both sides with prominent veins and veinlets. Flowers are yellow, males arranged in 12-20 flowered axillary racemes. Female flowers are solitary, arranged in the axils of the males. Ovary is strongly ribbed. Fruits are oblong-clavate with 10-sharp angles 15-30cm long, tapering towards the base. Seeds are black, ovoid-oblong, much compressed and not winged (Warrier et al, 1995). The leaves are used in haemorrhoids, leprosy, granular-conjunctivitis and ringworm. The seeds are useful in dermatopathy. The juice of the fresh leaves is dropped into the eyes of children in granular conjunctivitis, also to prevent the lids from adhering at night on account of excessive meihomian secretion (Nadkarni, 1998). Fruits are demulcent, diuretic, tonic, expectorant, laxative and nutritive. The seeds are bitter, emetic, cathartic, expectorant and purgative.

The other important species of the genus Luffa are:

L. aegyptiaca Mill.

L. acutangula var. amara Clarke

L. echinata Roxb.

4. Benincasa hispida (Thumb.) Cogn. syn. B. cerifera Savi.

Eng: Ash gourd, White gourd melon; San: Kusmandah;

Hin: Petha, Raksa;

Ben: Kumra

Mal: Kumpalam;

Tam: Pusanikkai;

Kan: Bile Kumbala;

Tel: Bodigummadi

Ash gourd or White gourd melon is a large trailing gourd climbing by means of tendrils which is widely cultivated in tropical Asia. Leaves are large and hispid beneath. Flowers are yellow, unisexual with male peduncle 7.5-10cm long and female peduncle shorter. Fruits are broadly cylindric, 30-45cm long, hairy throughout and ultimately covered with a waxy bloom. The fruits are useful in asthma, cough, diabetes, haemoptysis, hemorrhages from internal organs, epilepsy, fever and vitiated conditions of pitta. The seeds are useful in dry cough, fever, urethrorrhea, syphilis, hyperdipsia and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al,1993). It is a rejuvenative drug capable of improving intellect and physical strength. In Ayurveda, the fresh juice of the fruit is administered as a specific in haemoptysis and other haemorrhages from internal organs. The fruit is useful in insanity, epilepsy and other nervous diseases, burning sensation, diabetes, piles and dyspepsia. It is a good antidote for many kinds of vegetable, mercurial and alcoholic poisoning. It is also administered in cough, asthma or respiratory diseases, heart diseases and catarrah. Seeds are useful in expelling tapeworms and curing difficult urination and bladder stones. The important formulations using the drug are Kusmandarasayana, Himasagarataila, Dhatryadighrita, Vastyamantakaghrita, Mahaukusmandakaghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Fruits contain lupeol, -sitosterol, n-triacontanol, vitamin B, mannitol and amino acids. The fruit is alterative, laxative, diuretic, tonic, aphrodisiac and antiperiodic. Seed and oil from seed is anthelmintic (Husain et al, 1992).

5. Momordica charantia Linn.

Eng: Bitter gourd, Carilla fruit San: Karavellam

Hin: Karela, Kareli

Mal: Kaypa, Paval

Tam: Pavakkai, Paval, Pakar

Tel: Kakara

Bitter gourd or Carilla fruit is a branched climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India. It is a monoecious plant with angled and grooved stems and hairy or villous young parts. Tendrils are simple, slender and elongate. Leaves are simple, orbicular, cordate and deeply divided into 5-7 lobes. Flowers are unisexual, yellow and arranged on 5-10cm long peduncles. Fruits are 5-15cm long with 3-valved capsules, pendulous, fusiform, ribbed and beaked bearing numerous triangular tubercles. Seeds are many or few with shining sculptured surface. The roots are useful in coloptosis and ophthalmopathy. The leaves are useful in vitiated conditions of pita, helminthiasis, constipation, intermittent fever, burning sensation of the sole and nyctalopia. The fruits are useful in skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers, wounds, burning sensation, constipation, anorexia, flatulence, colic, helminthiasis, rheumatalgia, gout, diabetes, asthma, cough, dysmenorrhoea, impurity of breast milk, fever and debility. Seeds are useful in the treatment of ulcers, pharyngodynia, and obstructions of the liver and spleen. The leaves and fruits are used for external application in lumbago, ulceration and bone fractures and internally in leprosy, haemorrhoids and jaundice (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug improves digestion, calms down sexual urge, quells diseases due to pitta and kapha and cures anaemia, anorexia, leprosy, ulcers, jaundice, flatulence and piles. Fruit is useful in gout, rheumatism and complaints of liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1966; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). Kaccoradi taila is an important preparation using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

The seeds give triterpene glycosides, named momordicosides A, B, C, D and E, which are glycosides of cucurbit-5-en-triol, tetraol or pentaol. Leaves and vines give tetracyclic triterpenes-momordicines I, II and III (bitter principles). Immature fruits give several non-bitter and 2 bitter cucurbitacin glycosides. Four of the non-bitter glycosides, momordicosides F1, F2, G and I and the bitter momordicosides; K and L have also been characterized. Fruits, seeds and tissue culture give a polypeptide which contained 17 types of amino acids and showed hypoglycaemic activity. Fruits also give 5-hydroxy tryptamine and a neutral compound charantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin, cholesterol, lanosterol and -sitosterol. Leaf is emetic, purgative and antibilious. Fruit is stomachic, tonic, carminative, febrifuge, antirheumatic and hypoglycaemic. Root is astringent. Fruit and leaf is anti-leprotic. Fruit, leaf and root are abortifacient and anti-diabetic. Leaf and seed is anthelmintic. Seed oil possesses antifeeding and insecticidal properties. Unsaponifiable matter from seed oil exhibited pronounced inhibitory activity against gram negative bacteria. Seed and fruit are hypoglycaemic, cytotoxic and anti-feedant (Husain et al, 1992).

Other important species belonging to the genus Momordica are as follows.

M. dioica Roxb.

M. cochinchinensis Spreng.

M. tuberosa Cogn.

M. balsamina Linn.

6. Cucumis melo Linn. syn. C. melo Linn. var. cultis Kurz., C. pubescens

Willd., C. callosus (Rottl.) Cogn.

Eng: Sweet melon San,

Hin: Kharbuja

Ben: Kharmul

Mal: Mulam

Tam: Chukkari-kai, Thumatti-kai, Mulampazham

Tel: Kharbuja-doshavSweet melon is a creeping annual extensively cultivated throughout India, found wild in India, Baluchistan and tropical Africa. The stem is creeping, angular and scabrous. Leaves are orbicular-reniform in outline, 5-angled or lobed, scabrous on both surfaces and often with soft hairs. Lobes of leaves are not very deep nor acute and with 5cm long petiole. Female peduncle is 5cm. Fruit is spherical, ovoid, elongate or contorted, glabrous or somewhat hairy, not spinous nor tuberculate.

Cucumis melo includes two varieties, namely,

C. melo var. momordica syn. C. momordica Roxb.

C. melo var. utilissimus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. utilissimus Roxb.

The fruit is eaten raw and cooked. Its pulp forms a nutritive, demulcent, diuretic and cooling drink. It is beneficial as a lotion in chronic and acute eczema as well as tan and freckles and internally in cases of dyspepsia. Pulp mixed with cumin seeds and sugar candy is a cool diet in hot season. Seeds yield sweet edible oil which is nutritive and diuretic, useful in painful discharge and suppression of urine. The whole fruit is useful in chronic eczema (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

Seeds contain fatty acids-myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic; asparagine, glutamine, citrulline, lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine, valine, tyrosine, leucine, iso-leucine, methionine, proline, threonine, tryptophan and crystine. Seed is tonic, lachrymatory, diuretic and urease inhibitor. Fruit pulp is eczemic. Fruit is tonic, laxative, galactagogue, diuretic and diaphoretic. The rind is vulnerary (Husain et al, 1992).

7. Cucumic sativus Linn.

Eng: Cucumber, Common cucumber; San: Trapusah;

Hin,

Ben: Khira;

Mal: Vellari

Tam: Vellarikkai, Pippinkai;

Kan: Mullusavte;

Tel: Dosekaya

Cucumber is a climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India, found wild in the Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim. It is a hispidly hairy trailing or climbing annual. Leaves are simple, alternate, deeply cordate, 3-5 lobed with both surfaces hairy and denticulate margins. Flowers are yellow, males clustered, bearing cohering anthers, connective crusted or elevated above the cells. Females are solitary and thickly covered with very bulbous based hairs. Fruits are cylindrical pepo of varying sizes and forms. Seeds are cream or white with hard and smooth testa. The fruits are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, thermoplegia, fever, insomnia, cephalgia, bronchitis, jaundice, haemorrhages, strangury and general debility. The seeds are useful in burning sensation, pitta, constipation, intermittent fevers, strangury, renal calculus, urodynia and general debility (Warrier et al, 1994). The leaves boiled and mixed with cumin seeds, roasted, powdered and administered in throat affections. Powdered and mixed with sugar, they are powerful diuretic (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruits and seeds are sweet, refrigerant, haemostatic, diuretic and tonic. Other important species belonging to the genus are:

C. trigonus Roxb. syn. C. pseudo-colocynthis

C. prophetarum Linn.

8. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader. syn. Cucumis colocynthis Linn.

Eng: Colocynth, Bitter apple; San: Visala, Mahendravaruni;

Hin: Badi indrayan, Makkal

Ben: Makhal;

Mal: Kattuvellari (Valutu), Valiya pekkummatti;

Tel: Etti-puchcha

Tam: Paitummatti, Petummatti;

Colocynth or Bitter apple is found, cultivated and wild, throughout India in warmer areas. It is an extensively trailing annual herb with bifid tendrils angular branching stems and wooly tender shoots. Leaves are deeply divided, lobes narrow thick, glabrous or somewhat hairy. Flowers are unisexual, yellow, both males and females solitary and with pale-yellow corolla. Fruit is a globose or oblong fleshy indehiscent berry, 5-7.5cm in diameter and variegated with green and white. Seeds are pale brown. The fruits are useful in tumours, ascites, leucoderma, ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, urethrorrhea, jaundice, dyspepsia, constipations, elephantiasis, tubercular glands of the neck and splenomegaly (Warrier et al, 1994). It is useful in abnormal presentations of the foetus and in atrophy of the foetus. In addition to the above properties, the root has a beneficial action in inflammation of the breasts, pain in the joints; externally it is used in ophthalmia and in uterine pains. The fruit and root, with or without is rubbed into a paste with water and applied to boils and pimples. In rheumatism, equal parts of the root and long pepper are given in pill. A paste of the root is applied to the enlarged abdomen of children (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit is useful in ascites, biliousness, jaundice, cerebral congestion, colic, constipation dropsy, fever, worms and sciatica. Root is given in cases of abdominal enlargement, cough, asthma, inflammation of the breast, ulcers, urinary diseases and rheumatism. Oil from seeds is used for poisonous bites, bowel complaints, epilepsy and also for blackening the hair (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980). The important formulations using the root and fruit are Abhayarista, Mahatiktakam kasaya, Manasamitravatakam, Cavikasava, Madhuyastyadi taila, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The powder is often used as an insecticide. The extract should never be given without some aromatic to correct its griping tendency (Nadkarni, 1998).

Fruit contains a glycoside- colocynthin, its aglycone- -elaterin, citrulluin, citrullene and citrullic acid. Unripe fruit contains p-hydroxy benzyl methyl ester. Roots contain - elaterin and hentriacontane (Husain et al, 1992). Colocynth is, in moderate doses, drastic, hydrogogue, cathartic and diuretic. In large doses, it is emetic and gastro-intestinal irritant and in small doses, it is expectorant and alterative. Colocynthin is a cathartic and intensely bitter principle. It has a purgative action. All parts of the plant are very bitter. The fruit has been described as cathartic (Nadkarni, 1982).

9. Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. syn. C. lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai.

Eng: Water melon; San: Tarambuja;

Hin: Tarbuj;

Ben: Tarbuz

Mal: Thannimathan;

Tam: Pitcha, Dharbusini

Watermelon is an extensively climbing annual which is largely cultivated throughout India and in all warm countries. It has thick angular branching stems. Tendrils are bifid, stout and pubescent. Leaves are long, deeply divided or moderately lobed, glabrous or somewhat hairy and hardly scabrous. Petiole is a little shorter than the limb and villous. Calyx-lobes are narrowly lanceolate, equalling the tube. Corolla is yellow within, greenish outside and villous. Lobes are ovate-oblong, obtuse and prominently 5-nerved. Fruit is sub-globose or ellipsoid, smooth, greenish or clouded, often with a glaucous waxy coating. Flesh is juicy, red or yellowish white. Seeds are usually margined. C. vulgaris var. fistulosus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. fistulosus has its fruit about the size of small turnip, the seeds of which are used medicinally. The fruit is tasteless when unripe and sweet when ripe. The unripe fruit is used to cure jaundice. Ripe fruit cures kapha and vata and causes biliousness. It is good for sore eyes, scabies and itching. The seeds are tonic to the brain and used as a cooling medicine. An emulsion of the seeds is made into a poultice with the pounded leaves and applied hot in cases of intestinal inflammations (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Fruit juice is good in quenching thirst and it is used as an antiseptic in typhus fever with cumin and sugar. It is used as a cooling drink in strangury and affections of urinary organs such as gonorrhoea; in hepatic congestion and intestinal catarrh. The bitter watermelon of Sind is known as “Kirbut” and is used as a purgative.

Seeds yield a fixed oil and proteids; citrullin. Seeds are cooling, demulcent, diuretic, vermifuge and nutritive. Pulp is cooling and diuretic. Fruit-juice is cooling and refreshing (Nadkarni, 1982).

10. Curcurbita pepo Linn. syn. Pepo vulgaris et P. verrucosus Moench

Meth.

Eng: Pompion, Pumpkin, Vegetable Marrow; San: Karkaru, Kurkaru, Kushmandi

Hin,

Ben: Kadimah, Konda, Kumra, Safedkkadu;

Mal: Mathan, Matha

Tel: Budadegummadi, Pottigummadi

Pompion or Pumpkin is a climbing herb which is considered to be a native of America and cultivated in many parts of India. The stem and leaves are with a harsh prickly armature. Foliage is stiff, more or less rigid and erect. Leaves are with a broad triangular pointed outline and often with deep lobes. Corolla is mostly with erect or spreading (not drooping) pointed lobes, the tube narrowing towards the base. Peduncle is strongly 5-angled and little or much expanding near the fruit. The fruit is cooling and astringent to the bowels, increases appetite, cures leprosy, ‘kapha and vata’, thirst, fatigue and purifies the blood. The leaves are used to remove biliousness. Fruit is good for teeth, throat and eyes and allays thirst. Seeds cure sore chests, haemoptysis, bronchitis and fever. It is good for the kidney and brain. The leaves are used as an external application for burns. The seeds are considered anthelmintic. The seeds are largely used for flavouring certain preparations of Indian hemp, and the root for a nefarious purpose, viz., to make the preparation more potent. The seeds are taeniacide, diuretic and demulcent. The fruit is cooling, laxative and astringent. The leaves are digestible, haematinic and analgesic.

