n. an area of the *cerebral cortex that is overlapped by the sides of the deep lateral sulcus (cleft) in each hemisphere.
In men, superficial adipose tissue accumulates around the shoulders, waist, and abdomen; in women, it occurs on the breasts, hips, and thighs.... adipose tissue
Large axons are covered by a sheath of insulating myelin which is interrupted at intervals by nodes of Lanvier, where other axons branch out. An axon may be more than a metre long. It ends by branching into several ?laments called telodendria, and these are in contact with muscle or gland membranes and other nerves (see NERVE).... axon
Severe hypothermia is sometimes complicated by gastric erosions and haemorrhage, as well as pancreatitis (see PANCREAS, DISORDERS OF). Infants and the elderly are less e?cient at regulating temperature and conserving heat than other age groups, and are therefore more at risk from accidental hypothermia during cold weather if their accommodation is not warm enough. Approximately half a million elderly people are at risk in Britain each winter from hypothermia. The other major cause of accidental hypothermia is near-drowning in icy water. Deliberate hypothermia is sometimes used to reduce metabolic rate so that prolonged periods of cardiac arrest may occur without tissue HYPOXIA developing. This technique is used for some cardiac and neurosurgical operations and is produced by immersion of the anaesthetised patient in iced water or by cooling an extracorporeal circulation.
Treatment of hypothermia is by warming the patient and treating any complications that arise. Passive warming is usual, with conservation of the patient’s own body heat with insulating blankets. If the core temperature is below 28 °C, then active rewarming should be instituted by means of warm peritoneal, gastric or bladder lavage or using an extracorporeal circulation. Care must be taken in moving hypothermic patients, as a sudden rush of cold peripheral blood to the heart can precipitate ventricular ?brillation. Prevention of hypothermia in the elderly is important. Special attention must be paid to diet, heating the home and adequate clothing in several layers to limit heat loss.... hypothermia
Oxygen is essential for life. It is absorbed via the lungs (see RESPIRATION) and is transported by HAEMOGLOBIN within the ERYTHROCYTES to the tissues. Within the individual cell it is involved in the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a compound that stores chemical energy for muscle cells, by the oxidative metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. HYPOXIA causes anaerobic metabolism with a resulting build-up in LACTIC ACID, the result of muscle cell activity. If severe enough, the lack of ATP causes a breakdown in cellular function and the death of the individual.
When hypoxia occurs, it may be corrected by giving supplemental oxygen. This is usually given via a face mask or nasal prongs or, in severe cases, during ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION OF THE LUNGS. Some indications for oxygen therapy are high altitude, ventilatory failure, heart failure, ANAEMIA, PULMONARY HYPERTENSION, CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) poisoning, anaesthesia and post-operative recovery. In some conditions – e.g. severe infections with anaerobic bacteria and CO poisoning – hyperbaric oxygen therapy has been used.... oxygen
Vernix comprises fatty secretions and dead cells.
It protects the skin, insulates against heat loss before birth, and lubricates the baby’s passage down the birth canal.... vernix
– the corpus callosum. Other clefts or ?ssures (sulci) make deep impressions, dividing the cerebrum into lobes. The lobes of the cerebrum are the frontal lobe in the forehead region, the parietal lobe on the side and upper part of the brain, the occipital lobe to the back, and the temporal lobe lying just above the region of the ear. The outer 3 mm of the cerebrum is called the cortex, which consists of grey matter with the nerve cells arranged in six layers. This region is concerned with conscious thought, sensation and movement, operating in a similar manner to the more primitive areas of the brain except that incoming information is subject to much greater analysis.
Numbers of shallower infoldings of the surface, called furrows or sulci, separate raised areas called convolutions or gyri. In the deeper part, the white matter consists of nerve ?bres connecting di?erent parts of the surface and passing down to the lower parts of the brain. Among the white matter lie several rounded masses of grey matter, the lentiform and caudate nuclei. In the centre of each cerebral hemisphere is an irregular cavity, the lateral ventricle, each of which communicates with that on the other side and behind with the third ventricle through a small opening, the inter-ventricular foramen, or foramen of Monro.
BASAL NUCLEI Two large masses of grey matter embedded in the base of the cerebral hemispheres in humans, but forming the chief part of the brain in many animals. Between these masses lies the third ventricle, from which the infundibulum, a funnel-shaped process, projects downwards into the pituitary body, and above lies the PINEAL GLAND. This region includes the important HYPOTHALAMUS.
