Hunger Health Dictionary

Appetite is the craving for the food necessary to maintain the body and to supply it with suf?cient energy to carry on its functions. The ultimate cause of appetite is a question of supply and demand in the muscles and various organs, but the proximate cause is doubtful. Unlike hunger, it is probably an acquired, rather than an inborn, sensation. Whatever other factors may be concerned, the tone of the STOMACH is of importance. Signi?cant factors in stimulating appetite are anticipation and the sight and smell of well-cooked food. Individuals who eat unsuitable substances such as faeces are described as suffering from pica, which occurs sometimes during pregnancy, in children, and often in mental disorders. The two chief disorders, however, are excessive increase of appetite, and diminution or loss of appetite (see also EATING DISORDERS).

Excessive appetite may simply be a bad habit, due to habitual over-indulgence in good food and resulting in GOUT, OBESITY, etc. – according to the other habits and constitution of the person. It may also be a sign of DIABETES MELLITUS or thyrotoxicosis (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF).

Diminished appetite is a sign common to almost all diseases causing general weakness, because the activity of the stomach and the secretion of gastric juice fail early when vital power is low. It is the most common sign of DYSPEPSIA due to gastritis, and of cancer of the stomach. In some cases it is a manifestation of stress or strain such as domestic worry or dif?culties at work. Indeed, appetite seems to be particularly susceptible to emotional disturbances, as is evidenced by the linked conditions of BULIMIA (pathological overeating) and anorexia nervosa (pathological dieting) – see also EATING DISORDERS.... appetite

Diabetes mellitus is a condition characterised by a raised concentration of glucose in the blood due to a de?ciency in the production and/or action of INSULIN, a pancreatic hormone made in special cells called the islet cells of Langerhans.

Insulin-dependent and non-insulindependent diabetes have a varied pathological pattern and are caused by the interaction of several genetic and environmental factors.

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) (juvenile-onset diabetes, type 1 diabetes) describes subjects with a severe de?ciency or absence of insulin production. Insulin therapy is essential to prevent KETOSIS – a disturbance of the body’s acid/base balance and an accumulation of ketones in the tissues. The onset is most commonly during childhood, but can occur at any age. Symptoms are acute and weight loss is common.

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) (maturity-onset diabetes, type 2 diabetes) may be further sub-divided into obese and non-obese groups. This type usually occurs after the age of 40 years with an insidious onset. Subjects are often overweight and weight loss is uncommon. Ketosis rarely develops. Insulin production is reduced but not absent.

A new hormone has been identi?ed linking obesity to type 2 diabetes. Called resistin – because of its resistance to insulin – it was ?rst found in mice but has since been identi?ed in humans. Researchers in the United States believe that the hormone may, in part, explain how obesity predisposes people to diabetes. Their hypothesis is that a protein in the body’s fat cells triggers insulin resistance around the body. Other research suggests that type 2 diabetes may now be occurring in obese children; this could indicate that children should be eating a more-balanced diet and taking more exercise.

Diabetes associated with other conditions (a) Due to pancreatic disease – for example, chronic pancreatitis (see PANCREAS, DISORDERS OF); (b) secondary to drugs – for example, GLUCOCORTICOIDS (see PANCREAS, DISORDERS OF); (c) excess hormone production

– for example, growth hormone (ACROMEGALY); (d) insulin receptor abnormalities; (e) genetic syndromes (see GENETIC DISORDERS).

Gestational diabetes Diabetes occurring in pregnancy and resolving afterwards.

Aetiology Insulin-dependent diabetes occurs as a result of autoimmune destruction of beta cells within the PANCREAS. Genetic in?uences are important and individuals with certain HLA tissue types (HLA DR3 and HLA DR4) are more at risk; however, the risks associated with the HLA genes are small. If one parent has IDDM, the risk of a child developing IDDM by the age of 25 years is 1·5–2·5 per cent, and the risk of a sibling of an IDDM subject developing diabetes is about 3 per cent.

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes has no HLA association, but the genetic in?uences are much stronger. The risks of developing diabetes vary with di?erent races. Obesity, decreased exercise and ageing increase the risks of disease development. The risk of a sibling of a NIDDM subject developing NIDDM up to the age of 80 years is 30–40 per cent.

Diet Many NIDDM diabetics may be treated with diet alone. For those subjects who are overweight, weight loss is important, although often unsuccessful. A diet high in complex carbohydrate, high in ?bre, low in fat and aiming towards ideal body weight is prescribed. Subjects taking insulin need to eat at regular intervals in relation to their insulin regime and missing meals may result in hypoglycaemia, a lowering of the amount of glucose in the blood, which if untreated can be fatal (see below).

Oral hypoglycaemics are used in the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes in addition to diet, when diet alone fails to control blood-sugar levels. (a) SULPHONYLUREAS act mainly by increasing the production of insulin;

(b) BIGUANIDES, of which only metformin is available, may be used alone or in addition to sulphonylureas. Metformin’s main actions are to lower the production of glucose by the liver and improve its uptake in the peripheral tissues.

Complications The risks of complications increase with duration of disease.

Diabetic hypoglycaemia occurs when amounts of glucose in the blood become low. This may occur in subjects taking sulphonylureas or insulin. Symptoms usually develop when the glucose concentration falls below 2·5 mmol/l. They may, however, occur at higher concentrations in subjects with persistent hyperglycaemia – an excess of glucose – and at lower levels in subjects with persistent hypo-glycaemia. Symptoms include confusion, hunger and sweating, with coma developing if blood-sugar concentrations remain low. Re?ned sugar followed by complex carbohydrate will return the glucose concentration to normal. If the subject is unable to swallow, glucagon may be given intramuscularly or glucose intravenously, followed by oral carbohydrate, once the subject is able to swallow.

Although it has been shown that careful control of the patient’s metabolism prevents late complications in the small blood vessels, the risk of hypoglycaemia is increased and patients need to be well motivated to keep to their dietary and treatment regime. This regime is also very expensive. All risk factors for the patient’s cardiovascular system – not simply controlling hyperglycaemia – may need to be reduced if late complications to the cardiovascular system are to be avoided.

Diabetes is one of the world’s most serious health problems. Recent projections suggest that the disorder will affect nearly 240 million individuals worldwide by 2010 – double its prevalence in 1994. The incidence of insulin-dependent diabetes is rising in young children; they will be liable to develop late complications.

Although there are complications associated with diabetes, many subjects live normal lives and survive to an old age. People with diabetes or their relatives can obtain advice from Diabetes UK (www.diabetes.org.uk).

Increased risks are present of (a) heart disease, (b) peripheral vascular disease, and (c) cerebrovascular disease.

Diabetic eye disease (a) retinopathy, (b) cataract. Regular examination of the fundus enables any abnormalities developing to be detected and treatment given when appropriate to preserve eyesight.

Nephropathy Subjects with diabetes may develop kidney damage which can result in renal failure.

Neuropathy (a) Symmetrical sensory polyneuropathy; damage to the sensory nerves that commonly presents with tingling, numbness of pain in the feet or hands. (b) Asymmetrical motor diabetic neuropathy, presenting as progressive weakness and wasting of the proximal muscles of legs. (c) Mononeuropathy; individual motor or sensory nerves may be affected. (d) Autonomic neuropathy, which affects the autonomic nervous system, has many presentations including IMPOTENCE, diarrhoea or constipation and postural HYPOTENSION.