The other important species belonging to the genus Cucurbita is C. maxima Duchena, the seeds of which are a popular remedy for tape-worm and oil as a nervine tonic (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

11. Corallocarpus epigaeus Benth. ex Hook. f. syn. Bryonia epigaea Wight.

San: Katunahi;

Hin: Akasgaddah;

Mal: Kadamba, Kollankova

Tam: Akashagarudan, Gollankovai;

Tel: Murudonda, Nagadonda

Corallocarpus is a prostrate or climbing herb distributed in Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Deccan, Karnataka and Sri Lanka. It is monoecious with large root which is turnip-shaped and slender stem which is grooved, zigzag and glabrous. Tendrils are simple, slender and glabrous. Leaves are sub-orbicular in outline, light green above and pale beneath, deeply cordate at the base, angled or more or less deeply 3-5 lobed. Petiole is long and glabrous. Male flowers are small and arranged at the tip of a straight stiff glabrous peduncle. Calyx is slightly hairy, long and rounded at the base. Corolla is long and greenish yellow. Female flowers are usually solitary with short, stout and glabrous peduncles. Fruit is stalked, long, ellipsoid or ovoid. Seeds are pyriform, turgid, brown and with a whitish corded margin. It is prescribed in later stages of dysentery and old veneral complaints. For external use in chronic rheumatism, it is made into a liniment with cumin seed, onion and castor oil. It is used in case of snakebite where it is administered internally and applied to the bitten part. The root is given in syphilitic rheumatism and later stages of dysentery. The plant is bitter, sweet, alexipharmic and emetic. The root is said to possess alterative and laxative properties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Root contains a bitter principle like Breyonin (Chopra et al, 1980).

Agrotechnology: Cucurbits can be successfully grown during January-March and September- December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers.

Pits of 60cm diameter and 30-45cm depth are to be taken at the desired spacing. Well rotten FYM or vegetable mixture is to be mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are to be sown at 4-5/pit. Unhealthy plants are to be removed after 2 weeks and retained 2-3 plants/pit. FYM is to be applied at 20-25t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35kg/ha) and full dose of P (25kg) and K (25kg). The remaining dose of N (35kg) can be applied in 2 equal split doses at fortnightly intervals. During the initial stages of growth, irrigation is to be given at an interval of 3-4 days and at alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods. For trailing cucumber, pumpkin and melon, dried twigs are to be spread on the ground. Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and ash gourd are to be trailed on Pandals. Weeding and raking of the soil are to be conducted at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season. The most dreaded pest of cucurbits is fruit flies which can be controlled by using fruit traps, covering the fruits with polythene, cloth or paper bags, removal and destruction of affected fruits and lastly spraying with Carbaryl or Malathion 0. 2% suspension containing sugar or jaggery at 10g/l at fortnightly intervals after fruit set initiation. During rainy season, downy mildew and mosaic diseases are severe in cucurbits. The former can be checked by spraying Mancozeb 0.2%. The spread of mosaic can be checked by controlling the vectors using Dimethoate or Phosphamidon 0.05% and destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts. Harvesting to be done at least 10 days after insecticide or fungicide application (KAU,1996).... cucurbits

Curcuma spp.

Zingiberaceae

The genus Curcuma belonging to the family Zingiberaceae comprises of a number of species which are medicinally very important. Among them, the most important species are described below.

1. C. amada Roxb.

English: Mango ginger San: Amrardrakam, Karpuraharida Hin: Ama -haldi

Mal: Mangainchi

Tam: Mankayinci

Tel: Mamidi Allam

Mango ginger is cultivated in Gujarat and found wild in parts of West Bengal, U. P, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is a rhizomatous aromatic herb with a leafy tuft and 60-90cm in height. Leaves are long, petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, tapering at both ends, glabrous and green on both sides. Flowers are white or pale yellow, arranged in spikes in the centre of tuft of the leaves. Lip is semi -elliptic, yellow, 3-lobbed with the mid lobe emarginate. The rhizomes are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, bruises, wounds, chronic ulcers, skin diseases, pruritus, fever, constipations, strangury, hiccough, cough, bronchitis, sprains, gout, halitosis, otalgia and inflammations (Warrier et al, 1994). The fresh root possesses the smell of green mango and hence the name mango ginger. The rhizomes are used externally in the form of paste as an application for bruises and skin diseases generally combined with other medicines. Tubers rubbed with the leaf- juice of Caesalpinia bonduc is given for worms (Nadkarni, 1982).

The essential oil contains -pinene, -and -curcumene, camphor, cuminyl alcohol, myristic acid and turmerone. Car-3-ene and cis-ocimene contribute the characteristic mango odour of the rhizome. Rhizome is CNS active, hypothermic and it shows potentiation of amphetamine toxicity. Tuber is trypsin inhibitor and is effective against Vibrio cholerae (Husain et al, 1992). The rhizomes are bitter, sweet sour, aromatic, cooling, appetiser, carminative, digestive, stomachic, demulcent, vulnerary, febrifuge, alexertic, aphrodisiac, laxative, diurectic, expectorant, antiinflammatory and antipyretic (Warrier et al, 1994).

2. C. aromatica Salisb.

Eng: Wild turmeric; San: Aranyaharidra, Vanaharidra;

Hin: Ban-haridra, Jangli-haldi;

Ben: Ban Haland; Mal,

Tam: Kasturimanjal, Kattumanjal;

Tel: Adavi-pasupu;

Kan: Kadarasina

Wild turmeric or Cochin turmeric or Yellow zeodoary is found wild throughout India and cultivated in Bengal and Kerala. It is a perennial tuberous herb with annulate, aromatic yellow rhizome which is internally orange-red in colour. Leaves are elliptic or lanceolate- oblong, caudate-acuminate, 30-60cm long, petioles as long or even longer, bracts ovate, recurved, more or less tinged with red or pink. Flowers are pink, lip yellow, obovate, deflexed, sub-entire or obscurely three lobed. Fruits are dehiscent, globose, 3-valved capsules. Rhizomes are used in combination with astringents and aromatics for bruises, sprains, hiccough, bronchitis, cough, leucoderma and skin eruptions (Warrier et al, 1994). The rhizomes have an agreeable fragrant smell and yield a yellow colouring matter like turmeric, and the fresh root has a camphoraceous odour. The dried rhizome is used as a carminative and aromatic adjunctant to other medicines (Nadkarni, 1998).

Essential oil contains -and - -curcumene, d-camphene and p-methoxy cinnamic acid. The colouring matter is curcumin. Numerous sesquiterpenoids of germacrone and guaiane skeletons have been identified recently. Rhizome has effect on respiration. It is spasmolytic and shows antagonism of amphetamine hyperactivity. Rhizome is an anti-dote for snakebite and carminative (Husain et al, 1992).

3. C. longa Linn. syn. C. domestica Valeton.

Eng: Turmeric; San: Haridra, Varavarnini;

Hin: Haldi, halda;

Ben: Haldi;

Mal: Manjal, Pachamanjal, Varattumanjal;

Tam: Mancal;

Kan: Haldi, Arasina;

Tel: Pasapu

Turmeric is cultivated all over India, particularly in W. Bengal, T. N and Maharashtra. It is a perennial herb, 60-90cm in height, with a short stem and tufts of erect leaves. Rhizome is cylindric, ovoid, orange coloured and branched. Leaves are simple, very large, petiole as long as the blade, oblong-lanceolate, tapering to the base upto 45cm long. Flowers are pale yellow, arranged in spikes concealed by the sheathing petioles and flowering bracts are pale green (Warrier et al, 1994). Turmeric occupies an important position in the life of Indian people as it forms an integral part of the rituals, ceremonies and cuisine. Due to the strong antiseptic properties, turmeric has been used as a remedy for all kinds of poisonous affections, ulcers and wounds. It gives good complexion to the skin and so it is applied to face as a depilatory and facial tonic. The drug cures diseases due to morbid vata, pitta and kapha, diabetes, eye diseases, ulcers, oedema, anaemia, anorexia, leprosy and scrofula. It purifies blood by destroying the pathogenic organisms. A paste of turmeric alone, or combined with a paste of neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves, is used to cure ringworm, obstinate itching, eczema and other parasitic skin diseases and in chicken pox and small pox. The drug is also useful in cold, cough, bronchitis, conjunctivitis and liver affections (Nadkarni, 1954; Kurup et al,1979; Kolammal, 1979). The rhizome is the officinal part and is an important ingredient of formulations like Nalpamaradi taila, Jatyadi taila, Narayana gula, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Turmeric paste mixed with a little limejuice and saltpetre and applied hot is a popular application to sprains and bruises. In smallpox and chickenpox, a coating of turmeric is applied to facilitate the process of scabbing. The smoke produced by sprinkling powdered turmeric over burnt charcoal will relieve scorpion sting when the part affected is exposed to the smoke for a few minutes. Turmeric and alum powder in the proportion of 1:20 is blown into the ear in chronic otorrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). “Haridra Khand”, a compound containing powdered turmeric, sugar and many other ingredients is a well-known preparation for cold, cough and flu, and for skin diseases. In Unani system, roasted turmeric is an ingredient of “Hab Narkachur”, used as antidysenteric for children (Thakur et al, 1989).

Essential oil contains ar-turmerone, and ar-curcumene as ma jor constituents. Some of the other compounds are -and -pinene, sabinene, myrcene, -terpinene, limonene, p- cymene, perillyl alcohol, turmerone, eugenol, iso-eugenol, eugenol methyl ether and iso- eugenol methyl ether. Curcumin and related compounds have also been reported as major constituents of the rhizomes. Recently a number of sesquiterpenes have been reported from C. longa, viz., the sesquiterpenoids of germacrane, bisabolane and guainane skeletons (Husain et al, 1992). The study of sesquiterpenes has revealed a new compound curlone (Kisoy et al, 1983). The crystalline colouring matter curcumin (0. 6%) is diferuloyl methane (Mathews et al, 1980). Stigmasterol, cholestrol, -sitosterol and fatty acids, mainly straight chain dienoic acids are reported (Moon et al, 1977). Curcumin, the colouring agent and major constituent of C. longa, is said to possess local as well as systemic antiinflammatory property which has been found to compare favourably with phenylbutazone (Srimal and Dhawan, 1973). An extract of the crude drug ‘akon’ containing the rhizomes exhibited intensive preventive activity against carbon tetrachloride induced liver injury invivo and invitro. The liver protecting effects of some analogs of ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid, probable metabolites of the curcuminoids have been also evaluated (Kiso et al, 1983). Curcumin is antiinflammatory. Rhizome is antiprotozoal, spasmolytic, CNS active, antiparasitic, antispasmodic, antibacterial, antiarthritic, anthelmintic, carminative, antiperiodic, emo llient, anodyne, laxative, diruretic, expectorant, alterative, alexertive, febrifuge, opthalmic and tonic.

4. C. zedoaria (Berg.) Rosc. syn. C. zerumbet Roxb; Amomum zedoaria

Christm.vEng: Round zedoary; San: Kachura, Shati;

Hin: Kakhur;

Ben: Sati;

Kan: Kachora

Mal: Manjakoova, Adavi-kacholam;

Tam: Kichilikizhangu, Nirvisham;

Tel: Kacheramu

The round zedoary or Zerumbet is mostly found in India and S. E. Asia. The plant has 4-6 leaves with 20-60cm long lamina. The leaf lami na is oblong-lanceolate, finely acuminate and glabrous on both the surfaces. Flower stalk is 20-25cm long, emerging before the leaves. Flowers are yellow, while the flowering bract is green tinged with red. Calyx is 8mm long, corolla tube is twice as long as the calyx. Capsule is ovoid, trigonous, thin smooth and bursting irregularly. Tubers are palmately branched and camphoraceous (Thakur et al, 1989). The identity of the plant sources of the drug Karcura is a matter of debate. There is difference of opinion among men of Ayurveda, as to whether Sati and Karcura are the same drug or different. Many authors consider them different and equate Sati with Hedychium spicatum Smith. and Karcura with C. zedoaria, both belonging to Zingiberaceae (Kurup et al,1979; Chunekar 1982; Sharma, 1983). Some others treat them to be the same and equate it with C. zedoaria (Kirtikar and Basu, 1918; Vaidya, 1936; Nadkarni, 1954; Kapoor and Mitra, 1979). However, the source of Karcura in Kerala in the recent times has been Kaempferia galanga of the same family. The rhizome of C. zedoaria is used as appetiser and tonic, particularly prescribed to ladies after childbirth. In case of cold, a decoction of long pepper (Piper longum), cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), zedoary and honey is given. In Ayurveda it is an ingredient of “Braticityadi kwatha”, used in high fever (Thakur et al, 1989). Root is useful in flatulence and dyspepsia, and as a corrector of purgatives. Fresh root checks leucorrhoeal and gonorrhoeal discharges. Root powder is a good substitute for many foreign foods for infants. For worms, the juice from the tubers is given to children. Juice of the leaves is given in dropsy (Nadkarni, 1982). It is an odoriferous ingredient of the cosmetics used for the cure of chronic skin diseases caused by impure or deranged blood (Nadkarni, 1998).

Essential oil from rhizomes contains -pinene, d-camphene, cineole, d-camphor, sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene alcohols (Husain et al, 1992). The novel sesquiterpenoids which have been isolated and characterised are cuzerenone, epi-cuzerenone, iso- furanogermerene, curcumadiol, curcumol, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, procurcumenol, dehydrocurdione (Hikino et al, 1968, 1971, 1972), germacrone-4, 5-epoxide, germacrone, germacrone furanodienone, curcumenol, iso-curcumenol, curcumanolides A and B and curcumenone (Shiobara et al, 1985). The starch left after the extraction is purified and sold as a commodity of cottage industry in West-Bengal under the name ‘Shoti’ (Rao et al, 1928). Ethyl-p methoxy-cinnamate has been isolated from the alcoholic extract of the plant (Gupta et al, 1976). Rhizome is stomachic, diuretic, and carminative and gastrointestinal stimulant.

Other important species of Curcuma genus are

C. angustifolia Roxb. (Vellakoova)

C. caesia Roxb. (Black ginger)

C. leucorhiza Roxb.

C. pseudomontana Grah.

C. rubescens Roxb.

Agrotechnology: Curcuma species are tropical herbs and can be grown on different types of soils both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Rich loamy soils having good drainage are ideal for the crop. The plant is propagated by whole or split mother rhizomes. Well developed, healthy and disease free rhizomes are to be selected. Rhizomes are to be treated with copper oxychloride fungicides and stored in cool, dry place or earthen pits plastered with mud and cowdung. The best season of planting is during April with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. The land is to be prepared to a fine tilth during February-March. On receipt of pre- monsoon showers in April, beds of size 3x1.2m with a spacing of 40cm between beds are to be prepared. Small pits are to be taken in the beds in rows with a spacing of 25-40cm.

Finger rhizomes are to be planted flat with buds facing upwards and covered with soil or dry powdered cattle ma nure. The crop is to be mulched immediately after planting and 50 days after first mulching. Cattle manure or compost is to be applied as basal dose at 20-40t/ha at the time of land preparation or by spreading over the beds after planting. Application of NPK fertilizers is beneficial and found to increase the yield considerably. Weeding is to be done twice at 60 and 120 days after planting, depending upon weed intensity. Earthing up is to be done after 60 days. No major incidence of pest or disease is noticed in this crop. Leaf blotch and leaf spot can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Mancozeb. Shoot borers can be controlled by spraying 0.05% Dimethoate or 0.025% Quinalphos. Time of harvest usually extends from January-March. Harvesting is generally done at about 7-10 months after planting depending upon the species and variety. Harvested rhizomes are to be cleaned of mud and other materials adhering to them. Good fingers separated are to be used for curing (KAU, 1996).... curcuma

Larval stage of tapeworms belonging to the genus Taenia. Also known as bladderworms. The cysticercus of the Pork Tapeworm is called Cysticercus cellulosae and is the cause of human cysticercosis.... cysticercus

Datura metel

Solanaceae

San: Dhustura Hin.: Kaladhatura

Ben: Dhatura Mal: Ummam Kan; Dattura

Tam: Vellummattai

Tel: Tellavummetta

Importance: Downy datura or thorn apple is an erect branched under shrub whose intoxicating and narcotic properties have been made use of by man from ancient time. The plant and fruit are spasmolytic, anticancerous and anthelmintic. Leaves and seeds are inhaled in whooping cough, asthma and other respiratory diseases. Root, leaf and seed are febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal, anticatarrhal and are used in insanity, cerebral complications and skin diseases. Leaf is antitumour, antirheumatic and vermicide. Flower is antiasthamatic, anaesthetic and is employed in swellings and eruptions on face. Fruit juice is used in earache and seed decoction in ophthalmia. For the rheumatic swellings of joints, lumbago, sciatica and neuralgia, warm leaf smeared with an oil is used as a bandage or sometimes the leaf is made into a poultice and applied. The root boiled with milk is used in insanity. It is also an ingredient in the ayurvedic preparation Kanakasva used in bronchial troubles, and the Unani formulations “Roghan dhatura” used as a massage oil for the paralysed part. The alkaloids of pharmaceutical interest present in the plant are hyoscyamine, hyoscine and meteloidine. Datura is the chief commercial source of hyoscine available from natural source. Hyoscine, in the form of hyoscine hydrobromide, is used as a pre-anaesthetic in surgery, child birth, ophthalmology and prevention of motion sickness. It is also employed in the relief of withdrawal symptoms in morphine and alcoholic addiction, paralysis agitans, post- encephaletic parkinsonianism and to allay sexual excitement. Hyoscyamine and its salt hyoscyamine sulphate and hyoscyamine hydrobromide are used in delerium, tremour, menia and parkinsonianism (Kaul and Singh, (1995).