MID-BRAIN or mesencephalon: a stalk about 20 mm long connecting the cerebrum with the hind-brain. Down its centre lies a tube, the cerebral aqueduct, or aqueduct of Sylvius, connecting the third and fourth ventricles. Above this aqueduct lie the corpora quadrigemina, and beneath it are the crura cerebri, strong bands of white matter in which important nerve ?bres pass downwards from the cerebrum. The pineal gland is sited on the upper part of the midbrain.
PONS A mass of nerve ?bres, some of which run crosswise and others are the continuation of the crura cerebri downwards.
CEREBELLUM This lies towards the back, underneath the occipital lobes of the cerebrum.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA The lowest part of the brain, in structure resembling the spinal cord, with white matter on the surface and grey matter in its interior. This is continuous through the large opening in the skull, the foramen magnum, with the spinal cord. Between the medulla, pons, and cerebellum lies the fourth ventricle of the brain.
Structure The grey matter consists mainly of billions of neurones (see NEURON(E)) in which all the activities of the brain begin. These cells vary considerably in size and shape in di?erent parts of the brain, though all give o? a number of processes, some of which form nerve ?bres. The cells in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, for example, are very numerous, being set in layers ?ve or six deep. In shape these cells are pyramidal, giving o? processes from the apex, from the centre of the base, and from various projections elsewhere on the cell. The grey matter is everywhere penetrated by a rich supply of blood vessels, and the nerve cells and blood vessels are supported in a ?ne network of ?bres known as neuroglia.
The white matter consists of nerve ?bres, each of which is attached, at one end, to a cell in the grey matter, while at the other end it splits up into a tree-like structure around another cell in another part of the grey matter in the brain or spinal cord. The ?bres have insulating sheaths of a fatty material which, in the mass, gives the white matter its colour; they convey messages from one part of the brain to the other (association ?bres), or, grouped into bundles, leave the brain as nerves, or pass down into the spinal cord where they end near, and exert a control upon, cells from which in turn spring the nerves to the body.
Both grey and white matter are bound together by a network of cells called GLIA which make up 60 per cent of the brain’s weight. These have traditionally been seen as simple structures whose main function was to glue the constituents of the brain together. Recent research, however, suggests that glia are vital for growing synapses between the neurons as they trigger these cells to communicate with each other. So they probably participate in the task of laying down memories, for which synapses are an essential key. The research points to the likelihood that glial cells are as complex as neurons, functioning biochemically in a similar way. Glial cells also absorb potassium pumped out by active neurons and prevent levels of GLUTAMATE – the most common chemical messenger in the brain – from becoming too high.
The general arrangement of ?bres can be best understood by describing the course of a motor nerve-?bre. Arising in a cell on the surface in front of the central sulcus, such a ?bre passes inwards towards the centre of the cerebral hemisphere, the collected mass of ?bres as they lie between the lentiform nucleus and optic thalamus being known as the internal capsule. Hence the ?bre passes down through the crus cerebri, giving o? various small connecting ?bres as it passes downwards. After passing through the pons it reaches the medulla, and at this point crosses to the opposite side (decussation of the pyramids). Entering the spinal cord, it passes downwards to end ?nally in a series of branches (arborisation) which meet and touch (synapse) similar branches from one or more of the cells in the grey matter of the cord (see SPINAL CORD).
BLOOD VESSELS Four vessels carry blood to the brain: two internal carotid arteries in front, and two vertebral arteries behind. These communicate to form a circle (circle of Willis) inside the skull, so that if one is blocked, the others, by dilating, take its place. The chief branch of the internal carotid artery on each side is the middle cerebral, and this gives o? a small but very important branch which pierces the base of the brain and supplies the region of the internal capsule with blood. The chief importance of this vessel lies in the fact that the blood in it is under especially high pressure, owing to its close connection with the carotid artery, so that haemorrhage from it is liable to occur and thus give rise to stroke. Two veins, the internal cerebral veins, bring the blood away from the interior of the brain, but most of the small veins come to the surface and open into large venous sinuses, which run in grooves in the skull, and ?nally pass their blood into the internal jugular vein that accompanies the carotid artery on each side of the neck.