Skin lesions There are several skin disorders associated with diabetes, including: (a) necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum, characterised by one or more yellow atrophic lesions on the legs;

(b) ulcers, which most commonly occur on the feet due to peripheral vascular disease, neuropathy and infection. Foot care is very important.

Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs when there is insu?cient insulin present to prevent KETONE production. This may occur before the diagnosis of IDDM or when insu?cient insulin is being given. The presence of large amounts of ketones in the urine indicates excess ketone production and treatment should be sought immediately. Coma and death may result if the condition is left untreated.

Symptoms Thirst, POLYURIA, GLYCOSURIA, weight loss despite eating, and recurrent infections (e.g. BALANITIS and infections of the VULVA) are the main symptoms.

However, subjects with non-insulindependent diabetes may have the disease for several years without symptoms, and diagnosis is often made incidentally or when presenting with a complication of the disease.

Treatment of diabetes aims to prevent symptoms, restore carbohydrate metabolism to as near normal as possible, and to minimise complications. Concentration of glucose, fructosamine and glycated haemoglobin in the blood are used to give an indication of blood-glucose control.

Insulin-dependent diabetes requires insulin for treatment. Non-insulin-dependent diabetes may be treated with diet, oral HYPOGLYCAEMIC AGENTS or insulin.

Insulin All insulin is injected – mainly by syringe but sometimes by insulin pump – because it is inactivated by gastrointestinal enzymes. There are three main types of insulin preparation: (a) short action (approximately six hours), with rapid onset; (b) intermediate action (approximately 12 hours); (c) long action, with slow onset and lasting for up to 36 hours. Human, porcine and bovine preparations are available. Much of the insulin now used is prepared by genetic engineering techniques from micro-organisms. There are many regimens of insulin treatment involving di?erent combinations of insulin; regimens vary depending on the requirements of the patients, most of whom administer the insulin themselves. Carbohydrate intake, energy expenditure and the presence of infection are important determinants of insulin requirements on a day-to-day basis.

A new treatment for diabetes, pioneered in Canada and entering its preliminary clinical trials in the UK, is the transplantation of islet cells of Langerhans from a healthy person into a patient with the disorder. If the transplantation is successful, the transplanted cells start producing insulin, thus reducing or eliminating the requirement for regular insulin injections. If successful the trials would be a signi?cant advance in the treatment of diabetes.

Scientists in Israel have developed a drug, Dia Pep 277, which stops the body’s immune system from destroying pancratic ? cells as happens in insulin-dependent diabetes. The drug, given by injection, o?ers the possibility of preventing type 1 diabetes in healthy people at genetic risk of developing the disorder, and of checking its progression in affected individuals whose ? cells are already perishing. Trials of the drug are in progress.... diabetes mellitus

A condition in which the energy stores of the body (mainly fat) are too large. It is a prevalent nutritional disorder in prosperous countries – increasingly so among children and young people. The Quetelet Index or BODY MASS INDEX, which relates weight in kilograms (W) to height2 in metres (H2), is a widely accepted way of classifying obesity in adults according to severity. For example:

Grade of obesity

BMI (W/H2) III >40 II 30–40 I 25–29·9 not obese <25

Causes Whatever the causes of obesity, the fact remains that energy intake (in the form of food and drink) must exceed energy output (in the form of activity and exercise) over a suf?ciently long period of time.

Obesity tends to aggregate in families. This has led to the suggestion that some people inherit a ‘thrifty’ gene which predisposes them to obesity in later life by lowering their energy output. Indeed, patients often attribute their obesity to such a metabolic defect. Total energy output is made up of the resting metabolic rate (RMR), which represents about 70 per cent of the total; the energy cost of physical activity; and thermogenesis, i.e. the increase in energy output in response to food intake, cold exposure, some drugs and psychological in?uences. In general, obese people are consistently found to have a higher RMR and total energy output, per person – and also when expressed against fat-free mass – than do their lean counterparts. Most obese people do not appear to have a reduced capacity for thermogenesis. Although a genetic component to obesity remains a possibility, it is unlikely to be great or to prevent weight loss from being possible in most patients by reducing energy intake. Environmental in?uences are believed to be more important in explaining the familial association in obesity.

An inactive lifestyle plays a minor role in the development of obesity, but it is unclear whether people are obese because they are inactive or are inactive because they are obese. For the majority of obese people, the explanation must lie in an excessive energy intake. Unfortunately, it is di?cult to demonstrate this directly since the methods used to assess how much people eat are unreliable. For most obese people it seems likely that the defect lies in their failure to regulate energy intake in response to a variety of cognitive factors (e.g. ease of ?tting of clothes) in the long term.

Unfortunately, it can be possible to identify by the time of their ?rst birthday, many of the children destined to be obese.

Rarely, obesity has an endocrine basis and is caused by hypothyroidism (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF), HYPOPITUITARISM, HYPOGONADISM or CUSHING’S SYNDROME.

Symptoms Obesity has adverse effects on MORBIDITY and mortality (see DEATH RATE) which are greatest in young adults and increase with the severity of obesity. It is associated with an increased mortality and/or morbidity from cardiovascular disease, non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, diseases of the gall-bladder, osteoarthritis, hernia, gout and possibly certain cancers (i.e. colon, rectum and prostate in men, and breast, ovary, endometrium and cervix in women). Menstrual irregularities and ovulatory failure are often experienced by obese women. Obese people are also at greater risk when they undergo surgery. With the exception of gallstone formation, weight loss will reduce these health risks.

Treatment Creation of an energy de?cit is essential for weight loss to occur, so the initial line of treatment is a slimming diet. An average de?cit of 1,000 kcal/day (see CALORIE) will produce a loss of 1 kg of fat/week and should be aimed for. Theoretically, this can be achieved by increasing energy expenditure or reducing energy intake. In practice, a low-energy diet is the usual form of treatment since attempts to increase energy expenditure, either by physical exercise or a thermogenic drug, are relatively ine?ective.

Anorectic drugs, gastric stapling and jaw-wiring are sometimes used to treat severe obesity. They are said to aid compliance with a low-energy diet by either reducing hunger (anorectic drugs) or limiting the amount of food the patient can eat. Unfortunately, the long-term e?ectiveness of gastric stapling is not known, and it is debatable whether the modest reduction in weight achieved by use of anorectic drugs is worthwhile – although a new drug, ORLISTAT, is becoming available that reduces the amount of fat absorbed from food in the gastrointestinal tract. For some grossly obese patients, jaw-wiring can be helpful, but a regain of weight once the wires are removed must be prevented. These procedures carry a risk, so should be done only if an individual’s health is in danger.... obesity

Low blood sugar. Hyperinsulinism. “The 20th Century Epidemic.” Low blood sugar levels brought about by overstimulation of insulin production by the pancreas.

From food we eat, sugar (glucose) is converted into glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles. To ensure its removal from the bloodstream to storage areas a balancing mechanism causes the pancreas to produce insulin for this purpose. Exhaustion of the pancreas may follow too frequent release of insulin for reducing high levels of sugar. All symptoms are temporarily relieved by eating sweet foods, chocolate, etc, or by drinking stimulating beverages: tea, coffee, cola, alcohol, etc.