Distribution: Datura is distributed throughout the world, particularly the warmer regions. Datura stramonium is indigenous to India. Out of 15 species reported from different parts of the world, only 10 are known to occur in India. They are found commonly in wastelands, gardens and roadsides. They are distributed in rich localities under semi -arid and arid regions of Punjab, Haryana, Rajastan, and Gujarat; the Central Plateau of Andhra Pradesh and Maharastra and the southern peninsular region of Tamil Nadu. Datura innoxia is indigenous to Mexico and is distributed in Latin American countries. A wealth of genetic stock on genotypes and varieties are maintained in several research institutes in Germany, Bulgaria, USSR and Poland.

Botany: The genus Datura, belonging to the family solanaceae, consists of annual and perennial herbs, shrubs and trees. Three species,viz, Datura metel Linn., D. stramonium Linn. and D. innoxia Mill. are medicinally important. D. innoxia mill. and D. metel Linn. (var. alba, and var, fastuosa) are the choice drug plants, rich in hyoscine. D. metel Linn. is the most common in India. The names, D. metel Linn., D. fastuosa Linn., D. alba Nees., D. fastuosa Linn. var. alba (Nees) C.B. Clarke and D. metel Linn. var. fastuosa (Linn.) Safford are synonymously used by many workers. Two varieties are often noted in D. metel Linn., namely the white flowered var. alba and purple flowered var. fastuosa. D. metel Linn. is an erect succulent branched undershrub divaricate often purplish branches and ovate pubescent leaves which are oblique at the base of lamina. Flowers are large, solitary, short pedicelled, purplish outside and white inside. Fruits are sub-globose capsules covered all over with numerous, fleshy prickles, irregularly breaking when mature. Seeds are numerous, smooth, yellowish brown. (warrier et al, 1994).

Agrotechnology: Datura grows well in a wide range of climate from tropical to temperate conditions.

The plant thrives best in areas of low rainfall where winter and monsoon rains are followed by long dry periods. Areas with annual rainfall below 1000mm with mean temperature of 10-15oC in winter and 27 - 28oC in May-June are ideal. The crop cannot stand frost, high rainfall or high temperature in the plains in May-June. It grows on majority of soils, however, alkaline or neutral clay loam soil or those tending to saline-alkaline reaction rich in organic matter are ideal for vigorous growth. The clayey, acidic, water-logged or moisture deficient soils do not suit this crop.

The plant is propagated by seeds but it is characterised by poor and often erratic seed germination which can be improved either by leaching out the inhibitor from the seeds or by alternate freezing and thawing of seeds. The optimum season for raising the crop is Rabi in tropical and subtropical areas while Kharif in temperate areas. The seeds can be broadcast - sown or seedlings can be raised in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 7-8 kg/ha for broadcasting and 2-3 kg/ha. for transplanting. The field is ploughed and disced adequately to produce fine seed bed. In the case of direct seeding, seeds are drilled in rows taken 45-60 cm apart. The plants are thinned to keep a spacing of 30-45 cm at the time of first weeding. In the case of transplanting 4-6 weeks old seedlings are planted at 45-60 x 30-45 cm spacing. The field should be irrigated immediately after sowing or planting if soil moisture is inadequate. Thereafter 3-4 irrigations may be given if sufficient rainfall is not received. Application of organic manure at 10-15 t/ha and fertilisers at 60:40:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha is recommended for the crop for better growth and yield N may be applied in 3-4 equal split doses at planting and after each weeding which is required 2-3 times during the growing season. Application of micronutrients is reported to improve the alkaloid contents. No major insect pest is known to attack this crop. However, leaf spot, wilt and mosaic diseases cause damage to this crop. Leaf spot is caused by Alternaria tennuissima (Nees) Wiltshire and characterised by brown round to oval spots, becoming necrotic at later stage which leads to withering and dropping of leaves. Wilt is caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sace; it starts with dropping of leaves and finally wilting of the entire plant. Root and foot wilt, caused by Corticium solani, appears as damping off of seedlings and mature plants. Datura distortion mosaic is characterised by yellowing of the veins followed by inward rolling and distortion of leaves with a reduction in plant size. For reducing the impact of these diseases, field sanitation, use of resistant varieties, crop rotation for 3-4 years and fungicide application should be resorted to. For the purpose of leaf and top, harvesting is done as soon as flowering starts. Entire top containing leaves and twigs is cut, dried in shade and stored in gunny bags. For seed and fruit, fully grown fruits, still green are picked 2-3 times before final harvest when the entire plant is cut from the base and dried in the open. The dried fruits are then thrashed with a stick to separate the seeds. The seed yield is 1-1.5 t/ha. (Husain, 1993; Kaul and Singh, 1995)

Properties and activity: The alkaloids hyoscyamine and hyoscine (scopolamine) and meteloidine are found in all parts of the plant. The total alkaloid content is 0.26 - 0.42 % Fruits contain daturaolone and daturadiol while roots contain additionally ditigloyloxy tropane derivatives, tigloidine, apohyoscine, norhyoscine, norhyocyamine, cusiohygrine and tropine. Other alkaloids isolated from the plant are apohyoscyamine, DL-scopolamine, normeteloidine, tigloylputrescine, scopine, nortigloidine, tropine, psuedo valeroidine, fastudine, fastunine, fastusinine, 7-hydroxy-3, 6-ditigloyloxytropane (2) datura nolone and fastusic acid. The physiological effects of hyoscyamine are qualitatively the same as those of its recemic derivative atropine. This is relatively more active in its paralysing affect on nerve endings and less active in its stimulant action on the central nervous system. The sedative and hypnotic action of hyoscyamine is weaker than that of hyoscine. Atropine has a stimulant action on the central nervous system and depresses the nerve endings to the secretary glands and plain muscles. The plant or the different alkaloids have narcotic, anthelmintic, spasmolytic anaesthetic, sedative, ophthalmic, anticancerous, antitumour, antirheumatic, antiasthmatic, antidiarrhoeal and anticatarrhal activities. (Thakur et al, 1989).... datura

Non-pathogenic members of the bacterial genus, Corynebacterium. Comprise part of the normal flora of humans and may be occasional opportunistic pathogens.... diphtheroids

Acacia catechu

Mimosaceae

San:Khadirah;

Hin:Khair, Khaira;

Ben: Kuth;

Mal: Karingali;

Tam: Karunkali;

Tel: Sandra, Khandiramu;

Kan: Kaggali

Importance: Catechu is a medium deciduous tree commonly used as a blood purifier and for leoprosy and leucoderma. Catechu or Cutch tree bark is useful in melancholia, conjunctivitis and haemoptysis. It is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, catarrh, cough, pruritus, leprosy, leucoderma, skin diseases, helminthiasis, anorexia, diarrhoea, dysentery, foul ulcers and wounds, haemoptysis, haematemesis, haemorrhages, intermittent fever, inflammations, odontopathy, anaemia, diabetes, splenomegaly and pharyngodyna. The gummy extract of the wood (kath) is useful in laryngopathy, flatulence, anorexia, ulcers, wounds, helminthiasis, leucoderma, leoprosy, skin diseases, urorrhea, colporrhagia, erysipelas and odontopathy. For leprosy, root, leaf, flower, bark and fruits are made into a decoction which is given orally as well as for external dressing. In Unani system it is used in “Marham Kharish Jadid” for skin diseases. “Khadirarisht” is an oral medicine, while “Marham” is for external application.

Distribution:It is widely distributed in tropical countries. In India, it is observed from the Indus eastwards to Assam and throughout Peninsular India.

Botany: The genus Acacia belonging to the family Mimosaceae consists of a number of species. The important ones are listed as below:

A. catechu Willd. A. caesia Willd. A. arabica Willd. A. concinna DC.

A. farnesiana Willd.

A. ferruginea DC.

A. instia W. & A. syn. A. caesia Willd.

A. jacquemontii Benth. A. leucophloea Willd. A. modesta Wall.

A. pinnata (Linn.) Willd.

A. pycnantha Benth.

A. senegal Willd.

A. suma Buch-Ham. syn. A. suma Kurz.

A. catechu is a moderate sized deciduous tree, 9-12m in height with dark greyish or brown rough bark and hooked short spines. Leaves are bipinnately compound, leaflets 30-50 pairs, main rachis pubescent with a large conspicuous gland near the middle of the rachis. Flowers are pale yellow, sessile in peduncled axiallary spikes. Fruits are flat brown pods, shiny and with a triangular beak at the apex and narrowed at the base. Seeds are 3-10 per pod.

The gummy extract of the wood is commercially known as ‘ Kath’ or ‘Cutch’. The cutch available in the market is brittle, of different shapes and dark brown in colour. On breaking, it is found to be shiny and form crystal like pieces (Warrier et al, 1993).

Agrotechnology: Catechu is suited to hilly areas and rocky places. The plant is propagated by seeds.

Seeds are soaked in water for 6 hours and sown in seedbeds. Seeds germinate within a month. At four-leaf stage, seedlings are planted in polybags. Two months old seedlings from the polybags are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are taken at a distance of 4-5m between plants and filled with topsoil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio. Seedlings are planted in these pits. Application of organic manure every year during the rainy season is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be carried out. Pruning of branches and tender shoots developing from the base of the plant can be done from second year onwards. Tree is to be grown as single stemmed one. Flowering and fruiting commences from fourth year onwards. At the end of tenth year, the tree can be cut and heartwood collected (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity: Heartwood contains kaempferol, dihydro kaempferol, taxifolin, iso rhamnetin(+)- afzelchin, a dimeric procyanidin, quercetin, (-)epi-catechin, (-)catechin, fisetin, quercetagetin and (+)-cyanidanol. The main constituent of heartwood is catechin and catechu tannic acid. Catechin is a mixture of at least four isomers and L(-)epicatechin has been isolated and characterised (Rao et al,1948; Husain et al,1992).

The bark is anthelmintic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory and antileprotic. The flowers are antigonorrhoeic. The cutch from wood is anthelmintic, tonic and aphrodisiac. Bark and cutch are antidiarrhoeal, astringent and stomachic. Cyanidanol is hepatoprotective. The wood is hypoglycaemic, antiinflammatory and hypotensive. The stem is spasmolytic and antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).... catechu

If you haven’t tried orris tea before, now is the time. As an herbal tea, it has a bittersweet taste, but it also has important health benefits. Read to find out more about orris tea. About Orris Tea Orris tea is made from orris root, which is the root of the flower Florentine iris from the genus Iris. The plant is grown for ornamental purposes, and it is cultivated mostly in the Mediterranean region, but also in northern India, North Africa and southern Europe. The stems of the flower may reach 1 meter in height, with green, flat and sword-like leaves, and white flowers. Orris root is used for making orris tea. During ancient times, orris root was used to make perfumes, as well as for medical purposes. Later, it was also used in cuisine. Constituents of Orris Tea Orris tea is made from orris root, which has important active constituents. They make orris teagood for our health. A few important ones are starch, myristic acid, and iridin. Also, orris root has various anti-inflammatory flavonoids and isoflavone glycosides. These active constituents make orris tea an important herbal tea with many health benefits. Orris Tea Benefits Orris tea is helpful when you’ve got a cold. Besides this, it can help you when you’ve only got a sore throat and coughing problems, as it’s got strong expectorant properties. Drinking orris tea will help detoxify your body. It will help you in your treatment for congestive heart failure, as well. It is also used in the treatment for dental problems, liver congestion, diarrhea, bronchitis, and dropsy. Orris tea also works as a good diuretic. Because of this, it is helpful when treating heart failure, kidney disease, cirrhosis of the liver, and high blood pressure. Orris Tea Side Effects There aren’t too many known side effects related to the consumption of orris tea; it is mostly considered safe to drink. If you are pregnant or breastfeeding, you shouldn’t drink orris tea. Although it hasn’t been proven that it can be harmful, there is a possibility that it might affect the baby in both cases. Also, it is generally recommended that you not drink more than six cups of tea per day. This applies to any type of tea, including orris tea. If you drink more tea than your body can take, you might get some of the following symptoms: headaches, loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, insomnia, dizziness, and irregular heartbeats.   While orris tea doesn’t have a high number of health benefits, it’s also notable that it doesn’t have any dangerous side effects. Because of this, it is considered safe to consume orris tea every day. Just be careful with the amount.... discover orris tea

Cinchona spp.

Rubiaceae

San: Cinchona, Kunayanah

Hin: Kunain Mal: Cinchona, Quoina

Tam: Cinchona

Importance: Cinchona, known as Quinine, Peruvian or Crown bark tree is famous for the antimalarial drug ‘quinine’ obtained from the bark of the plant. The term cinchona is believed to be derived from the countess of cinchon who was cured of malaria by treating with the bark of the plant in 1638. Cinchona bark has been valued as a febrifuge by the Indians of south and central America for a long time. Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from the plant; the most important among them being quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. These alkaloids exist mainly as salts of quinic, quinovic and cinchotannic acids. The cultivated bark contains 7-10% total alkaloids of which about 70% is quinine. Similarly 60% of the total alkaloids of root bark is quinine. Quinine is isolated from the total alkaloids of the bark as quinine sulphate. Commercial preparations contain cinchonidine and dihydroquinine. They are useful for the treatment of malarial fever, pneumonia, influenza, cold, whooping couphs, septicaemia, typhoid, amoebic dysentery, pin worms, lumbago, sciatica, intercostal neuralgia, bronchial neuritis and internal hemorrhoids. They are also used as anesthetic and contraceptive. Besides, they are used in insecticide compositions for the preservation of fur, feathers, wool, felts and textiles. Over doses of these alkaloids may lead to deafness, blindness, weakness, paralysis and finally collapse, either comatose or deleterious. Quinidine sulphate is cardiac depressant and is used for curing arterial fibrillation.

Distribution: Cinchona is native to tropical South America. It is grown in Bolivia, Peru, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Columbia, Indonesia, Tanzania, Kenya, Zaire and Sri Lanka. It was introduced in 1808 in Guatemala,1860 in India, 1918 in Uganda, 1927 in Philippines and in 1942 in Costa Rica. Roy Markham introduced the plant to India. The first plantation was raised in Nilgiris and later on in Darjeeling of West Bengal. The value of the tree was learnt by Jessuit priests who introduced the bark to Europe. It first appeared in London pharmacopoeia in 1677 (Husain, 1993).