MEMBRANES The brain is separated from the skull by three membranes: the dura mater, a thick ?brous membrane; the arachnoid mater, a more delicate structure; and the pia mater, adhering to the surface of the brain and containing the blood vessels which nourish it. Between each pair is a space containing ?uid on which the brain ?oats as on a water-bed. The ?uid beneath the arachnoid membrane mixes with that inside the ventricles through a small opening in the fourth ventricle, called the median aperture, or foramen of Magendie.
These ?uid arrangements have a great in?uence in preserving the brain from injury.... divisions
Cause Although this is one of the most common diseases of the central nervous system in Europe – there are around 50,000 affected individuals in Britain alone – the cause is still not known. The disease comes on in young people (onset being rare after the age of 40), apparently without previous illness. The ratio of women-to-men victims is 3:2. It is more common in ?rst and second children than in those later in birth order, and in small rather than big families. There may be a hereditary factor for MS, which could be an autoimmune disorder: the body’s defence system attacks the myelin in the central nervous system as if it were a ‘foreign’ tissue.
Symptoms These depend greatly upon the part of the brain and cord affected by the sclerotic patches. Temporary paralysis of a limb, or of an eye muscle, causing double vision, and tremors upon exertion, ?rst in the affected parts, and later in all parts of the body, are early symptoms. Sti?ness of the lower limbs causing the toes to catch on small irregularities in the ground and trip the person in walking, is often an annoying symptom and one of the ?rst to be noticed. Great activity is shown in the re?ex movements obtained by striking the tendons and by stroking the soles of the feet. The latter re?ex shows a characteristic sign (Babinski sign) in which the great toe bends upwards and the other toes spread apart as the sole is stroked, instead of the toes collectively bending downwards as in the normal person. Tremor of the eye movements (nystagmus) is usually found. Trembling handwriting, interference with the functions of the bladder, giddiness, and a peculiar ‘staccato’ or ‘scanning’ speech are common symptoms at a later stage. Numbness and tingling in the extremities occur commonly, particularly in the early stages of the disease. As the disease progresses, the paralyses, which were transitory at ?rst, now become con?rmed, often with great rigidity in the limbs. In many patients the disease progresses very slowly.
People with multiple sclerosis, and their relatives, can obtain help and guidance from the Multiple Sclerosis Society. Another helpful organisation is the Multiple Sclerosis Resources Centre. Those with sexual or marital problems arising out of the illness can obtain information from SPOD (Association to Aid the Sexual and Personal Relationships of People with a Disability). (See APPENDIX 2: ADDRESSES: SOURCES OF INFORMATION, ADVICE, SUPPORT AND SELFHELP.)
Treatment is di?cult, because the most that can be done is to lead a life as free from strain as possible, to check the progress of the disease. The use of INTERFERON beta seems to slow the progress of MS and this drug is licensed for use in the UK for patients with relapsing, remitting MS over two years, provided they can walk unaided – a controversial restriction on this (expensive) treatment. CORTICOSTEROIDS may be of help to some patients.
The NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL EXCELLENCE (NICE) ruled in 2001 that the use of the drugs interferon beta and glatiramer acetate for patients with multiple sclerosis was not cost-e?ective but recommended that the Department of Health, the National Assembly for Wales and the drug manufacturers should consider ways of making the drugs available in a cost-e?ective way. Subsequently the government said that it would consider funding a ‘risk-sharing’ scheme in which supply of drugs to patients would be funded only if treatment trials in individuals with MS showed that they were e?ective.
The Department of Health has asked NICE to assess two CANNABIS derivatives as possible treatments for multiple sclerosis and the relief of post-operative pain. Trials of an under-thetongue spray and a tablet could, if successsful, lead to the two drugs being available around 2005.
It is important to keep the nerves and muscles functioning, and therefore the patient should remain at work as long as he or she is capable of doing it, and in any case should exercise regularly.... multiple sclerosis (ms)
Sensory These carry signals to the central nervous system (CNS) – the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD – from sensory receptors. These receptors respond to di?erent stimuli such as touch, pain, temperature, smells, sounds and light.
Motor These carry signals from the CNS to activate muscles or glands.
Interneurons These provide the interconnecting ‘electrical network’ within the CNS.
Structure Each neurone comprises a cell body, several branches called dendrites, and a single ?lamentous ?bre called an AXON. Axons may be anything from a few millimetres to a metre long; at their end are several branches acting as terminals through which electrochemical signals are sent to target cells, such as those of muscles, glands or the dendrites of another axon.
