Compounds comprising a PROTEIN and a CARBOHYDRATE, such as mucins, mucoid and amyloid.
Habitat: Native to tropical America. Now cultivated in Darjeeling, Assam, in the Nilgiris, and in Sikkim.
English: Ipecac, Ipecacuanha.Action: Root—Antiprotozal, expectorant (in low doses), diaphoretic, emetic (in high doses); used in amoebic dysentery, stubborn cough, whopping cough (for liquefying bronchial phlegm).
Key application: As expectorant, emetic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The root contains isoquinoline alkaloids (consisting mainly of emetine and cephaeline); tannins (ipecacuanha and ipecacuanhic acid; glycosides including a monoterpene isoquinoline derivative); saponins; a mixture of glycoproteins; starch; choline; resins.The alkaloids are clinically useful in the treatment of amoebiasis.Emetine and cephaeline are emetic due to their irritating effect on stomach; cephaeline is more toxic. Emetine is a standard antiamoebic principle. In smaller doses, both are expectorant.The fluid extract is 14 times stronger than the syrup of the crude drug. The powder is toxic at 1-2 g.Emetine accumulates in liver, lungs, kidneys and spleen; traces are detectable after 40-60 days. (Francis Brinker.)... cephaelis ipecacuanhaAdrenal glands These two glands, also known as suprarenal glands, lie immediately above the kidneys. The central or medullary portion of the glands forms the secretions known as ADRENALINE (or epinephrine) and NORADRENALINE. Adrenaline acts upon structures innervated by sympathetic nerves. Brie?y, the blood vessels of the skin and of the abdominal viscera (except the intestines) are constricted, and at the same time the arteries of the muscles and the coronary arteries are dilated; systolic blood pressure rises; blood sugar increases; the metabolic rate rises; muscle fatigue is diminished. The super?cial or cortical part of the glands produces steroid-based substances such as aldosterone, cortisone, hydrocortisone, and deoxycortone acetate, for the maintenance of life. It is the absence of these substances, due to atrophy or destruction of the suprarenal cortex, that is responsible for the condition known as ADDISON’S DISEASE. (See CORTICOSTEROIDS.)
Ovaries and testicles The ovary (see OVARIES) secretes at least two hormones – known, respectively, as oestradiol (follicular hormone) and progesterone (corpus luteum hormone). Oestradiol develops (under the stimulus of the anterior pituitary lobe – see PITUITARY GLAND below, and under separate entry) each time an ovum in the ovary becomes mature, and causes extensive proliferation of the ENDOMETRIUM lining the UTERUS, a stage ending with shedding of the ovum about 14 days before the onset of MENSTRUATION. The corpus luteum, which then forms, secretes both progesterone and oestradiol. Progesterone brings about great activity of the glands in the endometrium. The uterus is now ready to receive the ovum if it is fertilised. If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, the hormones cease acting, and menstruation takes place.
The hormone secreted by the testicles (see TESTICLE) is known as TESTOSTERONE. It is responsible for the growth of the male secondary sex characteristics.
Pancreas This gland is situated in the upper part of the abdomen and, in addition to the digestive enzymes, it produces INSULIN within specialised cells (islets of Langerhans). This controls carbohydrate metabolism; faulty or absent insulin production causes DIABETES MELLITUS.
Parathyroid glands These are four minute glands lying at the side of, or behind, the thyroid (see below). They have a certain e?ect in controlling the absorption of calcium salts by the bones and other tissues. When their secretion is defective, TETANY occurs.
Pituitary gland This gland is attached to the base of the brain and rests in a hollow on the base of the skull. It is the most important of all endocrine glands and consists of two embryologically and functionally distinct lobes.
The function of the anterior lobe depends on the secretion by the HYPOTHALAMUS of certain ‘neuro-hormones’ which control the secretion of the pituitary trophic hormones. The hypothalamic centres involved in the control of speci?c pituitary hormones appear to be anatomically separate. Through the pituitary trophic hormones the activity of the thyroid, adrenal cortex and the sex glands is controlled. The anterior pituitary and the target glands are linked through a feedback control cycle. The liberation of trophic hormones is inhibited by a rising concentration of the circulating hormone of the target gland, and stimulated by a fall in its concentration. Six trophic (polypeptide) hormones are formed by the anterior pituitary. Growth hormone (GH) and prolactin are simple proteins formed in the acidophil cells. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) are glycoproteins formed in the basophil cells. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), although a polypeptide, is derived from basophil cells.
The posterior pituitary lobe, or neurohypophysis, is closely connected with the hypothalamus by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tracts. It is concerned with the production or storage of OXYTOCIN and vasopressin (the antidiuretic hormone).