Botany: The quinine plant belongs to the family Rubiaceae and genus Cinchona which comprises over 40 species. Among these a dozen are medicinally important. The commonly cultivated species are C. calisaya Wedd., C. ledgeriana Moens, C. officinalis Linn., C. succirubra Pav. ex Kl., C. lancifolia and C. pubescens. Cinchona species have the chromosome number 2n=68. C. officinalis Linn. is most common in India. It is an evergreen tree reaching a height of 10-15m. Leaves are opposite, elliptical, ovate- lanceolate, entire and glabrous. Flowers are reddish-brown in short cymbiform, compound cymes, terminal and axillary; calyx tubular, 5-toothed, obconical, subtomentose, sub-campanulate, acute, triangular, dentate, hairy; corolla tube 5 lobed, densely silky with white depressed hairs, slightly pentagonal; stamens 5; style round, stigma submersed. Fruit is capsule ovoid-oblong; seeds elliptic, winged margin octraceous, crinulate-dentate (Biswas and Chopra, 1982).

Agrotechnology: The plant widely grows in tropical regions having an average minimum temperature of 14 C. Mountain slopes in the humid tropical areas with well distributed annual rainfall of 1500-1950mm are ideal for its cultivation. Well drained virgin and fertile forest soils with pH 4.5-6.5 are best suited for its growth. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Cinchona is propagated through seeds and vegetative means. Most of the commercial plantations are raised by seeds. Vegetative techniques such as grafting, budding and softwood cuttings are employed in countries like India, Sri Lanka, Java and Guatemala. Cinchona succirubra is commonly used as root stock in the case of grafting and budding. Hormonal treatment induces better rooting. Seedlings are first raised in nursery under shade. Raised seedbeds of convenient size are prepared, well decomposed compost or manure is applied , seeds are broadcasted uniformly at 2g/m2, covered with a thin layer of sand and irrigated. Seeds germinate in 10-20 days. Seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags after 3 months. These can be transplanted into the field after 1 year at 1-2m spacing. Trees are thinned after third year for extracting bark , leaving 50% of the trees at the end of the fifth year. The crop is damaged by a number of fungal diseases like damping of caused by Rhizoctoria solani, tip blight by Phytophthora parasatica, collar rot by Sclerotiun rolfsii, root rot by Phytophthora cinnamomi, Armillaria mellea and Pythium vexans. Field sanitation, seed treatment with organo mercurial fungicide, burning of infected plant parts and spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture are recommended for the control of the diseases (Crandall, 1954). Harvesting can be done in one or two phases. In one case, the complete tree is uprooted, after 8-10 years when the alkaloid yield is maximum. In another case, the tree is cut about 30cm from the ground for bark after 6-7 years so that fresh sprouts come up from the stem to yield a second crop which is harvested with the under ground roots after 6-7 years. Both the stem and root are cut into convenient pieces, bark is separated, dried in shade, graded, packed and traded. Bark yield is 9000-16000kg/ha (Husain, 1993).

Properties and activity: Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from Cinchona bark, the most important among them are quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, cinchophyllamine and idocinchophyllamine. There is considerable variation in alkaloid content ranging from 4% to 20%. However, 6-8% yield is obtained from commercial plantations. The non alkaloidal constituents present in the bark are bitter glycosides, -quinovin, cinchofulvic, cinchotannic and quinic acids, a bitter essential oil possessing the odour of the bark and a red coloring matter. The seed contains 6.13% fixed oil. Quinine and its derivatives are bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, febrifuge, oxytocic, anodyne, anti-bacterial, anthelmintic, digestive, depurative, constipating, anti pyretic, cardiotonic, antiinflammatory, expectorant and calcifacient (Warrier et al, 1994; Bhakuni and Jain, 1995).... cinchona

A taxonomic group of similar, related, animals. The taxonomic group that is below Order, but above Genus.... family

A genus of tick-borne apicomplexan protozoa infecting a range of animal species including lizards and snakes but not humans.... hepatozoon

Coleus spp.

Lamiaceae

The genus Coleus of the family Lamiaceae (Labiatae) comprises a number of herbaceous medicinal plants which are particularly employed in home remedies for various ailments. Three species are most popular and commonly cultivated. They are Coleus aromaticus, C. vettiveroides and C. forkoshlii.

1. Coleus aromaticus Benth. syn. C. amboinicus Lour., Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Spreng.

Eng: Country borage, Indian borage;

San: Karpuravalli, Sugandhavalakam;

Hin: Patharchur;

Ben: Paterchur;

Mal: Panikkurkka, kannikkurkka;

Tam: Karpuravalli;

Kan: karpurahalli;

Tel: Sugandhavalkam.

It is found through out the tropics and cultivated in homestead gardens. It is a large succulent aromatic perennial herb with hispidly villous or tomentose fleshy stem. Leaves are simple, opposite, broadly ovate, crenate and fleshy. Flowers are pale purplish in dense whorls at distant intervals in a long slender raceme. Fruits are orbicular or ovoid nutlets. The leaves are useful in cephalagia, otalgia, anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, cholera, halitosis, convulsions, epilepsy, cough, asthma, hiccough, bronchitis, strangury, hepatopathy and malarial fever (Warrier et al,1995).

2. Coleus vettiveroides K.C. Jacob, syn. Plectranthus vettiveroides (Jacob) Singh & Sharma.

San: Valakam, Hriberam;

Hin: Valak;

Mal: Iruveli;

Tam: Karuver;

Tel: Karuveru,

It is seen in tropical countries and cultivated in gardens. It is a small profusely branched, succulent aromatic herb with quadrangular stems and branches and deep straw coloured aromatic roots. Leaves are glandular hairy, broadly ovate with dentate margins and prominent veins on the bark. Blue flowers are borne on terminal racemes. Fruits are nutlets. The whole plant is useful in hyperdipsia, vitiated conditions of pitta, burning sensation, strangury, leprosy, skin diseases, leucoderma, fever, vomiting, diarrhoea, ulcers and as hair tonic.

3. Coleus forskohlii Briq. syn. C. barbatus Benth.

Hin: Garmai

Kan: Maganiberu, Makandiberu

Guj: Maimul

It is a perennial aromatic herb grown under tropical to temperate conditions for its carrot-like tubers which are used as condiments in the preparation of pickles. Its tuberous roots are an exclusive source of a diterpenoid forskolin which has the unique property of activating almost all hormone sensitive adenylate cyclase enzymes in a biological system. It is useful in the treatment of congestive heart failure, glaucoma, asthma, cancer and in preventing immature greying of hair (Hegde,1997).

Agrotechnology: The Coleus group of plants grows in tropical to subtropical situations and in warm temperate climatic zone on mountains of India, Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Africa. It comes up well on the sun exposed dry hill slopes from 300m to 1800m altitude. A well drained medium fertile soil is suitable for its cultivation. it is propagated vegetatively through stem and root cuttings. Vine cuttings to a length of 10-15cm from the top portion are most ideal for planting. The land is ploughed or dug to a depth of 15-20cm and ridges are formed 30cm apart. Vine cuttings are planted on the ridges at 30cm spacing after incorporating basal manure. 10t of FYM and NPK at 50:50:50kg/ha are incorporated into the soil. Top dressing of N and K is also suggested for improved yields. Weeding and earthing up at 45 days after planting along with topdressing is highly beneficial. Bacterial wilt and root knot nematode are reported in the crop. Drenching the soil with fungicide, deep ploughing in the summer, burning of crop residues and crop rotation are helpful to tide over the disease and pest problem. The crop can be harvested after 5-6 months.

Properties and activity: The medicinal property of Coleus amboinicus is attributed to codeine, carvacrol, flavones, aromatic acids and tannins present in the plant. The essential oil from the plant contains carvacrol, ethyl salicylate, thymol, eugenol and chavicol. Leaves also contain cirsimaritin, -sitosterol- -D-glucoside and oxalacetic acid. Leaves are bitter, acrid, thermogenic, aromatic, anodyne, appetising, digestive, carminative, stomachic, anthelmintic, constipating, deodorant, expectorant, diuretic and liver tonic.

Coleus vettiveroides is bitter, cooling, diuretic, trichogenous and antipyretic.

Coleus forskohlii roots are rich in diterpenoids like forskolin, coleonols, coleons, barbatusin, cyclobutatusin, coleosol, coleol, coleonone, deoxycoleonol, 7-deacetylforskolin and 6-acetyl-7-deacetylforskolin. Its root is spasmolytic, CNS active, hypothermic and diuretic. Forskolin is bronchodialative and hypotensive (Hussain et al,1992). Forskolin is also useful in preventing the clotting of blood platelets, in reducing intraocular pressure in glaucoma and as an aid to nerve regeneration following trauma (Sharma, 1998)... coleus

Commiphora mukul

Burseraceae

San: Gugulu, Mahisaksah, Koushikaha, Devadhupa

Hin: Gugal Mal:Gulgulu Tam,

Tel: Gukkulu

Kan: Guggul

Ben: Guggul

Importance: Indian bdellium is a small, armed, deciduous tree from the bark of which gets an aromatic gum resin, the ‘Guggul’ of commerce. It is a versatile indigenous drug claimed by ayurvedists to be highly effective in the treatment of rheumatism, obesity, neurological and urinary disorders, tonsillitis, arthritis and a few other diseases. The fumes from burning guggul are recommended in hay- fever, chronic bronchitis and phytises.

The price of guggulu gum has increased ten fold in ten years or so, indicating the increase in its use as well as decrease in natural plant stand. It has been listed as a threatened plant by Botanical Survey of India (Dalal, 1995) and is included in the Red Data Book (IUCN) and over exploited species in the country (Billare,1989).

Distribution: The center of origin of Commiphora spp. is believed to be Africa and Asia. It is a widely adapted plant well distributed in arid regions of Africa (Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia in north east and Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zaire in south west Africa), Arabian peninsula (Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Oman). Different species of Commiphora are distributed in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka states of India and Sind and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan (Tajuddin et al, 1994). In India, the main commercial source of gum guggul is Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Botany: The genus Commiphora of family Burseraceae comprises about 185 species. Most of them occur in Africa, Saudi Arabia and adjoining countries. In India only four species have been reported. They are C. mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. syn. Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks), C. wightii (Arnott) Bhandari, C.stocksiana Engl., C. berryi and C.agallocha Engl.

In early studies about the flora of India, the ‘guggul’ plant was known as Commiphora mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. or Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks). It was renamed as C. roxburghii by Santapau in 1962. According to Bhandari the correct Latin name of the species is C. wightii(Arnott) Bhandari, since the specific name ‘wightii’ was published in 1839, prior to ‘roxburghi’ in 1848 (Dalal and Patel, 1995).

C. mukul is a small tree upto 3-4m height with spinescent branching. Stem is brownish or pale yellow with ash colored bark peeling off in flakes. Young parts are glandular and pubescent. Leaves are alternate, 1-3 foliate, obovate, leathery and serrate (sometimes only towards the apex). Lateral leaflets when present only less than half the size of the terminal ones. Flowers small, brownish red, with short pedicel seen in fascicles of 2-3. Calyx campanulate, glandular, hairy and 4-5 lobed. Corolla with brownish red, broadly linear petals reflexed at apex. Stamens 8-10, alternatively long and short. Ovary oblong, ovoid and stigma bifid. Fruit is a drupe and red when ripe, ovate in shape with 2-3 celled stones. The chromosome number 2n= 26 (Warrier et al, 1994; Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Agrotechnology: Guggal being a plant of arid zone thrives well in arid- subtropical to tropical climate.

The rainfall may average between 100mm and 500mm while air temperature may vary between 40 C in summer and 3 C during winter. Maximum relative humidity prevails during rainy season (83% in the morning and 48% in the evening).Wind velocity remains between 20-25 km/hour during the year is good. Though they prefer hard gypseous soil, they are found over sandy to silt loam soils, poor in organic matter but rich in several other minerals in arid tracks of western India (Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Plants are propagated both by vegetatively and seeds. Plants are best raised from stem cuttings from the semi woody (old) branch. For this purpose one metre long woody stem of 10mm thickness is selected and the cut end is treated with IBA or NAA and planted in a well manured nursery bed during June-July months; the beds should be given light irrigation periodically. The cuttings initiate sprouting in 10-15 days and grow into good green sprout in 10-12 months. These rooted plants are suitable for planting in the fields during the next rainy season. The cuttings give 80-94% sprouting usually. Air layering has also been successfully attempted and protocol for meristem culture is available in literature. Seed germination is very poor (5%) but seedling produce healthier plants which withstand high velocity winds.

The rooted cuttings are planted in a well laid-out fields during rainy season. Pits of size 0.5m cube are dug out at 3-4 m spacing in rows and given FYM and filler soil of the pit is treated with BHC (10%) or aldrin (5%) to protect the new plants from white ants damage. Fertilizer trials have shown little response except due to low level of N fertilization. Removal of side branches and low level of irrigation supports a good growth of these plants. The plantation does not require much weeding and hoeing. But the soil around the bushes be pulverised twice in a year to increase their growth and given urea or ammonium sulphate at 25- 50g per bush at a time and irrigated. Dalal et al (1989) reported that cercospora leaf spot was noticed on all the cultures. Bacterial leaf blight was also noticed to attack the cultures. A leaf eating caterpillar (Euproctis lanata Walker) attack guggal, though not seriously. White fly (Bemisia tabaci) is observed to suck sap of leaves and such leaves become yellowish and eventually drop. These can be effectively controlled by using suitable insecticide.

Stem or branch having maximum diameter of about 5cm at place of incision, irrespective of age is tapped. The necrotic patch on the bark is peeled off with a sharp knife and Bordeaux paste is applied to the exposed (peeled off) surface of the stem or branch. A prick chisel of about 3cm width is used to make bark- deep incisions and while incising the bark, the chisel is held at an acute angle so that scooped suspension present on the body of the chisel flows towards the blade of the chisel and a small quantity of suspension flows inside the incised bark. If tapping is successful, gum exudation ensures after about 15-20 days from the date of incision and continues for nearly 30-45 days. The exuded gum slides down the stem or branch, and eventually drops on the ground and gets soiled. A piece of polythene sheet can be pouched around the place of incision to collect gum. Alternatively, a polythene sheet can be spread on the ground to collect exuded gum. A maximum of about 500g of gum has been obtained from a plant (Dalal, 1995).

Post harvest technology: The best grade of guggul is collected from thick branches of tree. These lumps of guggul are translucent. Second grade guggul is usually mixed with bark, sand and is dull coloured guggul. Third grade guggul is usually collected from the ground which is mixed with sand, stones and other foreign matter. The final grading is done after getting cleansed material. Inferior grades are improved by sprinkling castor oil over the heaps of the guggul which impart it a shining appearance (Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Properties and activity: The gum resin contains guggul sterons Z and E, guggul sterols I-V, two diterpenoids- a terpene hydrocarbon named cembreneA and a diterpene alcohol- mukulol, -camphrone and cembrene, long chain aliphatic tetrols- octadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol, eicosan-1,2,3,4-tetrol and nonadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol. Major components from essential oil of gum resin are myrcene and dimyrcene. Plant without leaves, flowers and fruits contains myricyl alcohol, -sitosterol and fifteen aminoacids. Flowers contain quercetin and its glycosides as major flavonoid components, other constituents being ellagic acid and pelargonidin glucoside (Patil et al, 1972; Purushothaman and Chandrasekharan, 1976).