Axons of several neurones are grouped
together to form nerve tracts within the brain or spinal cord or nerve-?bres outside the CNS. Each nerve is surrounded by a sheath and contains bundles of ?bres. Some ?bres are medullated, having a sheath of MYELIN which acts as insulation, preventing nerve impulses from spreading beyond the ?bre conveying them.
The cellular part of the neurones makes up the grey matter of the brain and spinal cord – the former containing 600 million neurones. The dendrites meet with similar outgrowths from other neurones to form synapses. White matter is the term used for that part of the system composed of nerve ?bres.
Functions of nerves The greater part of the bodily activity originates in the nerve cells (see NERVE). Impulses are sent down the nerves which act simply as transmitters. The impulse causes sudden chemical changes in the muscles as the latter contract (see MUSCLE). The impulses from a sensory ending in the skin pass along a nerve-?bre to affect nerve cells in the spinal cord and brain, where they are perceived as a sensation. An impulse travels at a rate of about 30 metres (100 feet) per second. (See NERVOUS IMPULSE.)
The anterior roots of spinal nerves consist of motor ?bres leading to muscles, the posterior roots of sensory ?bres coming from the skin. The terms, EFFERENT and AFFERENT, are applied to these roots, because, in addition to motor ?bres, ?bres controlling blood vessels and secretory glands leave the cord in the anterior roots. The posterior roots contain, in addition to sensory ?bres, the nerve-?bres that transmit impulses from muscles, joints and other organs, which among other neurological functions provide the individual with his or her
proprioceptive faculties – the ability to know how various parts of the body are positioned.
The connection between the sensory and motor systems of nerves is important. The simplest form of nerve action is that known as automatic action. In this, a part of the nervous system, controlling, for example, the lungs, makes rhythmic discharges to maintain the regular action of the respiratory muscles. This controlling mechanism may be modi?ed by occasional sensory impressions and chemical changes from various sources.
Re?ex action This is an automatic or involuntary activity, prompted by fairly simple neurological circuits, without the subject’s consciousness necessarily being involved. Thus a painful pinprick will result in a re?ex withdrawal of the affected ?nger before the brain has time to send a ‘voluntary’ instruction to the muscles involved.
Voluntary Actions are more complicated than re?ex ones. The same mechanism is involved, but the brain initially exerts an inhibitory or blocking e?ect which prevents immediate re?ex action. Then the impulse, passing up to the cerebral hemispheres, stimulates cellular activity, the complexity of these processes depending upon the intellectual processes involved. Finally, the inhibition is removed and an impulse passes down to motor cells in the spinal cord, and a muscle or set of muscles is activated by the motor nerves. (Recent advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques have provided very clear images of nerve tracts in the brain which should lead to greater understanding of how the brain functions.) (See BRAIN; NERVOUS SYSTEM; SPINAL CORD.)... neuron(e)
Habitat: Assam; introduced into hills of North Bengal.
English: Khasi Pine.Ayurvedic: Sarala var.Folk: Digsaa (Khasia).Action: Spasmolytic, antimicrobial. Oleo-resin—considered superior to that of P. roxburghii for turpentine. The bark contains 7-10% of tannin.
The essential oil from oleoresin contains chiefly alpha-pinene. Other constituents are beta-pinene, longifoline and sesquiterpenes. Abetic acid from rosin possesses weak cardiac and spasmolytic activities.... pinus khasyaAs described by the French physician, Charcot, over 100 years ago, it is not infectious. Symptom-free periods may extend for months, even years, though relapses may be triggered by emotional crises, physical injury, the contraceptive pill, influenza and other infections.
While the cause is unknown, some studies have revealed a link between the disorder and the distemper virus in dogs. Others have linked the disease with mercury toxicity from amalgam dental fillings shown to generate electromotive forces which propel ionised mercury particles into the body from teeth. A further link is persistent infective sinusitis.
MS is high in families that eat excessive meat fat, butter and dairy products but with too little vegetable fat (corn, Soya, sunflower oil, etc). Linoleic acid levels in the blood of MS patients are abnormally low, especially during relapse. (Schwartz JH, Bennett B. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 45; 899-904, 1973) Evening Primrose oil is claimed to make up the deficiency. Ethnic peoples with a diet wholly of fish (Eskimos) seldom develop this disease.