PITUITARY HORMONES Growth hormone, gonadotrophic hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone and thyrotrophic hormones can be assayed in blood or urine by radio-immunoassay techniques. Growth hormone extracted from human pituitary glands obtained at autopsy was available for clinical use until 1985, when it was withdrawn as it is believed to carry the virus responsible for CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (COD). However, growth hormone produced by DNA recombinant techniques is now available as somatropin. Synthetic growth hormone is used to treat de?ciency of the natural hormone in children and adults, TURNER’S SYNDROME and chronic renal insu?ciency in children.
Human pituitary gonadotrophins are readily obtained from post-menopausal urine. Commercial extracts from this source are available and are e?ective for treatment of infertility due to gonadotrophin insu?ciency.
The adrenocorticotrophic hormone is extracted from animal pituitary glands and has been available therapeutically for many years. It is used as a test of adrenal function, and, under certain circumstances, in conditions for which corticosteroid therapy is indicated (see CORTICOSTEROIDS). The pharmacologically active polypeptide of ACTH has been synthesised and is called tetracosactrin. Thyrotrophic hormone is also available but it has no therapeutic application.
HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING HORMONES which affect the release of each of the six anterior pituitary hormones have been identi?ed. Their blood levels are only one-thousandth of those of the pituitary trophic hormones. The release of thyrotrophin, adrenocorticotrophin, growth hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone is stimulated, while release of prolactin is inhibited. The structure of the releasing hormones for TSH, FSH-LH, GH and, most recently, ACTH is known and they have all been synthesised. Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) is used as a diagnostic test of thyroid function but it has no therapeutic application. FSH-LH-releasing hormone provides a useful diagnostic test of gonadotrophin reserve in patients with pituitary disease, and is now used in the treatment of infertility and AMENORRHOEA in patients with functional hypothalamic disturbance. As this is the most common variety of secondary amenorrhoea, the potential use is great. Most cases of congenital de?ciency of GH, FSH, LH and ACTH are due to defects in the hypothalamic production of releasing hormone and are not a primary pituitary defect, so that the therapeutic implication of this synthesised group of releasing hormones is considerable.
GALACTORRHOEA is frequently due to a microadenoma (see ADENOMA) of the pituitary. DOPAMINE is the prolactin-release inhibiting hormone. Its duration of action is short so its therapeutic value is limited. However, BROMOCRIPTINE is a dopamine agonist with a more prolonged action and is e?ective treatment for galactorrhoea.
Thyroid gland The functions of the thyroid gland are controlled by the pituitary gland (see above) and the hypothalamus, situated in the brain. The thyroid, situated in the front of the neck below the LARYNX, helps to regulate the body’s METABOLISM. It comprises two lobes each side of the TRACHEA joined by an isthmus. Two types of secretory cells in the gland – follicular cells (the majority) and parafollicular cells – secrete, respectively, the iodine-containing hormones THYROXINE (T4) and TRI-IODOTHYRONINE (T3), and the hormone CALCITONIN. T3 and T4 help control metabolism and calcitonin, in conjunction with parathyroid hormone (see above), regulates the body’s calcium balance. De?ciencies in thyroid function produce HYPOTHYROIDISM and, in children, retarded development. Excess thyroid activity causes thyrotoxicosis. (See THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF.)... endocrine glands
Interferon alfa – previously termed leucocyte interferon or lymphoblastoid interferon – has some antitumour e?ect in some solid tumours and lymphomas. It is also used to treat HEPATITIS B and C (chronic variety). Various side-effects include suppression of MYELOBLAST production. Interferon beta – previously termed ?broblast interferon – is used (under restricted conditions in the UK) to treat patients with relapsing, remitting MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS), and interferon beta-16 is licensed for use in patients with the secondary progressive type of this disorder. The use of interferon, which has a range of side-effects, should be recommended by a neurologist.... interferon
Habitat: Found throughout India in scrub-jungles and waste places.
Ayurvedic: Amritaphala, Vana- Patota, Tikta-Patoli.Siddha: Kattu Pey Pudal.Action: Bitter fruits—blood purifier (used in the treatment of skin diseases); germicidal; appetizer, laxative (used in bilious disorders); hepatoprotective. Root and seed—anthelmintic, antifebrile. Whole plant—antipyretic. Root— cathartic. Leaves—used externally in alopecia.
Cucurbitacin B has been isolated from the fruits.The root tuber contains glycoproteins and beta-trichosanthin.The leaves gave luteolin-7-glucoside, kaempferol, 3,7-dirhamnoside and 3- glucoside-7-rhamnoside, cucurbita- cins B and E, oleanolic acid, beta- sitosterol and its D-glucoside. The seed oil showed the presence of puni- cic acid; oleic, linoleic, eleostearic, palmitic, stearic and arachidic acids. Meso-inositol was found to be present in the plant.... trichosanthes cucumerinaHabitat: Native to South America. Grown as a food crop mainly in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
English: Maize, Corn, Indian Corn.Ayurvedic: Mahaa-Kaaya.Unani: Makkaa, Zurraa Makkaa.Action: Corn Silk—diuretic, urinary demulcent, antilithic. Used for cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis, irritation of the urinary tract by phosphatic and uric acids, nephritis, uncontrollable bladder, retention, pus in the urine, bed-wetting.
