Labdanum Health Dictionary

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Labdanum: From 1 Different Sources

Cistus ladaniferus

FAMILY: Cistaceae

SYNONYMS: Cistus (oil), gum cistus, ciste, cyste (absolute), labdanum gum, ambreine, European rock rose.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small sticky shrub up to 3 metres high with lance-shaped leaves which are white and furry on the underside, and fragrant white flowers. Labdanum gum, a dark brown solid mass, is a natural oleoresin which is obtained by boiling the plant material in water.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean mountainous regions and the Middle East. Now found throughout the Mediterranean region, especially southern France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Morocco, Cyprus and Yugoslavia. The oil is mainly produced in Spain.

OTHER SPECIES: Labdanum gum is also obtained from other Cistus species, notably C. incanus, and other subspecies: see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the early aromatic substances of the ancient world. The gum was used formerly for catarrh, diarrhoea, dysentery and to promote menstruation; externally it was used in plasters. The oil from the closely related plant frostwort (Helianthemum canadense), also known as cistus, also has many medicinal qualities and is said to be useful for scrofulous skin conditions, ulcers and tumours, including cancer.

ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, astringent, balsamic, emmenagogue, expectorant, tonic.

EXTRACTION: 1. A resinoid or resin concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the crude gum. 2. An essential oil by steam distillation from the crude gum, the absolute, or from the leaves and twigs of the plant directly.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Absolute – a semi solid green or amber mass with a rich, sweet, herbaceous-balsamic odour. 2. Oil – a dark yellow or amber viscous liquid with a warm, sweet, dry-herbaceous musky scent. It blends well with oakmoss, clary sage, pine, juniper, calamus, opopanax, lavender, lavandin, bergamot, cypress, vetiver, sandalwood, patchouli, olibanum, chamomile maroc and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: It contains over 170 pinenes, including camphene, sabinene, myrcene, phellandrene, limonene, cymene, cineol, borneol, nerol, geraniol, fenchone, etc. Exact constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Mature skin, wrinkles.

Respiratory system: Coughs, bronchitis, rhinitis, etc.

Immune system: Colds.

OTHER USES: Used as a fixative and fragrance component in lotions, powders, soaps, detergents, colognes and perfumes, especially oriental perfumes and aftershaves. Employed in most major food categories, particularly meat products, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.

Health Source: The Encyclopedia of Essential Oils
Author: Julia Lawless

Allspice

Pimenta dioica

FAMILY: Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS: P. officinalis, pimento, pimenta, Jamaica pepper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree which reaches about 10 metres high and begins to produce fruit in its third year. Each fruit contains two kidney-shaped green seeds which turn glossy black upon ripening.

DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the West Indies and South America, it is cultivated extensively in Jamaica, Cuba and, to a lesser degree, in Central America. Imported berries are distilled in Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES: Four other varieties of pimento are found in Venezuela, Guyana and the West Indies which are used locally as spices.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used for flatulent indigestion and externally for neuralgic or rheumatic pain. Pimento water is used as a vehicle for medicines which ease dyspepsia and constipation since it helps prevent griping pains. It is used extensively as a domestic spice – allspice is so called because it tastes like a combination of cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon and pepper.

ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, carminative, muscle relaxant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the leaves, and 2. the fruit. The green unripe berries contain more oil than the ripe berries, but the largest percentage of oil is contained in the shell of the fruit. An oleoresin from the berries is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pimenta leaf oil is a yellowish-red or brownish liquid with a powerful sweet-spicy scent, similar to cloves. 2. Pimenta berry oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet warm balsamic-spicy bodynote (middle note) and fresh, clean top note. It blends well with ginger, geranium, lavender, opopanax, labdanum, ylang ylang, patchouli, neroli, oriental and spicy bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly eugenol, less in the fruit (60–80 per cent) than in the leaves (up to 96 per cent), also methyl eugenol, cineol, phellandrene and cryophyllene among others.