Convincing evidence shows how large amounts of refined and concentrated sugars overwork the pancreas, causing wide swings in blood sugar levels. This is the reverse of diabetes which occurs from a lack of insulin.

Another factor is over-stimulation of the adrenal glands that produce adrenalin which has the power to release stored sugars. When adrenalin is discharged too frequently into the bloodstream the conversion of glycogen to glucose is impaired. This leads to a craving for sweet foods and stimulating beverages.

Symptoms are numerous and often confuse the doctor: constant hunger, tightness in the chest, dizziness, headaches, twitching of limbs, digestive disorders, fatigue, weakness in legs, irritability, migraine, nervous tension, nervous mannerisms, insomnia, memory lapses, phobia – sense of panic, cold sweats. Cold hands and feet, visual disturbances, vague aches and pains and depression.

Life becomes a succession of erratic rises and falls of the blood sugar. Symptoms are worse when the person is passing through a ‘low’ period. All this is reflected upon the sympathetic nervous system and affects the emotional life. A special blood test is carried out to assess the situation; the Glucose Tolerance Test.

Alternatives. To raise low blood sugar levels: Avens, Balmony, Bayberry, Calamus, Centuary, Chamomile (German), Dandelion root, Echinacea, Feverfew, Gentian (Yellow), Ginger, Ginseng, Goldenseal, Holy Thistle, Hops, Horehound (White), Liquorice, Quassia, Southernwood, Betony.

Teas. Chamomile (German), Ginseng, Avens, Centuary, Hops, Betony.

Decoctions. Yellow Gentian (cold infusion), Calamus (cold infusion), Dandelion root (hot infusion), Angustura bark (hot infusion).

Tablets/capsules. Calamus, Dandelion, Ginseng, Goldenseal, Echinacea, Liquorice, Kelp.

Powders. Formula. Balmony 2; Bayberry 2; White Poplar 1; Ginger 1. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily, before meals.

Liquid Extracts. Formula. Goldenseal 10ml; Dandelion root 20ml; Holy Thistle 20ml; Cayenne 1ml. 30- 60 drops thrice daily in water before meals.

Tinctures. Same formula, double dose.

Angostura wine. Wineglassful daily.

Diet: Herb teas, juices and mineral water instead of tea, coffee and other drinks containing caffeine. Honey. Wholefoods. Adequate protein intake. Small meals throughout the day. Avoid: alcohol, sugary snacks, white flour and white sugar products.

Supplementation. Daily. B-complex, B6 50mg, E 200iu, C 1g, Chromium 125mcg, Calcium Pantothenate 500mg, Kelp, Lecithin, Zinc.

Notes: Brewer’s yeast tablets contain chromium which assists sugar metabolism. Smoking causes both glucagon and insulin to be released thus aggravating the condition. Diabetics should carry in their pocket some form of sugar against emergency. ... hypoglycaemia

Prosperity, Anti-Hunger, Money ... alfalfa

(Ale)

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: Moderate Fat: None Saturated fat: None Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: None Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins Major mineral contribution: Phosphorus

About the Nutrients in This Food Beer and ale are fermented beverages created by yeasts that convert the sugars in malted barley and grain to ethyl alcohol (a.k.a. “alcohol,” “drink- ing alcohol”).* The USDA /Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines for Americans defines one drink as 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits. One 12-ounce glass of beer has 140 calo- ries, 86 of them (61 percent) from alcohol. But the beverage—sometimes nicknamed “liquid bread”—is more than empty calories. Like wine, beer retains small amounts of some nutrients present in the food from which it was made. * Because yeasts cannot digest t he starches in grains, t he grains to be used in mak ing beer and ale are allowed to germinate ( “malt” ). When it is t ime to make t he beer or ale, t he malted grain is soaked in water, forming a mash in which t he starches are split into simple sugars t hat can be digested (fermented) by t he yeasts. If undisturbed, t he fermentat ion will cont inue unt il all t he sugars have been digested, but it can be halted at any t ime simply by raising or lowering t he temperature of t he liquid. Beer sold in bott les or cans is pasteurized to k ill t he yeasts and stop t he fermentat ion. Draft beer is not pasteurized and must be refrigerated unt il tapped so t hat it will not cont inue to ferment in t he container. The longer t he shipping t ime, t he more likely it is t hat draft beer will be exposed to temperature variat ions t hat may affect its qualit y—which is why draft beer almost always tastes best when consumed near t he place where it was brewed. The Nutrients in Beer (12-ounce glass)

Nutrients	Beer	%R DA
Calcium	17 mg	1.7
Magnesium	28.51 mg	7–9*
Phosphorus	41.1 mg	6
Potassium	85.7 mg	(na)
Zinc	0.06 mg	0.5– 0.8*
Thiamin	0.02 mg	1.6 –1.8*
R iboflavin	0.09 mg	7– 8*
Niacin	1.55 mg	10
Vitamin B6	0.17 mg	13
Folate	20.57 mcg	5

  * t he first figure is t he %R DA for a man; t he second, for a woman Source: USDA Nut rient Database: w w w.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin /nut _search.pl.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Bland diet Gluten-free diet Low-purine (antigout) diet

Buying This Food Look for: A popular brand that sells steadily and will be fresh when you buy it. Avoid: Dusty or warm bottles and cans.

Storing This Food Store beer in a cool place. Beer tastes best when consumed within two months of the day it is made. Since you cannot be certain how long it took to ship the beer to the store or how long it has been sitting on the grocery shelves, buy only as much beer as you plan to use within a week or two. Protect bottled beer and open bottles or cans of beer from direct sunlight, which can change sulfur compounds in beer into isopentyl mercaptan, the smelly chemical that gives stale beer its characteristic unpleasant odor.

When You Are Ready to Serve This Food Serve beer only in absolutely clean glasses or mugs. Even the slightest bit of grease on the side of the glass will kill the foam immediately. Wash beer glasses with detergent, not soap, and let them drain dry rather than drying them with a towel that might carry grease from your hands to the glass. If you like a long-lasting head on your beer, serve the brew in tall, tapering glasses to let the foam spread out and stabilize. For full flavor, serve beer and ales cool but not ice-cold. Very low temperatures immo- bilize the molecules that give beer and ale their flavor and aroma.