The gum resin is bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, aromatic, expectorant, digestive, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, antiseptic, demulcent, carminative, emmenagogue, haematinic, diuretic, lithontriptic, rejuvenating and general tonic. Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic (Husain et al, 1992; Warrier et al, 1994).... indian bdellium

Sea kraits (Genus Laticauda) are similar to, and can be regarded as sea snakes, although they are more heavily-built and their nostrils are not situated on the upper surface of the snout. Laticauda colubrina (the banded sea snake) and Laticauda laticaudata (the black-banded sea snake) are the most common in Australia.... kraits

A genus of spiders which includes such venomous species as the black widow spider of the USA,the red back spider of Australia and the button spider of South Africa.... latrodectus

Infection by the Gram negative rod, Legionella pneumophila and other species of the Genus. Often presents as an atypical pneumonia. Outbreaks have been reported from various countries.... legionnaire’s disease

(LD Bodies) Amastigote stages of protozoa of the genus Leishmania. These stages in a skin biopsy, bone marrow or spleen aspirate are diagnostic of Leishmaniasis.... leishman-donovan bodies

Murraya Koenigii

Rutaceae

San: Kalasakh, Kaidaryah

Hin: Mithinim, Katnim

Ben: Barsunga

Mal: Kariveppu, Karuveppu

Tam: Kariveppilai, Karuveppu

Kan: Kari Baeva

Tel: Karivepaku

Ass: Narasingha, Bishahari

Importance: Curry leaf, a plant of homestead gardens has gained importance as a commercial crop and is cultivated for its culinary and medicinal value. The plant is highly esteemed for its leaves which promote appetite and digestion and destroy pathogenic organisms. It is reported to be useful in emaciation, skin diseases, hemopathy, worm troubles, neurosis and poisons. They are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, hyperdipna, colic, flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting, inflammations and foul ulcers. “Kaidaryah” drug is prepared using this plant which improves voice, stimulates digestion and destroys concocted poisons in the system. The important preparations using the drug are Kalasadi kasayam, Pamantaka tailam, Jatyadi tailam, Jatyadi ghrtam, etc (Sivarajan et al,1994).

Distribution: Curry leaf is seen in the foot of the Himalaya and Bashahi eastwards to Sikkim and Peninsular India, upto 1700m. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Burma, Indo-China, South China and Hainan. Commercial cultivation in India is limited to Tamil Nadu and Karnataka states.

Botany: The genus Murraya of the family Rutaceae includes the following species:

M. Koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. syn. Bergera koenigii Linn.

M. Exotica Linn. syn. M. paniculata (Linn.) Jack.

Murraya koenigii is a small aromatic tree with dark grey bark and closely crowded spreading dark green foliage. Leaves are imparipinnate and alternate. Leaflets are alternate, obliquely ovate or somewhat rhomboid, gland dotted and strongly aromatic. Flowers are white, arranged in much branched terminal corymbose cymes and fragrant. Fruits are subglobose or ellipsoid berries, purplish black when ripe and 2-seeded (Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology: Curry leaf tree does not choose a specific climate and can come up even in dry climate too. In places where minimum temperature goes below 13 C, the growth of the shoot will be slightly affected. It comes up well in light textured red soils. DWD-1 and DWD-2 are two improved varieties released from UAS, Dharwad. Curry leaf is propagated by seed. Main field is to be ploughed repeatedly. A spacing of 90-120cm is followed on either side. Pits of size 30cm3 are dug out one month before planting and filled with top soil mixed with well decomposed FYM at the time of planting. Healthy seedlings are planted in the centre of the pits. Then long furrows are formed connecting all the pits to facilitate easy irrigation. The seedlings are irrigated once in 5-7 days upto 3 years and once in 15 days afterwards. The field should be kept free from weeds. Plants may be trained and pruned to maintain a bush of 1m in height. For better growth and yield, each plant is fertilised with 20kg of FYM besides 150:25:50g of N, P2O5, K2O/ year. Attack of aphids in the vegetative stage can be controlled by spraying of dimethoate at 2ml/l of water. Leaves from such sprayed plants should be harvested only after 10 days. Spraying carbendazim at 1g/l can take care of leaf spot diseases. The crop comes to first harvest at the end of first year. The yield of leaves account to 400kg/ha at the end of first year, 2000 to 2200kg/ha in the second and third year harvested at an interval of four months and 2500kg/ha in the fourth year harvested at three months interval. From fifth year onwards it is harvested at 2.5-3 months interval giving an yield of 3500-5000kg/ha (Kumar et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: All parts of the plant, especially the leaves are rich in carbazole alkaloids. These include members with (i) C13 - skeleton -murrayanin, mukoeic acid, mukonine and mukonidine; (ii) C18 - skeleton including gerinimbine, koenimbine, murrayacine, koenigine and koenigicine (koenidine); and (iii) C23- skeleton containing mahanimbine, mahanimbicine, iso- mahanimbicine, mahanine, mahanimbinine, murrayayazoline, murrayazolinine, murrayazolidine, cyclomahanimbine and bicyclomahanimbicine. Other carbazole bases include mukoline, mukolidine (C13 group, from roots), mukonicine (C18 from leaves), the biogenetically significant mukonal (C13, stem-bark), mahanimboline (C23, root-bark), iso- murrayazoline (C23, stem-bark). The leaves gave a coumarin glucoside, scopolin also. Essential oil from leaves contained -caryophylline, -gurjunene, -elemene, - phellandrene, -thujene as major constituents.

The roots, bark and leaves are bitter, acrid, astringent, cooling, aromatic, demulcent, depurative, anthelmintic, febrifuge, stomachic, appetising, carminative, antiinflammatory and antiseptic. Aerial part is spasmolytic and antiprotozoal. Root is antiprotozoal, CVS active and has effect on nictitating membrane. Leaf is hypoglycaemic (Hussain et al,1992).... curry leaf

Trematode worms infecting the lungs of humans and other crab-eating mammals. Belong to the genusParagonimus and are found in parts of Africa, Latin America, Asia and SE Asia.... lung flukes

A genus of filarial nematode worms which can infect humans in Africa and South America. Transmitted by biting midges belonging to the genus Culicoides. Important species infecting humans include M. ozzardi, M. perstans and M. streptocerca.... mansonella

A genus of mosquitoes, some species of which can be involved in the transmission of human filariasis due to Brugia malayi and Wuchereria bancrofti.... mansonia

Dioscorea spp.

Dioscoreaceae

The growing need for steroidal drugs and the high cost of obtaining them from animal sources led to a widespread search for plant sources of steroidal sapogenins, which ultimately led to the most promising one. It is the largest genus of the family constituted by 600 species of predominantly twining herbs. Among the twining species, some species twine clockwise while others anti-clockwise (Miege, 1958). All the species are dioceous and rhizomatous. According to Coursey (1967), this genus is named in honour of the Greek physician Pedenios Dioscorides, the author of the classical Materia Medica Libri Quinque. Some of the species like D. alata and D. esculenta have been under cultivation for a long time for their edible tubers. There are about 15 species of this genus containing diosgenin. Some of them are the following (Chopra et al, 1980).

D. floribunda Mart. & Gal.

D. composita Hemsl; syn. D. macrostachya Benth.

D. deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb; syn. D. nepalensis Sweet ex Bernardi.

D. aculeata Linn. syn. D. esculenta

D. alata Linn. syn. D. atropurpurea Roxb.

D. Globosa Roxb; D. purpurea Roxb; D. rubella Roxb.

D. bulbifera Linn. syn. D. crispata Roxb.

D. pulchella Roxb.; D. sativa Thunb. Non Linn.

D. versicolor Buch. Ham. Ex Wall.

D. daemona Roxb. syn. D. hispida Dennst.

D. oppositifolia Linn.

D. pentaphylla Linn. syn. D. jacquemontii Hook. f.

D. triphylla Linn.

D. prazeri Prain & Burkil syn. D. clarkei Prain & Burkill

D. deltoidea Wall. var. sikkimensis Prain

D. sikkimensis Prain & Burkill

Among the above said species, D. floribunda, D. composita and D. deltoidea are widely grown for diosgenin production.

1. D. floribunda Mart. & Gal D. floribunda Mart. & Gal. is an introduction from central America and had wide adaptation as it is successfully grown in Karnataka, Assam, Meghalaya, Andaman and Goa. The vines are glabrous and left twining. The alternate leaves are borne on slender stems and have broadly ovate or triangular ovate, shallowly cordate, coriaceous lamina with 9 nerves. The petioles are 5-7cm long, thick and firm. Variegation in leaves occurs in varying degrees. The male flowers are solitary and rarely in pairs. Female flowers have divericate stigma which is bifid at apex. The capsule is obovate and seed is winged all round. The tubers are thick with yellow coloured flesh, branched and growing upto a depth of 30cm (Chadha et al, 1995).

2. D. composita Hemsl.

D. composita Hemsl. according to Knuth (1965) has the valid botanical name as D. macrostachya Benth. However, D. composita is widely used in published literature. It is a Central American introduction into Goa, Jammu, Bangalore, Anaimalai Hills of Tami Nadu and Darjeeling in W. Bengal. The vines are right twinning and nearly glabrous. The alternate leaves have long petioles, membraneous or coriaceous lamina measuring upto 20x18cm, abruptly acute or cuspidate-acuminate, shallowly or deeply cordate, 7-9 nerved. The fasciculate-glomerate inflorescence is single or branched with 2 or 3 sessile male flowers having fertile stamens. Male fascicle is 15-30cm long. The female flowers have bifid stigma. Tubers are large, white and deep-rooted (upto 45cm) (Chadha et al, 1995).

3. D. deltoidea Wall. ex. Griseb.

D. deltoidea Wall. ex. Griseb. is distributed throughout the Himalayas at altitudes of 1000-3000m extending over the states of Jammu-Kashmir, H. P, U. P, Sikkim and further into parts of W. Bengal. The glabrous and left twining stem bears alternate petiolate leaves. The petioles are 5-12 cm long. The lamina is 5-15cm long and 4-12cm wide widely cordate. The flowers are borne on axillary spikes, male spikes 8-40cm long and stamens 6. Female spikes are 15cm long, 3. 5cm broad and 4-6 seeded. Seeds are winged all round. Rhizomes are lodged in soil, superficial, horizontal, tuberous, digitate and chestnut brown in colour (Chadha et al, 1995). D. deltoidea tuber grows parallel to ground covered by small scale leaves and is described as rhizome. The tubers are morphologically cauline in structure with a ring of vascular bundles in young tubers which appear scattered in mature tubers (Purnima and Srivastava, 1988). Visible buds are present unlike in D. floribunda and D. composita where the buds are confined to the crown position (Selvaraj et al, 1972).

Importance of Diosgenin: Diosgenin is the most important sapogenin used as a starting material for synthesis of a number of steroidal drugs. For commercial purposes, its -isomer, yamogenin is also taken as diosgenin while analysing the sample for processing. Various steroidal drugs derived from diosgenin by artificial synthesis include corticosteroids, sex hormones, anabolic steroids and oral contraceptives. Corticosteroids are the most important group of steroidal drugs synthesized from diosgenin. First group of corticosteroids regulates carbohydrate and protein metabolism. The second group consists of aldosterone, which controls balance of potassium, sodium and water in the human body. The glucocorticoids in the form of cortisone and hydrocortisone are used orally, intramuscularly or topically for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, other collegen diseases, ulcerative colitis, certain cases of asthma and a number of allergic diseases affecting skin, eye and the ear. These are also used for treatment of gout and a variety of inflammations of skin, eye and ear and as replacement therapy in Addison’s diseases. The minerato corticoides, desoxycorticosterone or desoxycortone are used in restoring kidney functions in cases of cortical deficiency and Addison’s disease.

Both male and female sex hormones are also synthesized from disosgenin. The main male sex hormone (androgen) which is produced from disogenin is testosterone. The main female sex hormones produced are oestrogen and progesterone. Recently oestrogen has also been used in cosmetic lotions and creams to improve the tone and colour of skin. One of the main uses of progesterone during recent years has been as antifertility agent for oral contraceptives. These artificial steroids have increased oral activity and fewer side effects, as they can be used in reduced doses. Oral contraceptives are also used for animals like pigs, cows and sheep to control fertility and to give birth at a prescribed period in a group of animals at the same time. These compounds are also used to reduce the interval between the lactation periods to have more milk and meat production. Anti-fertility compounds are also used as a pest-control measure for decreasing the multiplication of pests like rodents, pigeons and sea gulls (Husain et al, 1979).

Although yam tubers contain a variety of chemical substances including carbohydrates, proteins, alkaloids and tannins, the most important constituents of these yams are a group of saponins which yield sapogenins on hydrolysis. The most imp ortant sapogenin found in Dioscorea are diosgenin, yamogenin and pannogenin. Diosgenin is a steroid drug precursor. The diogenin content varies from 2-7% depending on the age of the tubers. Saponins including 5 spirastanol glucoside and 2 furostanol glucoside, 4 new steroid saponins, floribunda saponins C, D, E and F. Strain of A and B are obtained from D. floribunda (Husain et al, 1979). Rhizomes of D. deltoidea are a rich source of diosgenin and its glycoside. Epismilagenin and smilagenone have been isolated from D. deltoidea and D. prazeri (Chakravarti et al, 1960; 1962). An alkaloid dioscorine has been known to occur in D. hispida (Bhide et al,1978). Saponin of D. prazeri produced a fall of blood pressure when given intravenously and saponin of D. deltoidea has no effect on blood pressure (Chakravarti et al,1963). Deltonin, a steroidal glycoside, isolated from rhizomes of D. deltoidea showed contraceptive activity (Biokova et al, 1990).

Agrotechnology: Dioscorea species prefer a tropical climate without extremity in temperature. It is adapted to moderate to heavy rainfall area. Dioscorea plants can be grown in a variety of soils, but light soil is good, as harvesting of tubers is easier in such soils. The ideal soil pH is 5.5-6.5 but tolerates fairly wide variation in soil pH. Dioscorea can be propagated by tuber pieces, single node stem cuttings or seed. Commercial planting is normally established by tuber pieces only. Propagation through seed progeny is variable and it may take longer time to obtain tuber yields. IIHR, Bangalore has released two improved varieties, FB(c) -1, a vigorously growing strain relatively free from diseases and Arka Upkar, a high yielding clone. Three types of tuber pieces can be distinguished for propagation purpose, viz. (1) crown (2) median and (3) tip, of which crowns produce new shoots within 30 days and are therefore preferred. Dipping of tuber pieces for 5 minutes in 0.3% solution of Benlate followed by dusting the cut ends with 0.3% Benlate in talcum powder in mo ist sand beds effectively checks the tuber rot. The treatment is very essential for obtaining uniform stand of the crop. The best time of planting is the end of April so that new sprouts will grow vigorously during the rainy season commencing in June in India. Land is to be prepared thoroughly until a fine tilth is obtained. Deep furrows are made at 60cm distance with the help of a plough. The stored tuber pieces which are ready for planting is to be planted in furrows with 30cm between the plants for one year crop and 45cm between the plants for 2 year crop at about 0.5 cm below soil level. The new sprouts are to be staked immediately. After sprouting is complete, the plants are to be earthed up. Soil from the ridges may be used for earthing up so that the original furrows will become ridges and vice versa. Dioscorea requires high organic matter for good tuber formation. Besides a basal doze of 18-20t of FYM/ha, a complete fertilizer dose of 300kg N, 150kg P2O5 and K2O each are to be applied per hectare. P and K are to be applied in two equal doses one after the establishment of the crop during May-June and the other during vigorous growth period of the crop (August- September). Irrigation may be given at weekly intervals in the initial stage and afterwards at about 10 days interval. Dioscorea vines need support for their optimum growth and hence the vines are to be trailed over pandal system or trellis. Periodic hand weeding is essential for the first few months. Intercropping with legumes has been found to smother weeds and provide extra income. The major pests of Dioscorea are the aphids and red spider mites. Aphids occur more commonly on young seedlings and vines. Young leaves and vine tips eventually die if aphids are not controlled. Red spider mites attack the underside of the leaves at the base near the petiole. Severe infestations result in necrotic areas, which are often attacked by fungi. Both aphids and spider mites can be very easily controlled by Kelthane. No serious disease is reported to infect this crop. The tubers grow to about 25-30 cm depth and hence harvesting is to be done by manual labour. The best season for harvesting is Feb-March, coinciding with the dry period. On an average 50-60t/ha of fresh tubers can be obtained in 2 years duration. Diosgenin content tends to increase with age, 2.5% in first year and 3-3.5% in the second year. Hence, 2 year crop is economical (Kumar et al, 1997).... medicinal yams