SAFETY DATA: Eugenol irritates the mucous membranes, and has been found to cause dermal irritation. Pimenta leaf and berry oil should therefore be used with care in low dilutions only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:

Circulation, muscles and joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscle cramp, rheumatism, stiffness etc. ‘Used in tiny amounts … in a massage oil for chest infections, for severe muscle spasm to restore mobility quickly, or where extreme cold is experienced.’1

Respiratory System: Chills, congested coughs, bronchitis.

Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion, nausea.

Nervous System: Depression, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, tension and stress.

OTHER USES: Used in aromatic carminative medicines; as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially soaps, aftershaves, spicy and oriental fragrances. Both leaf and berry oil are used extensively for flavouring foods, especially savoury and frozen foods, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... allspice

Balsam, Tolu

Myroxylon balsamum var. balsamum

FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS: Toluifera balsamum, Balsamum tolutanum, B. americanum, Myrospermum toluiferum, Thomas balsam, resin Tolu, opobalsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, graceful tropical tree, similar in appearance to the Peru balsam tree. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained by making V-shaped incisions into the bark and sap wood, often after the trunk has been beaten and scorched. It is a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America, mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba; also cultivated in the West Indies.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many types of South American balsam-yielding trees, such as the Peru balsam – see entry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The balsam works primarily on the respiratory mucous membranes, and is good for chronic catarrh and non-inflammatory chest complaints, laryngitis and croup. It is still used as a flavour and mild expectorant in cough syrups and lozenges. As an ingredient in compound benzoin tincture and similar formulations, it is helpful in the treatment of cracked nipples, lips, cuts, bedsores, etc.

ACTIONS: Antitussive, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: The crude balsam is collected from the trees. It appears first in liquid form, then hardens and solidifies into an orange-brown brittle mass. An ‘essential oil’ is obtained from the crude by 1. steam distillation, or 2. dry distillation. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced for use primarily as fixatives.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow-brown liquid with a sweet-floral scent and peppery undertone. 2. An amber-coloured liquid with a rich balsamic-floral scent, which slowly solidfies on cooling into a crystalline mass. Tolu balsam blends well with mimosa, ylang ylang, sandalwood, labdanum, neroli, patchouli, cedarwood and oriental, spicy and floral bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The balsam contains approx. 80 per cent resin, 20 per cent oil, with cinnamic and benzoic acids, small amounts of terpenes, and traces of eugenol and vanillin.

SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates it to be non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization, see Peru Balsam.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

SKIN CARE: Dry, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, rashes, scabies, sores, wounds.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, croup, laryngitis. ‘It may be used as an inhalant by putting about a teaspoon into a steam bath.’6

OTHER USES: As a fixative and fragrance component in colognes, cosmetics and perfumes (especially the dry distilled type). Some use in pharmaceutical preparations, e.g. cough syrups. Low levels used in many major food products, especially baked goods.... balsam, tolu

Calamus

Acorus calamus var. angustatus

FAMILY: Araceae

SYNONYMS: Calamus aromaticus, sweet flag, sweet sedge, sweet root, sweet rush, sweet cane, sweet myrtle, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, cinnamon sedge.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A reed-like aquatic plant about 1 metre high, with sword-shaped leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers. It grows on the margins of lakes and streams with the long-branched rhizome immersed in the mud. The whole plant is aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to India; the oil is mainly produced in India and Russia and to a lesser extent in Europe (except Spain), Siberia, China, Yugoslavia and Poland (Polish and Yugoslavian oils have a uniform lasting scent).

OTHER SPECIES: Not to be confused with the yellow flag iris which it resembles in appearance; they are botanically unrelated. There are several other varieties of aromatic sedge, mostly in the east, for example Calamus odoratus used in India as a medicine and perfume.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name derives from the Greek calamos meaning ‘reed’. The properties of the herb are mainly due to the aromatic oil, contained largely in the root. It used to be highly esteemed as an aromatic stimulant and tonic for fever (typhoid), nervous complaints, vertigo, headaches, dysentery, etc. It is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, for ‘acute and chronic dyspepsia, gastritis, intestinal colic, anorexia, gastric ulcer.’. In Turkey and especially in India (where it is valued as a traditional medicine), it is sold as a candied rhizome for dyspepsia, bronchitis and coughs.