While cure is not possible, herbal medicine may in some cases arrest deterioration. Treatment of severe nerve conditions should be supervised by neurologists and practitioners whose training prepares them to recognise serious illness and to integrate herbal and supplementary intervention safely into the treatment plan.
Nerve sheaths require calcium; herbs to increase its levels: Oats, Lobelia, Horsetail.
Evening Primrose oil makes good a deficiency of linoleic acid (Vitamin F) for efficient function of the brain.
Alternatives:– Tablets/capsules. Black Cohosh, Cramp bark, Prickly Ash, Skullcap, Ginseng.
Formula. Ginkgo 2; Prickly Ash 1; Black Cohosh; Ginger quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: two 5ml teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Formula, for pain. Lobelia 1; Ladyslipper 1; Ginger quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 30-60 drops. Tinctures: one 5ml teaspoon. Powders: 250-500mg.
Rue tea. Traditional remedy for MS.
Evening Primrose: 4 × 500mg capsules, daily.
Aromatherapy. Spinal massage. 10 drops oils of Rosemary and Lavender in egg-cup Almond oil (or other vegetable oil).
Purslane herb. A rich source of non-fish EPA – suitable for a vegetarian approach.
Diet. A diet rich in essential fatty acids appears to arrest deterioration. (MS Unit, Central Middlesex Hospital, London)
High protein, low fat with oily fish. Lecithin. Sugar-free. Gluten-free (see Gluten diet). Cholesterol- free (avoid milk and dairy products). Grape juice. Dandelion coffee. One tablespoon Cod Liver oil daily. Red beet. Vegetable oils (safflower, sunflower, etc). Avoid coffee and caffeine stimulants.
Vitamins. Dismutase enzymes (see entry). B-complex, B3, B6. Vitamin C, 500-1000mg. Vitamin E, 200iu. Daily. Some authorities advise maximum dosage of Vitamin B12.
Minerals. Dolomite. Manganese. Zinc.
Information. Multiple Sclerosis Society, 25 Effie Road, London SW6 1EE, UK. Send SAE. ... multiple sclerosis
In asbestosis, widespread fine scarring occurs in the lungs. The disease causes breathlessness and a dry cough, eventually leading to severe disability and death. It develops mostly in industrial workers who have been heavily exposed to asbestos. The period from initial exposure to development of the disease is usually at least 20 years. Diagnosis is by chest X-ray. Asbestosis increases the risk of lung cancer.
Mesothelioma is a cancerous tumour of the pleura (the membrane surrounding the lungs) or the peritoneum (the membrane lining the abdominal cavity). In the pleura, mesotheliomas cause pain and breathlessness; in the peritoneum they cause enlargement of the abdomen and intestinal obstruction. The condition cannot be treated and usually leads to death within 1 or 2 years. The average interval between initial exposure to asbestos and death is 20–30 years. Mesothelioma affects people who have worked with blue or brown asbestos.
In diffuse pleural thickening, the outer and inner layers of the pleura become thickened, and excess fluid may accumulate in the cavity between them.
This combination restricts the ability of the lungs to expand, resulting in shortness of breath.
The condition may develop even after short exposure to asbestos.... asbestos-related diseases
Patches of demyelination are visible on MRI of the brain in multiple sclerosis. The cause of the demyelination is not known. In many cases, demyelination attacks alternate with periods of partial or complete recovery of nerve function. In encephalomyelitis, there is inflammation of nerve cells within the CNS and sometimes areas of demyelination.... demyelination
Fats are usually solid at room temperature; oils are liquid. The amount and types of fat in the diet have important implications for health. A diet containing a large amount of fat, particularly saturated fat, is linked to an increased risk of atherosclerosis and subsequent heart disease and stroke.
Some dietary fats, mainly triglycerides (combinations of glycerol and 3 fatty acids), are sources of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and of essential fatty acids. Triglycerides are the main form of fat stored in the body. These stores act as an energy reserve and also provide insulation and a protective layer for delicate organs. Phospholipids are structural fats found in cell membranes. Sterols, such as cholesterol, are found in animal and plant tissues; they have a variety of functions, often being converted into hormones or vitamins.