The infection caused by monilia, the genus of fungi now known as Candida albicans (see CANDIDA). The infection may occur in the mouth – where it is known as thrush – lungs, intestine, vagina, skin, or nails.... moniliasis

A zoonotic febrile disease caused by the rodent bacterial species, Rickettsia typhi, and transmitted by fleas of the genus Xenopsylla.... murine typhus

If you enjoy a cup of herbal tea, then sarsaparilla tea can count as a good choice for a daily beverage. The many health benefits should also tempt you to give it a try. Find out more about sarsaparilla tea. About Sarsaparilla Tea Sarsaparilla tea is made from the roots of sarsaparilla, a plant native to Central and South America. It is also known by the name Smilax regelii. In Spanish, it is called zarzaparrilla; “zarza” means “shrub” and “parrilla” means “little grape vine”. Sarsaparilla is a perennial plant which has a trailing vine with lots of wood-like stems and long thorns. It has small, greenish flowers which grow in axillary umbels. It is often used to flavor soft drinks. There is also the “false sarsaparilla”, native to South Asia. It belongs to a different plant family and genus, and it is often used in place of sarsaparilla. The false sarsaparilla is a slender shrub with woody and aromatic roots and many slender stems. It has small leaves and greenish flowers. Sarsaparilla Tea Constituents Both types of sarsaparilla have their own active constituents. The usual type includes sarsasaponin, sarsaparilloside, flavonoids, sarsapac acid, dextrose, and fatty acids. Meanwhile, the “false sarsaparilla” has some of the following constituents: coumarins, saraponins, starch, tannins, tannic acid, glucose, phenols, iron, and magnesium. Both the American type and the South Asian one can be used to make sarsaparilla tea, which gets the active constituents found in the roots. How to prepare Sarsaparilla Tea No matter the variety, you can easily prepare a cup of sarsaparilla tea. Just add about 1 gram of chopped dried root to a cup of freshly boiled water. Let it steep for about 10 minutes; then, stream to remove the root pieces. Sarsaparilla Tea Benefits The American and South Asian sarsaparilla root share a few health benefits, which are transferred to sarsaparilla tea, as well. They are used to treat various skin problems, such as eczema or psoriasis. Drinking sarsaparilla tea also helps you with arthritis, gout, and rheumatism. This tea is also included in the treatment of various sexual diseases, such as herpes, gonorrhea or syphilis. Drinking sarsaparilla tea might help improve your memory and mental concentration. It also helps with urinary tract infections, and menopausal symptoms. It can even be applied topically, to treat sores and burns. The tea made with the American sarsaparilla is believed to improve the sexual performance, and to enhance virility. If you’re using the ‘false sarsaparilla’ to make sarsaparilla tea, this can help fight various digestive problems and upper respiratory infections. Sarsaparilla Tea Side Effects It is recommended not to drink sarsaparilla tea if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding. Sarsaparilla tea can affect the baby in both cases. Also, don’t drink this tea if you’ve got asthma; it might worsen your condition. If you’re under any kind of medication (especially if you’re taking other diuretics), make sure you talk with your doctor first before you start drinking sarsaparilla tea. Also, be careful with the amount of sarsaparilla tea you drink. If you drink too much, it might cause digestive problems. Sarsaparilla tea is a pleasant everyday herbal tea. With its many health benefits, just one cup can help you stay healthy.... discover sarsaparilla tea!

Cypripedium pubescens. N.O. Orchidaceae.

Synonym: American Valerian, Mocassin flower, Nerveroot, Noah's Ark.

Habitat: United States of America.

Features ? Flower supposed to resemble a lady's shoe in form. Rhizome about quarter- inch diameter, many cupshaped scars on top surface; wavy, thickly-matted roots underneath. Fracture short and white.

Part used ? Rhizome.

Action: Antispasmodic, tonic, nervine.

Combined with other tonics in the relief of neuralgia, and to allay pain

generally. Of use in hysteria and other nervous disorders. Dose, 1 drachm of the powdered rhizome. Like other medicines of a similar nature, it is of little use unless the cause of the nervous excitement is traced and removed.

The remarks of Rafinesque, then Professor of Medical Botany in the University of Transylvania, are interesting in view of the "orthodox" attitude towards remedies of the herbalists ? "I am enabled to introduce, for the first time, this beautiful genus into our materia medica ; all the species are equally remedial. They have long been known to the Indians, who called them moccasin flower, and were used by the empyrics of New England, particularly Samuel Thomson. Their properties, however, have been tested and confirmed by Dr. Hales, of Troy; Dr. Tully, of Albany, etc.

. . . They produce beneficial effects in all nervous diseases and hysterical affections by allaying pain, quieting the nerves and promoting sleep. They are preferable to opium in many cases, having no baneful or narcotic effect."

Professor Rafinesque, however, goes even further than would Thomson and his successors when he announces that "all the species are equally remedial."... ladies' slipper

A genus of flies (Diptera) which includes the housefly, M.domestica, a potential mechanical vector of enteric viral, bacterial and parasitic pathogens. Can also mechanically transmit trachoma.... musca

An acute inflammation of the eye resulting from an irritant secreted by beetles of the genus Paederus, getting onto the eye.... nairobi eye

Nordihydroguaiaretic acid, a substance found in abundance in the oleoresins of Larrea (Chaparral) and the Guaiacum genus (Lignum Vitae). It is strongly antioxidant to lipids and is antifungal, antimicrobial and antibacterial. Both plants contain a constellation of related compounds and do not have the potential kidney toxicity found in pure NDGA...and the reason it is no longer used as an EDTA-type edible oil stabilizer in food manufacturing.... ndga

If you’re a fan of herbal teas, you have to try saw palmetto tea! It’s special, as it is made from the berries of a small palm. Read more about its health benefits and side effects! About Saw Palmetto Tea Saw palmetto tea is made from the fruit saw palmetto, also known by its scientific name, Serenoa repens. It is the sole species which remains classified in the genus Serenoa. It is a small palm, native to the southeastern part of the United States. Its height varies between 2 and 4m. Its leaves are 1-2m long and have a bare petiole, with a rounded fan of about 20 leaflets at the end; the petiole has fine, sharp teeth or spines. The flowers are small, yellowish-white and produced in dense panicles, and the fruit is a large, reddish-black berry. How to prepare Saw Palmetto Tea A cup of saw palmetto tea can be prepared with either the plant’s berries, or normal teabags. In case you’re using saw palmetto berries, add a teaspoon of the fruits to a cup of freshly boiled water. Let it steep for about 5 minutes, before you strain to remove the berries. Sweeten it, if necessary, with honey or fruit juice. If you’ve got saw palmetto tea bags, follow the instructions on the tea box. Saw Palmetto Tea Constituents Saw palmetto tea gets many active constituents from its main ingredient: saw palmetto berries. The constituents of the berries include a high concentration of fatty acids and phytosterols, as well as beta-sitosterol, capric acid, ferulic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid. Saw Palmetto Tea Benefits Saw palmetto tea is known for its important role in treating urinary tract infections. Drinking this tea helps to gently stimulate urination; thanks to this, the infectious microorganisms are “flushed out” along with the urine. Drinking saw palmetto tea helps remove toxins and waste products which can affect and reduce the functions of the kidneys, liver, and bladder. It also helps with the digestive system; it is drunk to treat diarrhea, acid reflux, gas, bloating, and irritable bowel syndrome. Saw palmetto tea also helps calm coughs and treats various forms of chest congestion. It is useful if you’ve got a headache. It can be used to treat benign prostate enlargement and prostatitis, as well. Saw Palmetto Tea Side Effects You shouldn’t drink saw palmetto tea if you’re pregnant or breastfeeding. It can act like a hormone, which might lead to problems. Drinking saw palmetto tea before a surgery is also bad. It might slow down the blood clotting process, which might lead to extra bleeding both during and after the surgery. It is recommended that you stop drinking this tea two weeks before you’ve got a surgery scheduled. Although rare, the possibility of getting an allergic reaction to saw palmetto tea still exists. Symptoms include rashes, itchiness, difficulty in breathing, and swelling of the mouth, tongue or nose. Also, be careful with the amount of saw palmetto tea you drink. The recommended amount is 3-4 cups a day. If you drink too much, you might get some of the following symptoms: dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, constipation, and diarrhea. Saw palmetto tea can easily be used as a daily hot beverage. You’re bound to enjoy both the taste and its many health benefits.... discover saw palmetto tea!

Loiasis is the disease caused by the ?larial worm Loa loa, a thread-like worm which di?ers from

W. bancrofti in that it is shorter and thicker, and is found in the bloodstream during the day, not at night. It is transmitted by the mango ?y, Chrysops dimidiata, but other ?ies of this genus can also transmit it. It is con?ned to West and Central Africa. The characteristic feature of the disease is the appearance of fugitive swellings which may arise anywhere in the body in the course of the worm’s migration through it: these are known as Calabar swellings. The worm is often found in the eye, hence the old name of the worm in Africa – the eye worm. Diethylcarbamazine is the treatment for this form of FILARIASIS.... loiasis

This is also known as green monkey disease, or vervet monkey disease, because the ?rst recorded human cases acquired their infection from monkeys of this genus. It is a highly dangerous viral infection with a high mortality rate. The incubation period is 4–9 days. The onset is sudden with marked nausea and severe headache; this is followed by rising temperature, diarrhoea, and vomiting. Towards the end of the ?rst week a rash appears which persists for a week and is accompanied by internal bleeding. In those who recover, convalescence is slow and prolonged. Apart from laboratory infections acquired through working with vervet monkeys, all the cases so far reported have occurred in Africa.... marburg disease

Azadirachta indica

Meliaceae

San: Nimbah, Prabhadrah Hin,

Ben: Nim, Nim Mal: Aryaveppu

Tel: Vepa Ori: Nimba

Tam: Vembu, Veppu Pun: Bakam,Bukhain

Guj: Limba

Kan: Bevu Mar: Limbu

Importance: Neem or margose tree, also known as Indian lilac is a highly exploited medicinal plant of Indian origin, widely grown and cultivated throughout India. Every part of the tree, namely root, bark, wood, twig, leaf, flower, fruit, seed, kernel and oil has been in use from time immemorial in the Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine. Nimbarishta, nimbadi churna and nimbharidra khand are well known preparations. It is valuable as an antiseptic, used in the treatment of small pox. Small twigs are used as tooth brushes and as a prophylactic for mouth and teeth complaints. Extract from the leaves are useful for sores, eczema and skin diseases. Boiled and smashed leaves serve as excellent antiseptic. Decoction of leaves is used for purifying blood. Neem oil is used in soaps, toothpaste and as a hair tonic to kill lice. Seed is used in snake bite. The fruits and leaves being renewable, provide sustainable returns. Different parts of the fruit are separated into components and each one produces derivatives of varying chemical nature and utility. Neem derivatives are now used in agriculture, public health, human and veterinary medicines, toiletries, cosmetics and livestock production. Applications as pesticides, allied agrochemicals, plant nutrients and adjuvants for improving nitrogen use efficiency are of much importance. Neem kernel suspension (1%) is a house hold insecticide. Pesticide formulations containing azadirachtin are now commercially available in India, USA, Canada, Australia and Germany. Neem cake is rich in N, P, K, Ca and S. Neem Meliacins like epinimbin and nimbidin are commercially exploited for the preparation of slow and extended release of nutrients including nitrification inhibitors (Eg. Nimin). Extracts of neem seed oil and bark check the activity of male reproductive cells and prevents sperm production. Neem seed oil is more effective than the bark for birth control. Neem based commercial products are also available for diabetes treatment (Nimbola, JK-22), contraceptive effect (Sensal, Nim-76) and mosquito/ insect repelling (Srivastava, 1989; Tewari, 1992; Parmer and Katkar, 1993; Pushpangadan et al, 1993; Mariappan, 1995).

Distribution: Neem is a native of the Siwalik deccan parts of South India. It grows wild in the dry forests of Andra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It has spread to Pakistan, Bangladesh , Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Middle East Sudan and Niger. It is now grown in Australia, Africa, Fiji, Mauritious, Central and South America, the Carribeans, Puerto Rico and Haiti. The largest known plantation of nearly 50,000 trees is at Arafat plains en route to Mecca in Saudi Arabia for providing shade to Haj pilgrims (Ahmed, 1988).

Botany: The genus Azadirachta of family Meliaceae comprises two species: A. indica A. Juss syn. Melia azadirachta Linn. and A. excelsa (Jack) Jacobs syn. A. integrifolia Mers., the latter being found in Philippines, Sumatra, Malaya, Borneo and New Guinea. Neem is a hardy medium to large, mostly evergreen tree attaining 20m height and 2.5m girth. It has a short bole with wide spreading branches and glabrous twigs forming a round to oval crown. The bark is thick, dark-gray with numerous longitudinal furrows and transverse cracks. Leaves are imparipinnately compound, alternate, exstipulate and 20-38cm long. Inflorescence is long, slender, axillary or terminal panicle. Flowers are white or pale yellow, small, bisexual, pentamerous and bracteate. Stamens 10; filaments unite to form a moniliform tube. Gynoecium is tricarpellary and syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular. Each carpel bears two collateral ovules on parietal placentation. Fruit is one seeded drupe with woody endocarp, greenish yellow when ripe. Seed ellipsoid, cotyledons thick fleshy and oily. Neem has chromosome number 2n = 28. Neem trees tend to become deciduous for a brief period in dry ecology. Ecotypes, exhibiting morphological variation in root growth, leaf size, contents, bole length , canopy, inflorescence, fruit bearing, seed size, shape and quality exist in natural populations.

Agrotechnology: Neem grows in tropical arid regions with high temperatures, altitudes between 50m and 1000m, as little rainfall as 130mm/yr and long stretches of drought. Well drained sunny hill places are ideal. It grows on most kinds of soils including dry, stony, shallow, nutrient deficient soils with scanty vegetation, moderately saline and alkali soils, black cotton, compact clays and laterite crusts. However, silty flats, clayey depressions and land prone to inundation are not conducive for its growth (Chaturvedi, 1993). Soil pH of 5.0 to 10.0 is ideal. It brings surface soil to neutral pH by its leaf litter. It has extensive and deeply penetrating root system capable of extracting moisture and nutrients even from highly leached poor sandy soils.

Neem propagates easily by seed without any pretreatment, though it can be regenerated by vegetative means like root and shoot cuttings. Seeds are collected from June to August. These remain viable for 3-5 weeks only which necessitates sowing within this short time. Seeds may be depulped and soaked in water for 6 hours before sowing. Seeds are sown on nursery beds at 15x5cm spacing, covered with rotten straw and irrigated. Germination takes 15-30 days. Seedlings can be transplanted after two months of growth onwards either to polybags or to mainfield. Neem can be grown along with agricultural crops like groundnut, bean, millets, sorghum and wheat. It is also suitable for planting in roadsides, for afforestation of wastelands and under agroforestry system. For field planting, pits of size 50-75 cm cube are dug 5-6m apart, filled with top soil and well rotten manure, formed into a heap, and seedling is planted at the centre of the heap. FYM is applied at 10-20 kg/plant every year. Chemical fertilizers are not generally applied. Irrigation and weeding are required during the first year for quick establishment.