What Happens When You Cook This Food When beer is heated (in a stew or as a basting liquid), the alcohol evaporates but the flavor- ing agents remain intact. Alcohol, an acid, reacts with metal ions from an aluminum or iron pot to form dark compounds that discolor the pot or the dish you are cooking in. To prevent this, prepare dishes made with beer in glass or enameled pots.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Reduced risk of heart attack. Data from the American Cancer Society’s Cancer Prevention Study 1, a 12-year survey of more than 1 million Americans in 25 states, shows that men who take one drink a day have a 21 percent lower risk of heart attack and a 22 percent lower risk of stroke than men who do not drink at all. Women who have up to one drink a day also reduce their risk of heart attack. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower risk of stroke. In January 1999, the results of a 677-person study published by researchers at New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University showed that moder- ate alcohol consumption reduces the risk of stroke due to a blood clot in the brain among older people (average age: 70). How the alcohol prevents stroke is still unknown, but it is clear that moderate use of alcohol is a key. Heavy drinkers (those who consume more than seven drinks a day) have a higher risk of stroke. People who once drank heavily, but cut their consumption to moderate levels, can also reduce their risk of stroke. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower cholesterol levels. Beverage alcohol decreases the body’s production and storage of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), the protein and fat particles that carr y cholesterol into your arteries. As a result, people who drink moderately tend to have lower cholesterol levels and higher levels of high density lipoproteins (HDLs), the fat and protein particles that carr y cholesterol out of the body. The USDA /Health and Human Services Dietar y Guidelines for Americans defines moderation as two drinks a day for a man, one drink a day for a woman. Stimulating the appetite. Alcoholic beverages stimulate the production of saliva and the gastric acids that cause the stomach contractions we call hunger pangs. Moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages, which may help stimulate appetite, are often prescribed for geriatric patients, convalescents, and people who do not have ulcers or other chronic gastric problems that might be exacerbated by the alcohol. Dilation of blood vessels. Alcohol dilates the capillaries (the tiny blood vessels just under the skin), and moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages produce a pleasant flush that temporar- ily warms the drinker. But drinking is not an effective way to warm up in cold weather since the warm blood that flows up to the capillaries will cool down on the surface of your skin and make you even colder when it circulates back into the center of your body. Then an alco- hol flush will make you perspire, so that you lose more heat. Excessive amounts of beverage alcohol may depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Increased risk of breast cancer. In 2008, scientists at the National Cancer Institute released data from a seven-year survey of more than 100,000 postmenopausal women showing that even moderate drinking (one to two drinks a day) may increase by 32 percent a woman’s risk of developing estrogen-receptor positive (ER+) and progesterone-receptor positive (PR+) breast cancer, tumors whose growth is stimulated by hormones. No such link was found between consuming alcohol and the risk of developing ER-/PR- tumors (not fueled by hor- mones). The finding applies to all types of alcohol: beer, wine, and spirits. Increased risk of oral cancer (cancer of the mouth and throat). Numerous studies confirm the American Cancer Society’s warning that men and women who consume more than two drinks a day are at higher risk of oral cancer than are nondrinkers or people who drink less. Note: The Dietary Guidelines for Americans describes one drink as 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits. Increased risk of cancer of the colon and rectum. In the mid-1990s, studies at the University of Oklahoma suggested that men who drink more than five beers a day are at increased risk of rectal cancer. Later studies suggested that men and women who are heavy beer or spirits drinkers (but not those who are heavy wine drinkers) have a higher risk of colorectal cancers. Further studies are required to confirm these findings. Fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a specific pattern of birth defects—low birth weight, heart defects, facial malformations, and mental retardation—first recognized in a study of babies born to alcoholic women who consumed more than six drinks a day while pregnant. Subsequent research has found a consistent pattern of milder defects in babies born to women who consume three to four drinks a day or five drinks on any one occasion while pregnant. To date, there is no evidence of a consistent pattern of birth defects in babies born to women who consume less than one drink a day while pregnant, but two studies at Columbia University have suggested that as few as two drinks a week while preg- nant may raise a woman’s risk of miscarriage. (“One drink” means 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits.) Alcoholism. Alcoholism is an addiction disease, the inability to control one’s alcohol consumption. It is a potentially life-threatening condition, with a higher risk of death by accident, suicide, malnutrition, or acute alcohol poisoning, a toxic reaction that kills by para- lyzing body organs, including the heart. Malnutrition. While moderate alcohol consumption stimulates appetite, alcohol abuse depresses it. In addition, an alcoholic may drink instead of eating. When an alcoholic does eat, excess alcohol in his/her body prevents absorption of nutrients and reduces the ability to synthesize new tissue. Hangover. Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestine and carried by the bloodstream to the liver, where it is oxidized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), the enzyme our bodies use to metabolize the alcohol we produce when we digest carbohydrates. The acetaldehyde is converted to acetyl coenzyme A and either eliminated from the body or used in the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and body tissues. Although individuals vary widely in their capacity to metabolize alcohol, on average, normal healthy adults can metabolize the alcohol in one quart of beer in approximately five to six hours. If they drink more than that, they will have more alcohol than the body’s natural supply of ADH can handle. The unmetabolized alcohol will pile up in the bloodstream, interfering with the liver’s metabolic functions. Since alcohol decreases the reabsorption of water from the kidneys and may inhibit the secretion of an antidiuretic hormone, they will begin to urinate copiously, losing magnesium, calcium, and zinc but retaining more irritating uric acid. The level of lactic acid in the body will increase, making them feel tired and out of sorts; their acid-base balance will be out of kilter; the blood vessels in their heads will swell and throb; and their stomachs, with linings irritated by the alcohol, will ache. The ultimate result is a “hangover” whose symptoms will disappear only when enough time has passed to allow their bodies to marshal the ADH needed to metabolize the extra alcohol in their blood. Changes in body temperature. Alcohol dilates capillaries, tiny blood vessels just under the skin, producing a “flush” that temporarily warms the drinker. But drinking is not an effective way to stay warm in cold weather. Warm blood flowing up from the body core to the surface capillaries is quickly chilled, making you even colder when it circulates back into your organs. In addition, an alcohol flush triggers perspiration, further cooling your skin. Finally, very large amounts of alcohol may actually depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature. Impotence. Excessive drinking decreases libido (sexual desire) and interferes with the ability to achieve or sustain an erection. “Beer belly.” Data from a 1995, 12,000 person study at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill show that people who consume at least six beers a week have more rounded abdomens than people who do not drink beer. The question left to be answered is which came first: the tummy or the drinking.

Food/Drug Interactions Acetaminophen (Tylenol, etc.). The FDA recommends that people who regularly have three or more drinks a day consult a doctor before using acetaminophen. The alcohol/acetamino- phen combination may cause liver failure. Disulfiram (Antabuse). Taken with alcohol, disulfiram causes flushing, nausea, low blood pressure, faintness, respiratory problems, and confusion. The severity of the reaction gener- ally depends on how much alcohol you drink, how much disulfiram is in your body, and how long ago you took it. Disulfiram is used to help recovering alcoholics avoid alcohol. (If taken with alcohol, metronidazole [Flagyl], procarbazine [Matulane], quinacrine [Atabrine], chlorpropamide (Diabinase), and some species of mushrooms may produce a mild disulfi- ramlike reaction.) Anticoagulants. Alcohol slows the body’s metabolism of anticoagulants (blood thinners) such as warfarin (Coumadin), intensif ying the effect of the drugs and increasing the risk of side effects such as spontaneous nosebleeds. Antidepressants. Alcohol may increase the sedative effects of antidepressants. Drinking alcohol while you are taking a monoamine oxidase (M AO) inhibitor is especially hazard- ous. M AO inhibitors inactivate naturally occurring enzymes in your body that metabolize tyramine, a substance found in many fermented or aged foods. Tyramine constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure. If you eat a food containing tyramine while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, you cannot effectively eliminate the tyramine from your body. The result may be a hypertensive crisis. Ordinarily, fermentation of beer and ale does not produce tyramine, but some patients have reported tyramine reactions after drinking some imported beers. Beer and ale are usually prohibited to those using M AO inhibitors. Aspirin, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Like alcohol, these analgesics irritate the lining of the stomach and may cause gastric bleeding. Combining the two intensifies the effect. Insulin and oral hypoglycemics. Alcohol lowers blood sugar and interferes with the metabo- lism of oral antidiabetics; the combination may cause severe hypoglycemia. Sedatives and other central nervous system depressants (tranquilizers, sleeping pills, antidepres- sants, sinus and cold remedies, analgesics, and medication for motion sickness). Alcohol inten- sifies sedation and, depending on the dose, may cause drowsiness, respiratory depression, coma, or death.... beer