The corn silk gave saponins; alan- toin; sterols, especially beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol; alkaloid hordenine; polyphenols; mucilage; potassium; vitamin C and K; cryptoxanthin, antho- cyanins, plant acids, tannin.The glycoproteins, seperated from corn silk, inhibited IgE antibody formation and enhanced IgG and IgM formation; they showed antiviral and antitumour activities.... zea maysHabitat: Cultivated all over India for its fruits.
English: Bitter Gourd, Blsam Pear, Carilla.Ayurvedic: Kaaravellaka, Kaaravella, Kaathilla, Sushaavi.Unani: Karelaa.Siddha/Tamil: Paakal, Paharkai.Action: Seed/fruit—improves diabetic condition. Fruit—stomachic, laxative, antibilious, emetic, anthelmintic. Used in cough, respiratory diseases, intestinal worms, skin diseases, also for gout and rheumatism. Powdered fruit—applied to wounds and ulcers. Leaf— emetic, antibilious, purgative. Fruit, leaf and root—abortifacient. Leaf and seed—anthelmintic. Root— astringent; appled to haemorrhoids.
Immature fruits gave several nonbitter and bitter momordicosides. Fruits, seeds and tissue culture gave a polypeptide containing amino acids. Fruits also gave 5-hydroxytryptamine, charantin (a steroidal glucoside), dios- genin, cholesterol, lanosterol and beta- sitosterol. Bitter principles are cucur- bitacin glycosides.Hypoglycaemic effects of the fruit have been demonstrated by blood tests in both humans and animal studies.Researchers have warned that the fruit extract leads to a false negative test for sugar in the urine (due to its ability to maintain the indicator dye in the glucose oxidase strips and the alkaline copper salts in a reduced state).Chronic administration of the fruit extract (1.75 g/day for 60 days) to dogs led to testicular lesions with mass atrophy of the spermatogenic elements. The extract reduced the testicular content of RNA, protein and sialic acid as also the acid-phosphatase activity. (Medicinal Plants of India, Vol. 2,1987, Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi.)The fruits and seeds yielded a poly- peptide, p-insulin, which was considered similar to bovine insulin. (Fitoter- apia, 60,1989; Chem Abstr 112,1990.)The seed and fruit contain an inhibitor of HIV, MAP-30 (Momordi- ca anti-HIV-protein) which exhibited antiviral and antitumour activity in vitro. (Chem Abstr, 113, 1990; ibid, 117, 1992.) Another protein, MRK-29, found in the seed and fruit of a smaller var. of Bitter Gourd found in Thailand, was found to inhibit HIV reverse transcriptase and to increase tumour necrosis factor (TNF). (Planta Med, 67, 2001; Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)The seeds yield alpha-and beta- momorcharins (glycoproteins). When these glycoproteins were co-cultured with isolated hepatocytes, morphological changes in hepatocytes were observed, indicating hepatotoxicity. Another principle with antilipolytic and lipogenic activities, found along with the alpha-and beta-momorcharin in the seed extract, did not show toxic effect.Vicine is the hypoglycaemic constituent in the seed. Pure vicine has been found to possess 32.6% hypogly- caemic activity as against 22.2% shown by fresh juice, when tested on albino rats. The vicine is non-haemolytic.Dosage: Fresh fruit—10-15 ml juice (API, Vol. II); 10-20 ml juice (CCRAS.)... momordica charantiaConstituents: alkaloids, glycoproteins, polypeptides, flavonoids.
Action: tranquilliser, vasodilator – reducing blood pressure after an initial rise. Cardiac depressant. Used as an alternative to beta-blocking drugs when they produce sore eyes and skin rash. Stimulates the vagus nerve which slows the pulse. Contains acetylcholine. Diuretic. Immune enhancer. Anti-inflammatory. Uses. Arterial hypertension, insomnia, temporal arteritis, nervous excitability, hyperactivity, limb- twitching, epilepsy, (petit mal), chorea, tinnitus, rabies (Dr Laville). Benzodiazepine addiction – to assist withdrawal. Arteriosclerosis (with Horsetail). Headache, dizziness, fatigue.
Cancer: some success reported in isolated cases. Juice of the berries has been applied to external cancers since the time of the Druids. Present-day pharmacy: Iscador (Weleda), Viscotoxin. Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79) and Hippocrates record its use in epilepsy and for tumours. The berries may be prescribed by a medical practitioner only (UK). As an immune enhancer it is used as an adjunct to surgery and radiotherapy for patients for whom cytotoxic drugs are inappropriate because of adverse side-effects. Lymphocytes divide more readily by production of interferon.