More than 38 insect pests are reported on Neem which may become serious at times. The important ones are seed and flower insect (Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood), defoliators (Boarmia variegata Moore and Eurema sp.), sap suckers (Helopeltes antonii Signoret and Pulvinaria maxima Green) , root feeders (Hototrichia consanguinea Blanchard), mealy bug (Pseudococus gilbertensis), scale insect (Parlatoria orientalis) and a leaf webber (Loboschiza Koenigiana)(Beeson, 1941, Bhasin et al, 1958, Parmar, 1995). They can be controlled by the application of 0.01-0.02% monocrotophos or dimethoate. No serious diseases are reported in Neem. Flowering starts after 5 years. In India flowering is during January-May and fruits mature from May-August. The leaves are shed during February- March and a full grown tree produces about 350 kg dry leaves and 40-50 kg berries per annum. Fresh fruits give 60% dry fruits which yield 10% kernel which contains 45% fixed oil, on an average. After 10 years of growth the wood can be cut and used as timber.

Properties and Activity: Dry Neem leaves contain carbohydrates 47-51%, crude protein 14-19%, crude fiber 11-24%, fat 2-7%, ash 7-9%, Ca 0.8-2.5% and P 0.1-0.2%. Leaves also contain the flavanoid quercetin, nimbosterol (-sitosterol), kaempferol and myricetin. Seed and oil contains desacetylnimbin, azadirachtin (C35H44O16), nimbidol, meliantriol ,tannic acid, S and amino acids. Neem cake contain the highest sulphur content of 1.07% among all the oil cakes. Trunk bark contains nimbin 0.04%, nimbinin 0.001%, nimbidin 0.4%, nimbosterol 0.03%, essential oil 0.02%, tannins 6.0 %, margosine and desacetylnimbin (Atal and Kapur, 1982; Thakur et al 1989).

Neem bark is bitter, astringent, acrid, refrigerant, depurative, antiperiodic, vulnerary, demulcent, insecticidal, liver tonic, expectorant and anthelmintic. Leaves are bitter, astringent, acrid, depurative, antiseptic, ophthalmic, anthelmintic, alexeteric, appetizer, insecticidal, demulcent and refrigerant. Seed and oil are bitter, acrid, thermogenic, purgative, emollient, anodyne, anthelmintic depurative, vulnerary, uterine stimulant, urinary astringent, pesticidal and antimicrobial (Warrier et al, 1993).... neem

Nematodes which live in nodules in the wall of the large intestine. Belong to the genus Oesophagostomum. Infect a range of mammal species including humans.... nodular worms

The taxonomic term for a group, above Genus, but below Class. See Taxonomy.... order

A group of biting flies commonly called sandflies including the genus Phlebotomus, sometimes vectors of leishmaniasis.... phlebotomine

Apicomplexan protozoa of the genus Babesia. Transmitted by Ixodid ticks and cause diseases such as red water fever in cattle and biliary fever in dogs. Rare human infections are recorded, especially in the splenectomised.... piroplasms

PNEUMONIA caused by a species of the genus of PROTOZOA, a parasitic micro-organism. Pneumocystis carinii causes an opportunistic infection in the lung which is dangerous to people whose immune system is impaired (see IMMUNITY), thus reducing their resistance to infections. People with AIDS/HIV or LEUKAEMIA have impaired immune systems and P. carinii is a major cause of death in the former. Fever, dry cough and breathlessness are among the symptoms; treatment is with high doses of antibiotic drugs such as CO-TRIMOXAZOLE or PENTAMIDINE.... pneumocystis pneumonia

Trigonella foenum-graecum

Fabaceae

San: Methika, Methi, Kalanusari;

Hin: Meti, Mutti; Ben, Mar: Methi;

Mal: Uluva;

Tam: Ventayam;

Kan: Mentya, Menlesoppu;

Tel: Mentulu, Mentikura; Arab: Hulabaha

Importance: Fenugreek or Greek Hayes is cultivated as a leafy vegetable, condiment and as medicinal plant. The leaves are refrigerant and aperient and are given internally for vitiated conditions of pitta. A poultice of the leaves is applied for swellings and burns. Seeds are used for fever, vomiting, anorexia, cough, bronchitis and colonitis. In the famous Malayalam treatises like ‘Padhyam’ ‘Kairali’ and ‘Arunodhayam’, uluva is recommended for use as kalanusari in Dhanvantaram formulations of ‘Astaghradayam’. An infusion of the seeds is a good cool drink for small pox patients. Powdered seeds find application in veterinary medicine. An aqueous extract of the seeds possesses antibacterial property (Kumar et al, 1997; Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution: Fenugreek is a native of South Eastern Europe and West Asia. In India fenugreek is grown in about 0.30 lakh ha producing annually about 30,000 tonnes of seeds. The major states growing fenugreek are Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Karnataka. It is grown wild in Kashmir and Punjab.

Botany: Trigonella foenum-graecum Linn. belongs to family, Fabaceae. It is an annual herb, 30-60cm in height, leaves are light green, pinnately trifoliate, leaflets toothed, flowers are white or yellowish white, papilionaceous and axillary. Fruits are legumes, 5-7.5cm long, narrow, curved, tapering with a slender point and containing 10-20 deeply furrowed seeds per pod. There are two species of the genus Trigonella which are of economic importance viz. T. foenum graecum, the common methi and T. corniculata, the Kasuri methi. These two differ in their growth habit and yield. The latter one is a slow growing type and remains in rosette condition during most of the vegetative growth period (Kumar et al, 1997; Warrier et al, 1995).

Agrotechnology: Fenugreek has a wide adaptability and is successfully cultivated both in the tropics as well as temperate regions. It is tolerant to frost and freezing weather. It does well in places receiving moderate or low rainfall areas but not in heavy rainfall area. It can be grown on a wide variety of soils but clayey loam is relatively better. The optimum soil pH should be 6-7 for its better growth and development. Some of the improved cultivars available for cultivation are CO1 (TNAU), Rajendra Kanti (RAU), RMt-1(RAU) and Lam Selection-1 (APAU). Land is prepared by ploughing thrice and beds of uniform size are prepared. Broadcasting the seed on the bed and raking the surface to cover the seeds is normally followed. But to facilitate intercultural operations, line sowing is also advocated in rows at 20-25cm apart. Sowing in the plains is generally in September-November while in the hills it is from March. The seed rate is 20-25kg/ha and the seeds germinate within 6-8 days. Besides 15t of FYM, a fertiliser dose of 25:25:50kg NPK/ha is recommended. Entire P,K and half N are to be applied basally and the remaining half N 30 days after sowing. First irrigation is to be given immediately after sowing and subsequent irrigations at 7-10 days interval. Hoeing and weeding are to be done during the early stages of plant growth and thinning at 25-30 days to have a spacing of 10-15cm between plants and to retain 1-2 plants per hill. Root rot (caused by Rhizoctonia solani) is a serious disease and can be controlled by drenching carbendazim 0.05% first at the onset of the disease and another after one monthof first application. In about 25-30 days, young shoots are nipped off 5cm above ground level and subsequent cuttings of leaves may be taken after 15 days. It is advisable to take 1-2 cuttings before the crop is allowed for flowering and fruiting when pods are dried, the plants are pulled out, dried in the sun and seeds are threshed by beating with stick or by rubbing with hands. Seeds are winnowed, cleaned and dried in the sun. They may be stored in gunny bags lined with paper. An yield of 1200-1500kg of seeds and about 800-1000kg of leaves may be obtained per hectare in crops grown for both the purposes (Kumar et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Seeds contain sapogenins-diosgenin, its 25-epimer(yamogenin), tigogenin, gitogenin, yuccagenin, 25-2-spirosta-3-5-diene and its -epimer. Seeds also contain a C27-steroidal sapogenin-peptide ester-fenugreekine. Seeds, in addition, contain 4-hydroxyleucine and saponins-fenugrins A-E:two furostanol glycoxides-trigonelloxide C and (255)-22-O-methyl-52-firostan-3 ,22,26,triol-3-O- -rhamnopyrans syl(1-2) C- -D-glucopyranosyl (1-3)- -D- glucopyranoxide-26-O- -D-glucopyranoxide.

Other chemical constituents are sterols- -sitosterol and cholesterol, flavone C- glycosides-vitexin, iso-vitexin, vitexin-2”-O-P-coumarate and vicenin-2. Flavonoids- quercetin and luteolin, flavonoid glycoside-vicenin-I. Invitro seedling callus culture gave flavonoids-luteolin and vitexin-1-glycoside. An essential oil is also reported from seeds. Leaves gave saponins-gracecunins A-G, flavonoids- kaempferol and quercetin; sterols- - sitosterol, sapogenins-diosgenin, gitogenin coumarin-scopoletin is also reported from the plant.

Seeds are bitter, mucilaginous, aromatic, carminative, tonic, diuretic, thermogenic, galactagogue, astringent, emollient, amophrodisiac, antirheumatic, CNS depressant and antiimplantation. Fenugreekine is hypoglycaemic, diuretic, hypotensive, cardiotonic, antiphlogistic. It showed 80% inhibition of vaccina virus.... fenugreek

A condition in which certain muscles enlarge owing to a fatty and ?brous degeneration, giving a false appearance of increased strength.

Pseudomonas Aeruginosa

A pathogenic bacterium of the genus pseudomonas – rod-like, motile gram-negative bacteria (see GRAM’S STAIN) – that occurs in pus from wounds and is associated with urinary tract infections. The bacteria mostly live in soil and decomposing organic matter and help to recycle nitrogen in nature. Most of the bacteria in this genus are harmless to humans.... pseudohypertrophic muscular dystrophy

Allium sativum

Liliaceae

San: Lasunah, Rasonah;

Hin:Lasun, Lahasun;

Ben: Lashan;

Mal: Vellulli;

Kan: Belluli;

Tam: Vellaipuntu; Mar: Lasunas; Ass: Naharu; Tel:Vellulli, Tella-gadda;

Guj: Lasan

Importance: Garlic is one of the important bulb crops used as a spice or condiment with medicinal value throughout the world. It possesses high nutritive value. Its preparations are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and vata, cough, whooping cough, bronchitis, asthma, fever, facial paralysis, flatulence, colic, constipation, atonic dyspepsia, helminthiasis, duodenal ulcers, pulmonary and laryngeal tuberculosis, opthalmopathy, cardiopathy, fatigue, leucoderma, leprosy, hysteria, haemorrhoids, sciatica, otalgia, lumbago, swellings, splenopathy, hepatopathy, pneumonopathy, anthralgia, sore eyes, ear ache and dental caries (Kumar et al, 1997).

Distribution: Garlic is a native of Southern Europe and it is cultivated all over the world.. It is grown throughout India; Gujarat and Orissa being the leading states.

Botany: The genus Allium of Liliaceae family comprises a number of species. The important ones are the following:

A. sativum Linn. syn. A. porrum Linn.

A. cepa Linn.

A. ampeloprasum Linn.

A. ascalonicum Linn. A. leptophyllum Wall. A. macleanii Baker.

A. schoenoprasum Linn.

A. tuberosum Roxb.

Allium sativum is a scapigerous foetid perennial medicinal herb with underground compound bulbs covered over by outer white thin scales and with simple smooth, round stem, surrounded at the bottom by tubular leaf sheath. The leaves are simple, long, flat and linear. The flowers are small and white arranged in rounded umbels mixed with small bulbils. The entire umbel is enclosed in a tear-drop-shaped membranous spathe. Flowers are usually sterile (Warrier et al, 1993).

Agrotechnology: Garlic can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. It prefers moderate temperature in summer as well as in winter. Short days are very favourable for the formation of bulbs. Garlic requires well drained loamy soils rich in humus, with fairly good content of potash. Garlic is propagated by cloves or bulblets. In the hills, sowing is done in April and May. Types with bold and compact cloves and thick white covering sheath are preferred for planting. Ootty-1 garlic is an improved variety by clonal selection released from TNAU, Coimbatore. Garlic may be broadcast, planted in furrows or dibbled at the rate of 150-200kg cloves/ha. In furrow planting, cloves are dropped 7.5-10cm apart in furrows 15cm deep and covered lightly with loose soil. Cloves may be dibbled 5 to 7.5cm deep and 7.5cm apart in rows which are 15cm apart with their growing end upwards and then covered with loose soil. A basal dose of 60kg N and 50kg each of P2O5 and K2O are applied along with 25t/ha of FYM. 60kg N is given as topdressing 45 days after planting. First irrigation is given immediately after sowing and subsequent irrigations are given at 10-15 days interval depending upon the soil moisture availability. The last irrigation should be given 2-3 days before harvesting to facilitate easy harvest and minimum damage to bulbs. First weeding and hoeing is to be done at one mo nth after sowing followed by a second weeding one month after first interculture. Hoeing at about two and a half months from sowing loosens the soil and helps in setting of bigger and well-filled bulbs. Garlic is attacked by Thrips tabacii which causes withering of leaves. Application of methyl demeton 25EC or dimethoate 30EC at 1ml/l will check the pest incidence. Leaf spot caused by Alternaria solanii can be controlled by spraying Dithane M.45 at fortnightly intervals at 2.5g/l of water. Garlic is harvested when the tops turn yellowish or brownish and show signs of drying up. The plants are uprooted, tied into small bundles and kept in shade for 2-3 days for curing. Average yield of garlic is 6-8t/ha. (Kumar et al, 1997.)

Properties and activity: Garlic bulb is reported to contain volatile oil, alliin (S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide), S-methyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide and allinase. It is rich in vitamins like thiamine, riboflavine and niacin. Volatile oil contains allicin (diallyl thiosulphinate), an active odour principle of garlic. Other major compounds present are diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide, allyl methyl trisulphide and allyl methyl disulphide (Husain et al., 1992).

Garlic bulb is antirheumatic, stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, diuretic, antispasmodic, astringent, antiparalytic, antileprotic, aperient, febrifuge, carminative, stomachic, alterative and emmenagogue. The essential oil is hypocholestrolemic, hypotensive, antitumour and antidiabetic. Diallyl disulphide and diallyl trisulphide from essential oil have larvicidal action. Bulbs also have anti-bacterial, and anti-fungal activity.... garlic

The taxonomic group of hydroids that are not single animals, but colonies of animals. They may be either free swimming or floating, with or without a float. The genus of dominating medical importance is Physalia.... siphonophora

A disease caused by haemoflagellate protozoa and transmitted by blood-feeding tsetse flies of the genus Glossina. East African (Rhodesian) Sleeping Sickness is the more severe zoonotic form caused byTrypanosoma brucei rhodesiense found on the game-rich savannahs of East Central Africa while West African (Gambian) Sleeping Sickness is the more chronic form found in riverine areas of West Central Africa and which has a significant human reservoir although animals such as pigs may also be involved as reservoirs.... sleeping sickness

Solanum spp.

Solanaceae

Solanums comprise a very important group of medicinal plants having multifarious uses.

These plants belong to the family Solanaceae and genus Solanum. A number of species are reported to be medicinal which are briefly described below.

1. S. anguivi Lam. syn. S. indicum auct. non Linn.

Eng: Poison berry; San: Brhati, Simhi;

Hin: Barhauta, Birhatta;

Mal: Puthirichunda, Cheruchunda;

Tam: Karimulli, Puthirichundai;

Kan: Ramagulla;

Tel: Cittimulaga, Tellamulaka It is found throughout the tropics, in plains and at low elevations. It is much branched, very prickly undershrub, 0.3-1.5m in height. Leaves are simple, large, ovate, subentire, sinuate or lobed. Flowers are blue in extra-axillary cymes having stellately hairy and prickly peduncles. Fruits are globose berries, reddish or dark yellow with smooth or minutely pitted seeds. Its roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, odontalgia, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, verminosis, diarrhoea, pruritus, leprosy, skin diseases, strangury, cough, asthma, bronchitis, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, fever, cardiac disorders and vomiting. Roots bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, anodyne, digestive, carminative, anthelmintic, stomachic, constipating, resolvent, demulcent, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, febrifuge and cardiotonic.