Dietary fats are first emulsified by bile salts before being broken down by lipase, a pancreatic enzyme. They are absorbed via the lymphatic system before entering the bloodstream.Lipids are carried in the blood bound to protein; in this state they are known as lipoproteins. There are 4 classes of lipoprotein: very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), and chylomicrons. LDLs and VLDLs contain large amounts of cholesterol, which they carry through the bloodstream and deposit in tissues. HDLs pick up cholesterol and carry it back to the liver for processing and excretion. High levels of LDLs are associated with atherosclerosis, whereas HDLs have a protective effect. (See also nutrition.)... fats and oils
Hair is involved in the regulation of body temperature (known as thermoregulation). If the body is too cold, arrector pili muscles in the skin contract, pulling the hairs upright to form goose pimples. Erect hairs trap an insulating layer of air next to the skin.Brittle hair may be due to excessive styling, hypothyroidism, or severe vitamin or mineral deficiency. Very dry hair
can be caused by malnutrition. Ingrown hairs occur when the free-growing end of the hair penetrates the skin near the follicle, which may cause inflammation. (See also hirsutism; hypertrichosis.)... hair
The nervous system contains billions of neurons, of which there are 3 main types: sensory neurons, which carry signals from sense receptors into the central nervous system (CNS); motor neurons, which carry signals from the CNS to muscles or glands; and interneurons, which form all the complex electrical circuitry within the CNS itself.
When a neuron transmits (“fires”) an electrical impulse, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminals at synapses (junctions with other neurons). This neurotransmitter may make a muscle cell contract, cause an endocrine gland to release a hormone, or affect an adjacent neuron.
Different stimuli excite different types of neurons to fire. Sensory neurons, for example, may be excited by physical stimuli, such as cold or pressure. The activity of most neurons is controlled by the effects of neurotransmitters released from adjacent neurons. Certain neurotransmitters generate a sudden change in the balance of electrical potential inside and outside the cell (an “action potential”), which occurs at one point on the cell’s membrane and flows at high speed along it. Others stabilize neuronal membranes, preventing an action potential. Thus, the firing pattern of a neuron depends on the balance of excitatory and inhibitory influences acting on it.
If the cell body of a neuron is damaged or degenerates, the cell dies and is never replaced. A baby starts life with the maximum number of neurons, which decreases continuously thereafter.... neuron
Some cases of neuropathy have no obvious cause. Among specific causes are diabetes mellitus, dietary deficiencies, excessive alcohol consumption, and metabolic upsets such as uraemia.
Nerves may become acutely inflamed after a viral infection, and neuropathies may also result from autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Neuropathies may occur secondarily to cancerous tumours, or with lymphomas and leukaemias. There is also a group of inherited neuropathies, the most common being peroneal muscular atrophy.
The symptoms of neuropathy depend on whether it affects mainly sensory nerve fibres or mainly motor nerve fibres. Damage to sensory nerve fibres may cause numbness, tingling, sensations of cold, and pain. Damage to motor fibres may cause muscle weakness and muscle wasting. Damage to autonomic nerves may lead to blurred vision, impaired or absent sweating, faintness, and disturbance of gastric, intestinal, bladder, and sexual functioning.
To determine the extent of the damage, nerve conduction studies are carried out together with EMG tests, which record the electrical activity in muscles.
Diagnostic tests such as blood tests, MRI scans, and nerve or muscle biopsy may also be required.
When possible, treatment is aimed at the underlying cause.
If the cell bodies of the damaged nerve cells have not been destroyed, full recovery from neuropathy is possible.... neuropathy
lead1 n. a soft bluish-grey metallic element that forms several poisonous compounds. Acute lead poisoning, which may follow inhalation of lead fumes or dust, causes abdominal pains, vomiting, and diarrhoea, with paralysis and convulsions and sometimes *encephalitis. In chronic poisoning a characteristic bluish marking of the gums (‘lead line’) is seen and the peripheral nerves are affected; there is also anaemia. Treatment is with *edetate. The use of lead in paints is now strictly controlled. Symbol: Pb.
lead2 n. 1. a portion of an electrocardiographic record that is obtained from a single electrode or a combination of electrodes placed on a particular part of the body (see electrocardiogram; electrocardiography). In the conventional ECG, 12 leads are recorded. Each lead represents the electrical activity of the heart as ‘viewed’ from a different position on the body surface and may help to localize myocardial damage. 2. a flexible steerable insulated wire introduced into the heart under X-ray control to allow electrical stimulation of the heart for the purpose of pacing (see pacemaker).... l-dopa
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