Coca leaves are obtained from two South American plants, Erythroxylum coca and Erythroxylum truxillense, and contain an alkaloid, cocaine. Cocaine has marked effects as a stimulant, and, locally applied, as an anaesthetic by paralysing nerves of sensation. The dried leaves have been used from time immemorial by the South American Indians, who chew them mixed with a little lime. Their e?ect is to dull the mucous surfaces of mouth and stomach, with which the saliva, produced by chewing them, comes into contact – thus blunting, for long periods, all feeling of hunger. The cocaine, being absorbed, stimulates the central nervous system so that all sense of fatigue and breathlessness vanishes for a time. It was by the use of coca that the Indian post-runners of South America were able to achieve their extraordinary feats of endurance. The continued use of the drug, however, results in emaciation, loss of memory, sleeplessness and general breakdown. DEPENDENCE on cocaine or a derivative, ‘crack’, is now a serious social problem in many countries.

Uses Before the serious effects that result from its habitual use were realised, the drug was sometimes used by hunters, travellers and others to relieve exhaustion and breathlessness in climbing mountains and to dull hunger. Derivatives of cocaine are used as locally applied analgesics via sprays or injections in dentistry and for procedures in the ear, nose and throat. Because of its serious side-effects and the risk of addiction, cocaine is a strictly controlled Class A drug which can be prescribed only by a medical practitioner with a Home O?ce licence to do so.... cocaine

Linn.

Synonym: D. sativa Thumb auct. non L.D. versicolor Buch.-Ham ex Wall.

Family: Dioscoreaceae.

Habitat: Throughout tropical India, at 1,500-2,100 m.

English: Patoto Yam, Bulb-bearing Yam, Air Potato, Dog Yam.

Ayurvedic: Vaaraahi, Vaaraahikan- da, Grshti, Banaaalu, Suraalu, Raktaalu. Substitute for Vriddhi.

Unani: Baraahikand.

Siddha/Tamil: Kodi-kilangu, Pannu-kilangu.

Action: Dried and pounded tubers are used as an application for swellings, boils and ulcers; roasted tubers are used in dysentery, piles, venereal sores. Leaf—febrifuge.

The raw tubers are bitter due to the presence of furanoid norditerpenes (they lose their bitterness on roasting and are then eaten). The wild tubers contain nearly 83% starch and possess hunger-suppressing property. They contain certain poisonous alkaloids.

The rhizomes afforded D-sorbitol, furanoid norditerpenes—diosbulbins A-D, 2,4,6,7-tetrahydroxy-9,10-dihy- drophenanthrene and 2,4,5,6,-tetra- hydroxyphenanthrene, diosgenin, lucein, neoxanthine, violaxanthin, zeax- anthin, auroxanthin and cyrptoxan- thin.... dioscorea bulbifera

(Brandy, gin, rum, tequila, whiskey, vodka)

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate to high Protein: None Fat: None Saturated fat: None Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: None (except for cordials which contain added sugar) Fiber: None Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: None Major mineral contribution: Phosphorus

About the Nutrients in This Food Spirits are the clear liquids produced by distilling the fermented sugars of grains, fruit, or vegetables. The yeasts that metabolize these sugars and convert them into alcohol stop growing when the concentration of alcohol rises above 12–15 percent. In the United States, the proof of an alcoholic beverage is defined as twice its alcohol content by volume: a beverage with 20 percent alcohol by volume is 40 proof. This is high enough for most wines, but not high enough for most whiskies, gins, vodkas, rums, brandies, and tequilas. To reach the concentra- tion of alcohol required in these beverages, the fermented sugars are heated and distilled. Ethyl alcohol (the alcohol in beer, wine, and spirits) boils at a lower temperature than water. When the fermented sugars are heated, the ethyl alcohol escapes from the distillation vat and condenses in tubes leading from the vat to a collection vessel. The clear liquid that collects in this vessel is called distilled spirits or, more technically, grain neutral spirits. Gins, whiskies, cordials, and many vodkas are made with spirits American whiskeys (which include bourbon, rye, and distilled from grains. blended whiskeys) and Canadian, Irish, and Scotch whiskies are all made from spirits aged in wood barrels. They get their flavor from the grains and their color from the barrels. (Some whiskies are also colored with caramel.) Vodka is made from spirits distilled and filtered to remove all flavor. By law, vodkas made in America must be made with spirits distilled from grains. Imported vodkas may be made with spirits distilled either from grains or potatoes and may contain additional flavoring agents such as citric acid or pepper. Aquavit, for example, is essentially vodka flavored with caraway seeds. Gin is a clear spirit flavored with an infusion of juniper berries and other herbs (botanicals). Cordials (also called liqueurs) and schnapps are flavored spirits; most are sweetened with added sugar. Some cordials contain cream. Rum is made with spirits distilled from sugar cane (molasses). Tequila is made with spirits distilled from the blue agave plant. Brandies are made with spirits distilled from fruit. (Arma- gnac and cognac are distilled from fermented grapes, calvados and applejack from fermented apples, kirsch from fermented cherries, slivovitz from fermented plums.) Unless they contain added sugar or cream, spirits have no nutrients other than alcohol. Unlike food, which has to be metabolized before your body can use it for energy, alcohol can be absorbed into the blood-stream directly from the gastrointestinal tract. Ethyl alcohol provides 7 calories per gram.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food The USDA /Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines for Americans defines one drink as 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits, and “moderate drinking” as two drinks a day for a man, one drink a day for a woman.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Bland diet Lactose-free diet (cream cordials made with cream or milk) Low-purine (antigout) diet

Buying This Food Look for: Tightly sealed bottles stored out of direct sunlight, whose energy might disrupt the structure of molecules in the beverage and alter its flavor. Choose spirits sold only by licensed dealers. Products sold in these stores are manufac- tured under the strict supervision of the federal government.

Storing This Food Store sealed or opened bottles of spirits in a cool, dark cabinet.

Preparing This Food All spirits except unflavored vodkas contain volatile molecules that give the beverage its characteristic taste and smell. Warming the liquid excites these molecules and intensifies the flavor and aroma, which is the reason we serve brandy in a round glass with a narrower top that captures the aromatic molecules as they rise toward the air when we warm the glass by holding it in our hands. Whiskies, too, though traditionally served with ice in America, will have a more intense flavor and aroma if served at room temperature.