2. S. dulcamara Linn.

Eng: Bittersweet, Bitter night shade; San: Kakmachi; Pun: Rubabarik It is found in tropical situations in India and Sikkim. The plant is rich in alkaloidal glycosides like solamarine, tomatidenol, solasodine and soladulcine. The berry and twig are alterative, antisyphilitic, diaphoretic, resolvent, narcotic, diuretic, antirheumatic and used in liver disorders and psoriasis.

3. S. erianthum D. Don, syn. S. verbascifolium auct. non Linn.

San: Vidari;

Hin: Asheta;

Mal: Malachunda;

Tam: Malaichundai, Anaisundaikkai

Pun: Kalamena;

Tel: Rasagadi

The plant is distributed over the tropical and subtropical zones of India. The plant contains alkaloids and steroidal sapogenins. Leaves and fruits contain solasodine, solasodiene, solafloridine, diosgenin, vespertilin and pregnenolone. The plant is CNS depressant, antiinflammatory and useful in burns.

4. S. melongena Linn.

Eng: Brinjal, Egg plant; San: Varttaki;

Hin: Bengan, Badanjan;

Mal: Vazhuthina

Tam: Kattirikkai;

Kan: Badanekaya, Doddabadane;

Tel: Vankaya, Niruvanga

It is mainly cultivated as a vegetable throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is an erect or suffrutescent, herbaceous, armed or unarmed perennial shrub. Leaves are simple, large, entire and lobed. Flowers are blue, in clusters of 2-5. Fruits are large, white, yellow or dark purple berries of different shapes capped with thick persistent calyx. Seeds are many, yellow or cream and discoid. The roots, leaves and unripe fruits are useful in cholera, bronchitis, asthma, odontalgia and fever. The roots are laxative, analgesic and cardiotonic. Leaves are sialagogue, narcotic and antiherpetic. The unripe fruits are bitter, acrid, sweet, aphrodisiac, cardiotonic and haematinic.

5. S. melongena var. incanum (Linn.) Prain syn. S. incanum Linn., S. coagulens Forsk.

San: Brihati;

Hin: Baigan;

Mal: Cheruvazhuthina

It is a herbaceous prickly plant found in warm humid tropics. It is grown almost throughout the year in the plains and during summer on the hills. It grows 0.6-2m in height. Leaves are simple, alternate lobed. Flowers are blue or white, 5 lobed, calyx with spines. Fruits are ellipsoid berries. The plant is a constituent of the dasamoola which helps to overcome vitiated tridoshas and cures dyspepsia, fever, respiratory and cardiac disorders, skin ailments, vomiting, ulcers and poisonous affections. In Ayurveda the formulations like Brihatyadi Kashaya, dashamoolarishta, Indukantaghritam, Dasamoolaharithaki, etc are the important preparations with the roots. It is also used in the treatment of toothache and sore throat. The fruit is reported to stimulate the intrahepatic metabolism of cholesterol. Roots are antiasthmatic and stimulant. Leaves are used in cholera, bronchitis and asthma. Fruits are useful in liver complaints.

6. S. nigrum Linn. syn. S. rubrum Mill.

Eng: Black night shade; San: Kakamachi;

Hin: Makoy, Gurkkamai;

Mal: Karimthakkali;

Tam: Manathakkali, Milagutakkali;

Kan: Kakarndi;

Tel: Kamachi, Kachi

It is seen wild throughout India. It is an erect, divaricately branched, unarmed, suffrutescent annual herb. Leaves are ovate or oblong, sinuate-toothed or lobed and glabrous. Flowers are 3-8 in extra-axillary drooping subumbellate cymes. Fruits are purplish black or reddish berries. Seeds are many, discoid, yellow, minutely pitted. The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of tridosha, rheumatalgia, swellings, cough, asthma, bronchitis, wounds, ulcers, flatulence, dyspepsia, strangury, hepatomegaly, otalgia, hiccough, opthalmopathy, vomiting, cardiopathy, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, splenomegaly, haemarrhoids, nephropathy, dropsy and general debility. The plant is bitter, acrid, emollient, antiseptic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, anodyne, vulnerary, digestive, laxative, diuretic, cardiotonic, depurative, diaphoretic, febrifuge, rejuvenating, sedative, alterant and tonic.

7. S. spirale Roxb.

Hin: Munguskajur

It is seen wild in Assam and Khasi hills in India. Its root is diuretic and narcotic.

8. S. stramoniifolium Jacq., syn. S. ferox auct. non Linn.

San: Garbhada;

Hin: Rambaigan;

Mal: Anachunda;

Tam: Anaichundai;

Tel: Mulaka

It is observed in India in the states of Assam, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Its berries contain glycoalkaloids such as solasonine and solasodine. Its roots and berries are bechic, antiasthmatic, antirheumatic, antiviral, anticancerous and spermicidal.

9. S. surattense Burm. F. syn. S. xanthocarpum schrad. & Wendl., S. jacquinii Willd.

Eng: Yellow-berried nightshade; San: Kantakari, Nidigdhika;

Hin: Remgani,Kateli;

Mal: Kantakarichunda;

Tam: Kantankattiri;

Kan: Nelagulli;

Tel: Callamulaga

It is found throughout India and Pakistan in dry situations as weed on roadsides and wastelands. It is prickly, diffuse, bright green, suffrutescent, perennial undershrub, with zigzag branches. Leaves are ovate-oblong, hairy on both sides and armed on the midrib and the nerves. Flowers are bluish purple, in extra-axillary cymes. Fruits are glabrous, globular drooping berry, yellow or white with green veins, surrounded by the calyx. Seeds are many, small, reniform, smooth and yellowish brown.

The whole plant is useful in vitiated conditions of vata and kapha, helminthiasis, dental caries, inflammations, flatulence, constipation, dyspepsia, anorexia, leprosy, skin diseases, hypertension, fever, cough, asthma, bronchitis, hiccough, lumbago, haemorrhoids and epilepsy. The plant is bitter, acrid, thermogenic, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, carminative, appetiser, stomachic, depurative, sudorific, febrifuge, expectorant, laxative, stimulant, diuretic, rejuvenating, emmenagogue and aphrodisac. Fruits contain solasonine, solamargine and solasodine.

10. S. torvum Sw.

Eng: West Indian Turkey Berry;

Hin,

Ben: Titbaigan;

Mal: Kattuchunda;

Kan: Kadu Sunde;

Tam: Sundaikai, Amarakai;

Tel: Kundavustic, Kotuvestu; Ass: Hathibhekuri

It is seen throughout tropical India, particularly in Orissa, Bihar and Manipur. The plant is CVS active and used in splenomegaly. Fruits and leaves contain solasonine, solasodine, jurubine, jurubidine, torvonin, torvogenin, chlorogenin, paniculogenin, sisalogenone, neosolaspigenin and solaspigenin.

11. S. trilobatum Linn.

Eng: Climbing Brinjal; San: Alarka;

Mal: Tutavalam;

Tam: Tuduvalai;

Kan: Mullumusta;

Tel: Telavuste

It is mostly seen in South and Western India. The plant contains alkamine and solamarine. The berry and flowers are bechic and used in bronchitis. The alkaloid solamarine is antibiotic and possesses antitumour activity.

12. S. viarum Dunal, syn. S. Khasianum C. B. Clarke

Hin: Kantakari

It is widely distributed in Khasi, Jaintia and Naga hills of Assam and Manipur upto 2000m and in Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa and in the Niligiris. The plant and berries contain solasonine (which on hydrolysis yields solasodine), solamargine, khasianine, nantigenin, solasodine, diosgenin and saponin-solakhasianin. The plant is spasmolytic and CNS active. The berry is a source of solasodine used in the synthesis of corticosteroidal hormones.

Agrotechnology: The agrotechnology for the solanaceous group of plants are almost similar. They come up very well in tropical and subtropical climate upto 2000m altitude. They can be raised on a variety of soils good in organic matter. Propagation is by seeds. The seedlings are first raised in the nursery and transplanted to the main field 30-45 days after sowing when the plants attain 8-10cm height. During rainy season, planting is done on ridges while during summer in furrows, at a spacing ranging from 30-90cm depending upon the stature and spreading habit of the plant. The transplanted seedlings should be given temporary shade for 2-4 days during summer. FYM or compost at 20-25t/ha is applied at the time of land preparation. A moderate fertiliser dose of 75:40:40 N, P2O5, K2O/ha may be given. P is given as basal dose, N and K are applied in 2-3 split doses. One or two intercultural operations are needed to control weeds. The plants need earthing up after weeding and topdressing. Irrigation is needed at 3-4 days interval during summer and on alternate days during fruiting period. Plants need staking to avoid lodging due to heavy bearing. Shoot borers, mealy bugs, leaf webbers and miners are noted on the crop, which can be controlled by spraying mild insecticides. Root knot nematode, wilting and mosaic diseases are also noted on the crop. Field sanitation, crop rotation and burning of crop residues are recommended.... solanums

This is short for Staphylococcus, a genus of micrococci bacteria with many members that can cause disease. They are gram-positive, nonmotile bacteria that are aerobic-(unless they need to be anaerobic). Staph of various types are responsible for boils and carbuncles; they may be involved in impetigo, toxic shock syndrome, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, and urinary tract infections, as well as some food poisoning. They stay around hospitals and veterinary clinics waiting to get you. They are also a normal part of the mouth, throat, and skin flora in a third to a half of all of us, causing no problems, but just waiting. Staph has always been with us. Some even eat our antibiotics for breakfast.... staph

Gloriosa superba

Liliaceae

San: Langali, Visalya, Agnishika,Shakrapushpi, Garbhaghatini

Hin: Kalihari

Mal: Menthonni

Tam: Akkinichilam

Pan: Kariari

Guj: Dudhiya vachnag

Kan: Nangulika Mar: Nagakaria

Ben: Bishalanguli Ori: Dangogahana

Tel: Adavinabhi

Importance: Glory lily is a glabrous herbaceous climber which yields different types of troplone alkaloids of medicinal importance. The major alkaloids are colchicine , 3-demethyl colchicine and colchicoside. There is another alkaloid gloriosine which promises to be even more effective than colchicine in plant breeding for inducing polyploidy. The genus has importance in the ornamental horticulture due to its bright flowers and wiry climbing stem.

The roots and rhizomes are used in traditional system of medicine. Its abortifacient and antipyretic properties have been mentioned in ancient classics “Charaka”. The name Garbhaghatini is due to this abortifacient activity. They are useful in the treatment of inflammations, ulcers, scrofula, hemorrhoids, pruritus, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, flatulence, intermittent fevers and debility. The root is given internally as an effective antidote against cobra poison. A paste of the root is also used as an anodyne; applications in bites of poisonous insects, snake bites, scorpion sting, parasitic skin diseases and leprosy (Nadkarni,1954; Chaudhuri and Thakur; 1994).

Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout tropical India upto an altitude of 2500m and in Andaman islands. It is also cultivated in tropical and South Africa, Madagaskar, Indonesia and Malasia. It is reported to be cultivated in some parts of Europe. In India it was cultivated in RRL, Jammu in 1960s. Recently it was taken up by Indian Council of Agricultural Research(ICAR). Cultivation of the plant is mostly confined to the Southern states of India besides its collection from wild sources.

Botany: Gloriosa superba Linn. belongs to Liliaceae family. It is a glabrous climbing herb with tuberous root stock grows over hedges and small trees. Stem is 6m long which grows to a height of 1.2-1.5m before the stem branches. Leaves are simple, alternate or whorled, sessile, ovate-lanceolate, 17x4.5cm, tip elongating into a spirally coiled tendril, base cordate and margin entire. Flowers are large in terminal racemes; perianth segments 6, linear, flexuosus and deflexed, basal half bright yellow, upper half red; stamens 6; ovary glabrous, 3-celled. Fruits are capsules, linear-oblong, upto 6.8cm long, 3 equal lobes, one or two lobes shorter in malformed fruits; green dried to pale and then black colour, dehisced into three sections. Seeds are oval in shape, testa spongy, embryo cylindric, 30-150 seeds per capsule, pale orange attached to the sutures. Tubers are cylindric, large, simple, ‘V’ shaped with the two limps equal or unequal in lenth pointed towards end brownish externally and yellowish internally. (Narain, 1977)

Agrotechnology: This is a rainy season plant and sprouts well in warm, humid and tropical conditions. It should be grown in sun as the plants in shade become weedy and thin and move towards light. G. superba is a shallow rooted plant and grows well in a variety of soils either clay or sand through out India. It grows well in a light porous soil with good drainage. For vigorous growth, greater blooms and strong tuber, a mixture of soil, sand and compost manure is recommended. The propagation is mainly by tubers, by division of rhizomes. Seeds remain dormant for 6-9 months and due to hard seed coat, about 20-30 days are required for germination and seeds may take 3-4 years before it matures to flower. Treatment of seeds by gibberellin(1-3 ppm) resulted in higher yield of colchicine in the plant and higher production of tubers. In tissue culture, young sprouts are cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s medium (Msb) supplemented with kinetin (1-4 mg/l). Direct regeneration of the explants are obtained.

The seeds and rhizomes are sown usually in the last week of June to mid July. The rhizomes are planted by splitting carefully into two from their ‘V’ shaped joints (two buds being at the extreme end of each rhizome) in lines 20cm apart at a distance of 20cm (while seeds are sown in lines at a distance of 4-6cm apart). They are watered regularly when the plants are growing. After green shoots appear 2-3 showers are weekly. The irradiation of the plant at 42% natural sunlight intensity increased the production of tuber and colchicine. They usually takes 6-10 weeks to flower after sprouting and then set on fruits. The fruits ripen at the end of October and after that aerial shoot eventually dies, leaving the fleshy tubers underground. The tubers are dug out with great care. An individual plant produces 50g tubers on an average. The average yield is approximately 4000-5000kg of rhizomes and 1000 kg of seed per hectare. The content of colchicine is usually 0.358% and 1.013% in tubers and seeds, respectively.

Post harvest technology: Lixivation of the material is done with 70% ethyl alcohol. Concentrated under vacuum to one third of its volume and extracted with chloroform for colchicine and related substances-concentration of the aqueous phase to syrup which is extracted 6-8 times with a mixture of CHCl3 - alcohol (4:1) to yield colchicoside.

Properties and activity: The flowers, leaves and tubers contain colchicine, superbin, N-formyl deacetyl colchicine, demethyl colochicine and lumicolchicine. Tubers also contain gloriosine. Leaves in addition, contain chelidonic acid, 2-hydroxy 6-methoxy benzoic acid and -sitosterol glucoside. Colchicine, demethyl colchicine and colchicoside have been reported from seeds. Rhizome is oxytocic, anticancerous, antimalarial, stomachic, purgative, cholagogue, anthelmintic, alterative, febrifuge and antileprotic. Leaf is antiasthmatic and antiinflammatory. Root shows antigonorrhoeic and antibiotic activity. This plant has poisonous effect to enviroment and livestock. The toxic properties are due to presence of alkaloids chiefly colchicine (Clewer et al, 1915).... glory lily

Usually an innocuous genus of jellyfish represented by Stomolophus meleagris world-wide. However, in areas of East China around Behoe, on the East China Sea, there have now been 8 reported deaths from a rare species called S. numerai.... stomolophus

A genus of gram-staining chain-forming cocci bacteria. Some are responsible for common and potentially serious human infections, ranging from scarlet fever and strep throat to bacterial endocarditis and pus pockets. Most of the disease-potential streps are also a normal part of the skin, mouth and upper respiratory flora.... strep