ACTIONS: Anticonvulsant, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, hypotensive, insecticide, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes (and sometimes the leaves).

CHARACTERISTICS: A thick, pale yellow liquid with a strong, warm, woody-spicy fragrance; poor quality oils have a camphoraceous note. It blends well with cananga, cinnamon, labdanum, olibanum, patchouli, cedarwood, amyris, spice and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Beta-asarone (amounts vary depending on source: the Indian oil contains up to 80 per cent, the Russian oil a maximum of 6 per cent), also calamene, calamol, calamenene, eugenol and shyobunones.

SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin. The oil of calamus is reported to have carcinogenic properties.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy, whether internally or externally.’.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in cosmetic and perfumery work, in woody/oriental/leather perfumes and to scent hair powders and tooth powders in the same way as orris. Calamus and its derivatives (oil, extracts, etc.) are banned from use in foods.... calamus

Cananga

Cananga odorata

FAMILY: Annonaceae

SYNONYM: C. odoratum var. macrophylla.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall tropical tree, up to 30 metres high, which flowers all year round. It bears large, fragrant, tender yellow flowers which are virtually identical to those of the ylang ylang.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia: Java, Malaysia, the Philippines, the Moluccas.

OTHER SPECIES: Very closely related to the tree which produces ylang ylang oil, C. odorata var. genuina. Cananga is considered an inferior product in perfumery work; being grown in different regions the oil has a different quality, heavier and less delicate than ylang ylang. However, cananga is truly a ‘complete’ oil whereas ylang ylang is made into several distillates.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used locally for infectious illnesses, for example malaria. The beautiful flowers are also used for decorative purposes at festivals.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antidepressant, aphrodisiac, hypotensive, nervine, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water distillation from the flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: Greenish-yellow or orange viscous liquid with a sweet, floral balsamic tenacious scent. It blends well with calamus, birch tar, copaiba balsam, labdanum, neroli, oakmoss, jasmine, guaiacwood and oriental-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Caryophyllene, benzyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, terpineol, borneol, geranyl acetate, safrol, linalol, limonrne, methyl salicylate and over 100 minor components.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization especially in those with sensitive skin.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Insect bites, fragrance, general skin care.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. Limited use as a flavour ingredient in some food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.... cananga

Cardamon

Elettaria Cardamomum

FAMILY: Zingiberaceae

SYNONYMS: Elettaria cardomomum var. cardomomum, cardamom, cardamomi, cardamum, mysore cardamom.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial, reed-like herb up to 4 metres high, with long, silky blade-shaped leaves. Its long sheathing stems bear small yellowish flowers with purple tips, followed by oblong red-brown seeds.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially southern India; cultivated extensively in India, Sri Lanka, Laos, Guatemala and El Salvador. The oil is produced principally in India, Europe, Sri Lanka and Guatemala.

OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous related species found in the east, used as local spices and for medicinal purposes, such as round or Siam cardamon (Amomum cardamomum) found in India and China. An oil is also produced from wild cardamon (E. cardamomum var. major).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used extensively as a domestic spice, especially in India, Europe, Latin America and Middle Eastern countries. It has been used in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine for over 3000 years, especially for pulmonary disease, fever, digestive and urinary complaints. Hippocrates recommended it for sciatica, coughs, abdominal pains, spasms, nervous disorders, retention of urine and also for bites of venomous creatures. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cephalic, digestive, diuretic, sialogogue, stimulant, stomachic, tonic (nerve).