What Happens When You Cook This Food The heat of cooking evaporates the alcohol in spirits but leaves the flavoring intact. Like other alcoholic beverages, spirits should be added to a recipe near the end of the cooking time to preserve the flavor while cooking away any alcohol bite. Alcohol is an acid. If you cook it in an aluminum or iron pot, it will combine with metal ions to form dark compounds that discolor the pot and the food you are cooking. Any recipe made with spirits should be prepared in an enameled, glass, or stainless-steel pot.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Reduced risk of heart attack. Data from the American Cancer Society’s Cancer Prevention Study 1, a 12-year survey of more than 1 million Americans in 25 states, shows that men who take one drink a day have a 21 percent lower risk of heart attack and a 22 percent lower risk of stroke than men who do not drink at all. Women who have up to one drink a day also reduce their risk of heart attack. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower cholesterol levels. Beverage alcohol decreases the body’s production and storage of low density lipoproteins (LDLs), the protein and fat particles that carry cholesterol into your arteries. As a result, people who drink moderately tend to have lower cholesterol levels and higher levels of high density lipoproteins (HDLs), the fat and protein particles that carry cholesterol out of the body. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower risk of stroke. In January 1999, the results of a 677-person study published by researchers at New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University showed that moderate alcohol consumption reduces the risk of stroke due to a blood clot in the brain among older people (average age: 70). How alcohol prevents stroke is still unknown, but it is clear that moderate use is a key. Heavy drinkers (those who consume more than seven drinks a day) have a higher risk of stroke. People who once drank heavily, but cut their consumption to moderate levels, reduce their risk of stroke. Stimulating the appetite. Alcoholic beverages stimulate the production of saliva and the gastric acids that cause the stomach contractions we call hunger pangs. Moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages, which may help stimulate appetite, are often prescribed for geriatric patients, convalescents, and people who do not have ulcers or other chronic gastric problems that might be exacerbated by the alcohol. Dilation of blood vessels. Alcoholic beverages dilate the tiny blood vessels just under the skin, bringing blood up to the surface. That’s why moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages (0.2–1 gram per kilogram of body weight, or two ounces of whiskey for a 150-pound adult) temporarily warm the drinker. But the warm blood that flows up to the surface of the skin will cool down there, making you even colder when it circulates back into the center of your body. Then an alcohol flush will make you perspire, so you lose more heat. Excessive amounts of beverage alcohol may depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Alcoholism. Alcoholism is an addiction disease, the inability to control one’s alcohol consumption. It is a potentially life-threatening condition, with a higher risk of death by accident, suicide, malnutrition, or acute alcohol poisoning, a toxic reaction that kills by para- lyzing body organs, including the heart. Fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a specific pattern of birth defects—low birth weight, heart defects, facial malformations, learning disabilities, and mental retarda- tion—first recognized in a study of babies born to alcoholic women who consumed more than six drinks a day while pregnant. Subsequent research has found a consistent pattern of milder defects in babies born to women who drink three to four drinks a day or five drinks on any one occasion while pregnant. To date there is no evidence of a consistent pattern of birth defects in babies born to women who consume less than one drink a day while preg- nant, but two studies at Columbia University have suggested that as few as two drinks a week while pregnant may raise a woman’s risk of miscarriage. (One drink is 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits.) Increased risk of breast cancer. In 2008, scientists at the National Cancer Institute released data from a seven-year survey of more than 100,000 postmenopausal women showing that even moderate drinking (one to two drinks a day) may increase by 32 percent a woman’s risk of developing estrogen-receptor positive (ER+) and progesterone-receptor positive (PR+) breast cancer, tumors whose growth is stimulated by hormones. No such link was found between consuming alcohol and the risk of developing ER-/PR- tumors (not fueled by hor- mones). The finding applies to all types of alcohol: beer, wine, and distilled spirits. Increased risk of oral cancer (cancer of the mouth and throat). Numerous studies confirm the A merican Cancer Societ y’s warn ing that men and women who consume more than t wo drinks a day are at higher risk of oral cancer than are nondrinkers or people who drink less. Increased risk of cancer of the colon and rectum. In the mid-1990s, studies at the University of Oklahoma suggested that men who drink more than five beers a day are at increased risk of rectal cancer. Later studies suggested that men and women who are heavy beer or spirits drinkers (but not those who are heavy wine drinkers) have a higher risk of colorectal cancers. Further studies are required to confirm these findings. Malnutrition. While moderate alcohol consumption stimulates appetite, alcohol abuses depresses it. In addition, an alcoholic may drink instead of eating. When an alcoholic does eat, excess alcohol in his/her body prevents absorption of nutrients and reduces the ability to synthesize new tissue. Hangover. Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestine and carried by the bloodstream to the liver, where it is oxidized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), the enzyme our bodies use every day to metabolize the alcohol we produce when we digest carbohydrates. The acetaldehyde is converted to acetyl coenzyme A and either eliminated from the body or used in the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and body tis- sues. Although individuals vary widely in their capacity to metabolize alcohol, an adult of average size can metabolize the alcohol in four ounces (120 ml) whiskey in approximately five to six hours. If he or she drinks more than that, the amount of alcohol in the body will exceed the available supply of ADH. The surplus, unmetabolized alcohol will pile up in the bloodstream, interfering with the liver’s metabolic functions. Since alcohol decreases the reabsorption of water from the kidneys and may inhibit the secretion of an antidiuretic hormone, the drinker will begin to urinate copiously, losing magnesium, calcium, and zinc but retaining uric acid, which is irritating. The level of lactic acid in the body will increase, making him or her feel tired and out of sorts; the acid-base balance will be out of kilter; the blood vessels in the head will swell and throb; and the stomach, its lining irritated by the alcohol, will ache. The ultimate result is a hangover whose symptoms will disappear only when enough time has passed to allow the body to marshal the ADH needed to metabolize the extra alcohol in the person’s blood. Changes in body temperature. Alcohol dilates capillaries, tiny blood vessels just under the skin, producing a “flush” that temporarily warms the drinker. But drinking is not an effective way to stay warm in cold weather. Warm blood flowing up from the body core to the surface capillaries is quickly chilled, making you even colder when it circulates back into your organs. In addition, an alcohol flush triggers perspiration, further cooling your skin. Finally, very large amounts of alcohol may actually depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature. Impotence. Excessive drinking decreases libido (sexual desire) and interferes with the ability to achieve or sustain an erection. Migraine headache. Some alcoholic beverages contain chemicals that inhibit PST, an enzyme that breaks down certain alcohols in spirits so that they can be eliminated from the body. If they are not broken down by PST, these alcohols will build up in the bloodstream and may trigger a migraine headache. Gin and vodka appear to be the distilled spirits least likely to trigger headaches, brandy the most likely.

Food/Drug Interactions Acetaminophen (Tylenol, etc.). FDA recommends that people who regularly have three or more drinks a day consult a doctor before using acetaminophen. The alcohol/acetaminophen combination may cause liver failure. Anti-alcohol abuse drugs (disulfiram [Antabuse]). Taken concurrently with alcohol, the anti- alcoholism drug disulfiram can cause flushing, nausea, a drop in blood pressure, breathing difficulty, and confusion. The severity of the symptoms, which may var y among individu- als, generally depends on the amount of alcohol consumed and the amount of disulfiram in the body. Anticoagulants. Alcohol slows the body’s metabolism of anticoagulants (blood thinners), intensif ying the effect of the drugs and increasing the risk of side effects such as spontane- ous nosebleeds. Antidepressants. Alcohol may strengthen the sedative effects of antidepressants. Aspirin, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Like alco- hol, these analgesics irritate the lining of the stomach and may cause gastric bleeding. Com- bining the two intensifies the effect. Insulin and oral hypoglycemics. Alcohol lowers blood sugar and interferes with the metabo- lism of oral antidiabetics; the combination may cause severe hypoglycemia. Sedatives and other central nervous system depressants (tranquilizers, sleeping pills, antide- pressants, sinus and cold remedies, analgesics, and medication for motion sickness). Alcohol intensifies the sedative effects of these medications and, depending on the dose, may cause drowsiness, sedation, respiratory depression, coma, or death. MAO inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase (M AO) inhibitors are drugs used as antidepressants or antihypertensives. They inhibit the action of natural enzymes that break down tyramine, a substance formed naturally when proteins are metabolized. Tyramine is a pressor amine, a chemical that constricts blood vessel and raises blood pressure. If you eat a food that contains tyramine while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, the pressor amine cannot be eliminated from your body and the result may be a hypertensive crisis (sustained elevated blood pressure). Brandy, a distilled spirit made from wine (which is fermented) contains tyramine. All other distilled spirits may be excluded from your diet when you are taking an M AO inhibitor because the spirits and the drug, which are both sedatives, may be hazard- ous in combination.... distilled spirits