Combinations: (1) with Skullcap and Valerian for nervous disorders (2) with Motherwort and Hawthorn for myocarditis (3) with Blue Cohosh for menstrual irregularity (4) with Hawthorn and Lime flowers for benign hypertension. Never combine with Gotu Kola. (Dr John Heinerman)
Preparations: Average dose: 2-6g, or equivalent. Thrice daily.
Tea: 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup cold water steeped 2 hours. Dose: half-1 cup.
Green Tincture. 4oz bruised freshly-gathered leaves in spring to 1 pint 45 per cent alcohol (Vodka, strong wine, etc). Macerate 8 days, shaking daily. Filter and bottle. Dose: 3-5 drops: (every 2 hours if an epileptic attack is suspected).
Powder, capsules: 300mg. 2 capsules thrice daily before meals. (Arkocaps)
Plenosol. (Madaus)
Liquid Extract (1:1): 8-10 drops.
Sale: pharmacy only. ... mistletoe
Habitat: Kashmir at 1,200-2,400 m.
English: Pale Wood Violet, Wood Violet.Unani: Banafashaa (related species).Action: Plant—pectoral, bechic; used in chest troubles. Stem, leaf and flower—applied to foul sores and wounds.
Habitat: Native to Europe; grown as an ornamental.
English: Heartsease, Wild Pansy.Unani: Banafashaa (related species).Action: Herb—anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, expectorant, diuretic, antirheumatic, alterative. Used for bronchitis, rheumatism, chronic skin disorders and for preventing capillary haemorrhage when under corticosteroid therapy. Root— antidysenteric; used as a substitute for Cephaelis ipecacuanha.
Key application: Externally in mild seborrheic skin diseases and milk scall in children. (German Commission E.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes the herb as an expectorant and dermatological agent.The herb contains rutin, violin and salicylic acid. The flower contains rutin, quercetin, violanthin (6,8-digly- coside of apigenin), violaxanthin, p- hydroxycinnamic acid and delphini- din. A flavone C-glycoside-saponarin has also been obtained from flowers. Flowers, in addition, contain 15-cis- violaxanthin.The herb exhibits anticoagulant property and diminishes the aggregation of platelets. It can be used as a preventive measure against thrombosis.Habitat: Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal between 1,200 and 2,700 m (a semiparasitic plant).
English: European Mistletoe.Ayurvedic: Bandaaka, Suvarna- bandaaka. Vrikshaadani (substitute).Unani: Kishmish Kaabuli.Action: Vasodilator, cardiac depressant, tranquiliser, stimulates the vagus nerve which slows the pulse, anti-inflammatory, diuretic, immune enhancer, antineoplas- tic. Used for hypertension and tachycardia, as a nervine tonic.
The extract of leafy twigs is anti- inflammatory exerting an action upon capillary permeability and oedema. It stimulates granulation and the neoformation of connective tissue.Key application: For treating degenerative inflammation of the joints by stimulating cuti- visceral reflexes following local inflammation brought about by intradermal injections; as palliative therapy for malignant tumour through non-specific stimulation. (German Commission E.)Mistletoe contains glycoproteins; flavonoids, usually quercetin-derived (dependent on host tree to some extent); polypeptides; phenylcarboxylic acids; polysaccharides (including viscid acid); alkaloids; lignans.Cardiotonic activity is due to the lig- nans. The polysaccharides stimulate the immune response. Antineoplas- tic activity is claimed to be responsible for prolongation of survival time in cancer patients. Polypeptides (visco- toxins) inhibit tumours and stimulate immune resistance. (For uses of lectin from Mistletoe in cancer, see Eur J cancer, 2001, Jan, 37(1), 23-31; Eur J Cancer 2001, 37 (15), 19101920.) (For application in hepatitis, see Fitoterapia, 70, 2001.)... viola sylvestrisAn influenzal infection provides later protection only against the specific strain of virus concerned; the same holds true for immunization. Strains are classified according to the presence of different subtypes of two glycoproteins (antigens) on the viral surface: *haemagglutinin (H) and *neuraminidase (N). Small changes in the structure of these antigens, which occur frequently in influenza A and B viruses, require the continual development of new vaccines to protect against annual outbreaks of the disease. Major changes in antigenic structure occur much more rarely, when there is genetic recombination between strains that can infect more than one species (most strains of the virus are highly species-specific). However, when it does occur, it could result in the development of hybrid strains causing new forms of influenza that are difficult to contain; the pandemic of 1918–19 is thought to have arisen in this way (see also avian influenza; swine influenza).... influenza
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