Air hunger with pained breathing. It occurs normally from physical exertion, and abnormally either from impaired respiration, emotional distress, or a breakdown in nerve responses... dyspnea

Protection, anti hunger ... norfolk island pine

Active principles of Kola nut, Coca leaves (caffeine and cocaine). Chiefly used in war. To allay thirst, hunger and sustain strength under mental and physical strain. Instruction to physicians: “Cola is a stimulant, tonic and restorative, decreasing the sensation of fatigue in prolonged muscular exertion or mental effort.”

Dose: One dissolved on the tongue daily. (Burroughs Wellcome during World War I) ... forced march tablet

A normal response in babies to needs or discomforts, such as hunger or thirst.

Most healthy babies stop crying when their needs are attended to.

In a few cases, persistent crying may be due to a physical cause such as intolerance of cow’s milk or an illness (such as an ear or throat infection, or a viral fever).... crying in infants

Hypoglycaemia or low blood sugar occurs when a patient with DIABETES MELLITUS suffers an imbalance between carbohydrate/glucose intake and INSULIN dosage. If there is more insulin than is needed to help metabolise the available carbohydrate, it causes a range of symptoms such as sweating, trembling, pounding heartbeat, anxiety, hunger, nausea, tiredness and headache. If the situation is not quickly remedied by taking oral sugar – or, if severe, giving glucose by injection – the patient may become confused, drowsy and uncoordinated, ?nally lapsing into a COMA. Hypoglycaemia is infrequent in people whose diabetes is controlled with diet and oral HYPOGLYCAEMIC AGENTS.

Treatment of acute hypoglycaemia depends upon the severity of the condition. Oral carbohydrate, such as a sugary drink or chocolate, may be e?ective if the patient is conscious enough to swallow; if not, glucose or GLUCAGON by injection will be required. Comatose patients who recover after an injection should then be given oral carbohydrates. An occasional but dangerous complication of coma is cerebral oedema (see BRAIN, DISEASES OF – Cerebral oedema), and this should be considered if coma persists. Emergency treatment in hospital is then needed. When the patient has recovered, management of his or her diabetes should be assessed in order to prevent further hypoglycaemic attacks.... hypoglycaemic coma

The newborn infant may be fed naturally from the breast, or arti?cially from a bottle.

Breast feeding Unless there is a genuine contraindication, every baby should be breast fed. The nutritional components of human milk are in the ideal proportions to promote the healthy growth of the human newborn. The mother’s milk, especially colostrum (the ?uid secreted before full lactation is established) contains immune cells and antibodies that increase the baby’s resistance to infection. From the mother’s point of view, breast feeding helps the womb to return to its normal size and helps her to lose excess body fat gained during pregnancy. Most importantly, breast feeding promotes intimate contact between mother and baby. A ?nal point to be borne in mind, however, is that drugs taken by a mother can be excreted in her milk. These include antibiotics, sedatives, tranquillisers, alcohol, nicotine and high-dose steroids or vitamins. Fortunately this is rarely a cause of trouble. (See also main entry on BREAST FEEDING.)

Arti?cial feeding Unmodi?ed cows’ milk is not a satisfactory food for the human newborn and may cause dangerous metabolic imbalance. If breast feeding is not feasible, one of the many commerciallly available formula milks should be used. Most of these are made from cows’ milk which has been modi?ed to re?ect the composition of human milk as closely as possible. For the rare infant who develops cows’-milk-protein intolerance, a milk based on soya-bean protein is indicated.

Feeding and weight gain The main guide as to whether an infant is being adequately fed is the weight. During the ?rst days of life a healthy infant loses weight, but should by the end of the second week return to birth weight. From then on, weight gain should be approximately 6oz. (170g) each week.

The timing of feeds reffects social convention rather than natural feeding patterns. Among the most primitive hunter-gatherer tribes of South America, babies are carried next to the breast and allowed to suckle at will. Fortunately for developed society, however, babies can be conditioned to intermittent feedings.

As the timing of breast feeding is ?exible – little or no preparation time being required – mothers can choose to feed their babies on demand. Far from spoiling the baby, demand feeding is likely to lead to a contented infant, the only necessary caution being that a crying baby is not always a hungry baby.

In general, a newborn will require feeding every two to four hours and, if well, is unlikely to sleep for more than six hours. After the ?rst months, a few lucky parents will ?nd their infant sleeping through the night.

Weaning Weaning on to solid foods is again a matter of individuality. Most babies will become dissatis?ed with a milk-only diet at around six months and develop enthusiasm for cereal-based weaning foods. Also at about this time they enjoy holding objects and transferring them to their mouths – the mouth being an important sense organ in infants. It is logical to include food items that they can hold, as this clearly brings the baby pleasure at this time. Introduction of solids before the age of four months is unusual and best avoided. The usual reason given for early weaning is that the baby appears hungry, but this is unlikely to be the case; crying due to COLIC, for example, is more probable. Some mothers take the baby’s desire to suck – say, on their ?nger – as a sign of hunger when this is, in fact, re?ex activity.

Delaying the start of weaning beyond nine months is nutritionally undesirable. As weaning progresses, the infant’s diet requires less milk. Once established on a varied solid diet, breast and formula milks can be safely replaced with cows’ milk. There is, however, no nutritional contraindication to continued breast feeding until the mother wishes to stop.

It is during weaning that infants realise they can arouse extreme maternal anxiety by refusing to eat. This can lead to force-feeding and battles of will which may culminate in a breakdown of the mother-child relationship. To avoid this, parents must resist the temptation to coax the child to eat. If the child refuses solid food, the meal should be taken away with a minimum of fuss. Children’s appetites re?ect their individual genetic structure and a well child will eat enough to grow and maintain satisfactory weight gain. If a child is not eating properly, weight gain will be inadequate over a prolonged period and an underlying illness is the most likely cause. Indeed, failure to thrive is the paediatrician’s best clue to chronic illness.

Advice on feeding Many sources of con?icting advice are available to new parents. It is impossible to satisfy everyone, and ultimately it is the well-being of the mother and infant and the closeness of their relationship that matter. In general, mothers should be wary of rigid advice. An experienced midwife, health visitor or well-baby-clinic nursing sister are among the most reliable sources of information.

Protein Fat per Sugar Calories per cent cent per cent per cent

Human milk 1·1 4·2 7·0 70 Cows’ milk 3·5 3·9 4·6 66

Composition of human and cows’ milk... infant feeding

A condition caused by lack of food over a long period, resulting in weight loss, changes in metabolism, and extreme hunger. (See also anorexia nervosa; fasting; nutritional disorders.)... starvation

n. a region in the brain that controls the amount of food intake. Appetite suppressants probably decrease hunger by changing the chemical characteristics of this centre.... appestat

Kola Nut Tea has been known for being effective in treating hunger pangs and boosting energy. The kola nut (cola) is native to the rainforests of Africa. The trees can reach up to 60 feet having 30 centimeters long leaves and star shaped fruits. The kola nut contains a huge amount of caffeine and it is used in many West African cultures to suppress hunger pangs. The kola nut is also used as a religious object being offered during prayers, weddings or funerals. It is used to flavor popular cola drinks such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi. The main constituents of kola nut are antioxidants, calcium, potassium, iron, beta-carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, sugar and vitamin C. How To Make Kola Nut tea To brew Kola Nut Tea, place 1-2 teaspoons of kola nut in 8 ounces of water. Boil the mix and then let it steep for about 3-5 minutes. When the time is up, pour the tea into your cup using a strainer to catch the kola nut herbs. Kola Nut Tea Benefits

• Boosts your mood.
• Fights depression.
• Improves male potency.
• Suppresses food appetite.
• Helps in the treatment of congestion problems such as asthma and whooping cough.

Kola Nut Tea Side Effects

• Because of its caffeine content, pregnant and breastfeeding women shouldn’t drink Kola Nut Tea.
• People with hypertension and heart disease should also avoid Kola Nut Tea.
• Do not drink Kola Nut Tea before bed, since its caffeine content may stop you from having a restful sleep.

Enjoy Kola Nut Tea and all its wonderful benefits. Just keep in mind that kola nut tea contains caffeine and try to avoid over consumption, in order to not experience its side effects!... kola nut tea

n. the region of the forebrain in the floor of the third ventricle, linked with the thalamus above and the *pituitary gland below (see brain). It contains several important centres controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and eating, water balance, and sexual function. It is also closely connected with emotional activity and sleep and functions as a centre for the integration of hormonal and autonomic nervous activity through its control of the pituitary secretions (see neuroendocrine system; pituitary gland). —hypothalamic adj.... hypothalamus

Ulcers are a medical condition, characterized by an inflammation on the lining of the digestive tract. The disease is associated with a constant upper abdominal pain, which may disappear after eating. Hunger is more intensively felt by a person with ulcers, because the protective mucus is destroyed and the stomach is not protected enough against its acids. There are different types of ulcers, depending on what part of the digestive tract is affected: peptic, gastric and duodenal ulcers. The external factors leading to ulcers are still the subject of studies. However, it has been scientifically proven that excessive smoking and drinking, a wrong diet and a stressful lifestyle, together with the abuse of painkillers may cause this disease. There were instances when a bacteria had led to the occurance of ulcers. Family history could also be responsible for developing this medical condition. Efficient Teas for treating Ulcers In case of ulcers, patients should look for teas with anti-inflammatory properties, which calm the sore and soothe the digestive tract. Chamomile tea , Calamus tea and Slippery elm bark tea are natural remedies which alleviate the unpleasant feeling caused by ulcers. Chamomile is a medicinal plant, successfully used to treat a large array of health issues. Due to its efficiency, the plant is known as a “cure-all” treatment. Chamomile tea has a long curative history, being used by ancient Egyptians and modern people as well. It is best known as a treatment for muscle and menstrual cramps, back pain and rheumatism. It acts as an immunity enhancer, boosting the body’s ability to fight against viruses and bacteria. Also, patients suffering from less severe ailments of the liver claim its beneficial effects for improving the function of this organ. To prepare Chamomile tea as Tea for Ulcers, add 2 tablespoons of the dried plant in a cup of hot water. Steep it for 8 to 10 minutes and strain it. Drink it warm, with no sugar (sweets may cause a feeling of burning in a stomach affected by ulcers). Calamus was used by ancient Chinese to restrain stress and to melt phlegm. Nowadays, due to this plant’s scent, it is an important ingredient in the perfume industry. Calamus tea may reduce the pain caused by ulcers, soothing the digestive tract. Also, it may relieve flatulence as well as chest congestion. When trying to give up smoking, Calamus brewing can help the process, by reducing the need for tobacco. To prepare Calamus tea, add a cup of boiling water on 2 tablespoons of the plant’s roots and leaves. Steep it for 15 minutes, strain it. Drink it before you eat. Slippery elmis a plant originating from the Unites States and Canada, used at first by Native Americans as a wound bandage. It has anti-inflammatory properties which help in the treatment of the urinary tract, the skin and the digestive system. It soothes the stomach and counters its acidity. To prepare Slippery elm bark tea, add 2 tablespoons of ground slippery elm bark in a mug of hot water. Steep it for 11-12 minutes and strain it. Drink it before eating. Tea for Ulcers: possible side effects Before consuming Tea for Ulcers, bear in mind to ask your doctor about its safe use for your medical condition. Rarely, when taken in large doses, Tea for Ulcers may lead to diarrhea and vomiting. Tea for Ulcers is a natural way to mitigate or even to treat the painful symptoms of this disease. Also, it is important that people reconsider their diet and bad habits to prevent ulcers.... tea for ulcers

Health Inca tea. Peruvian tea. Bolivian tea. Erythroxylum coca, Lam. Leaves. Leaves contain a minimal amount of cocaine.

A traditional remedy to prevent fatigue, to elevate mood, assuage hunger, increase pulse rate, stimulate the brain and nerves, and to enable great feats of endurance to be performed. Not on open sale; its use is discouraged. South Americans have been drinking coca leaf tea for hundreds of years apparently with no ill-effects and possibly some medical benefits. Natives drink 1-2 cups or more daily, as infused from decocainised leaves. Medical use: to assist withdrawal from cocaine addiction. Local anaesthetic. CD. (Misuse of Drugs Act 1973) ... coca leaves

One of the most common types of pain. A headache is only rarely a symptom of a serious underlying disorder. The pain arises from tension in the meninges, and in the blood vessels and muscles of the scalp.

Many headaches are simply a response to some adverse stimulus, such as hunger. Such headaches usually clear up quickly. Tension headaches, caused by tightening in the face, neck, and scalp muscles as a result of stress or poor posture, are also common, and may last for days or weeks. Migraine is a severe, incapacitating headache preceded or accompanied by visual and/or stomach disturbances. Cluster headaches cause intense pain behind 1 eye.

Common causes of headache include hangover and noisy or stuffy environments. Food additives may also be a cause. Some headaches are due to overuse of painkillers (see analgesic drugs). Other possible causes include sinusitis, toothache, cervical osteoarthritis, and head injury. Among the rare causes of headache are a brain tumour, hypertension, temporal arteritis, an aneurysm, and increased pressure within the skull.

Most headaches can be relieved by painkillers and rest. If a neurological cause is suspected, CT scanning or MRI may be performed.... headache

n. abnormal hunger or an excessive desire for food.... limosis

n. an infestation with tapeworms of the genus *Taenia. Humans become infected with the adult worms following ingestion of raw or undercooked meat containing the larval stage of the parasite. The presence of a worm in the intestine may occasionally give rise to increased appetite, hunger pains, weakness, and weight loss. Worms are expelled from the intestine using various anthelmintics, including *niclosamide. See also cysticercosis.... taeniasis