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam, distillation from the dried ripe fruit (seeds). An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet-spicy, warming fragrance and a woody-balsamic undertone. It blends well with rose, olibanum, orange, bergamot, cinnamon, cloves, caraway, ylang ylang, labdanum, cedarwood, neroli and oriental bases in general.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinyl acetate and cineol (each may be present at up to 50 per cent), limonene, sabinene, linalol, linalyl acetate, pinene, zingiberene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, griping pains, halitosis heartburn, indigestion, vomiting.

Nervous System: Mental fatigue, nervous strain.

OTHER USES: Employed in some carminative, stomachic and laxative preparations; also in the form of compound cardamon spirit to flavour pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types. Important flavour ingredient, particularly in curry and spice products.... cardamon

Cedarwood, Atlas

Cedrus atlantica

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: Atlantic cedar, Atlas cedar, African cedar, Moroccan cedarwood (oil), libanol (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Pyramid-shaped evergreen tree with a majestic stature, up to 40 metres high. The wood itself is hard and strongly aromatic, due to the high percentage of essential oil which it contains.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Atlas mountains of Algeria; the oil is mainly produced in Morocco.

OTHER SPECIES: Believed to have originated from the famous Lebanon cedars (C. libani), which grow wild in Lebanon and on the island of Cyprus. It is also a close botanical relation to the Himalayan deodar cedarwood (C. deodora), which produces a very similar essential oil. (NB the oil is quite different from the Texas or Virginia cedarwood.)

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil from the Lebanon cedar was possibly the first to be extracted, it was used by the ancient Egyptians for embalming purposes, cosmetics and perfumery. The oil was one of the ingredients of ‘mithridat’, a renowned poison antidote that was used for centuries. The Lebanon cedar was prized as a building wood; its odour repelled ants, moths and other harmful insects, as does the oil from the Atlas cedar.

Traditionally, the oil was used in the East for bronchial and urinary tract infections, as a preservative and as an incense. It is still used as a temple incense by the Tibetans, and is employed in their traditional medicine.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antiputrescent, antiseborrheic, aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, mucolytic, sedative (nervous), stimulant (circulatory), tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the wood, stumps and sawdust. A resinoid and absolute are also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow, orange or deep amber viscous oil with a warm, camphoraceous top note and sweet tenacious, woody-balsamic undertone. It blends well with rosewood, bergamot, boronia, cypress, calamus, cassie, costus, jasmine, juniper, neroli, mimosa, labdanum, olibanum, clary sage, vetiver, rosemary, ylang ylang, oriental and floral bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Atlantone, caryophyllene, cedrol, cadinene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Best avoided during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, fungal infections, greasy skin, hair loss, skin eruptions, ulcers.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, catarrh, congestion, coughs.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, pruritis.

Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Fragrance component and fixative in cosmetics and household products, soaps, detergents, etc, as well as in perfumes, especially men’s fragrances.... cedarwood, atlas

Chamomile, German

Matricaria recutica

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: M. chamomilla, camomile, blue chamomile, matricaria, Hungarian chamomile, sweet false chamomile, single chamomile, chamomile blue (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual, strongly aromatic herb, up to 60 cms tall with a hairless, erect, branching stem. It has delicate feathery leaves and simple daisy-like white flowers on single stems. In appearance it is very similar to the corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis) but can be distinguished from it because the latter is scentless.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and north and west Asia; naturalized in North America and Australia. It is cultivated extensively, especially in Hungary and eastern Europe, where the oil is produced. It is no longer grown in Germany, despite the herbal name.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of chamomile, such as the pineapple weed (Chamaemelium suaveolens) and the Roman chamomile (C. nobile), both of which are used to produce an essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has a long-standing medicinal tradition, especially in Europe for ‘all states of tension and the visceral symptoms that can arise therefrom, such as nervous dyspepsia and nervous bowel, tension headaches, and sleeplessness; especially useful for all children’s conditions, calming without depressing …’.

An excellent skin care remedy, it has many of the same qualities as Roman chamomile, except that its anti-inflammatory properties are greater due to the higher percentage of azulene.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, anti inflammatory, antiphlogistic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carlminative, cicatrisant, cholagogue, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, hepatic, nerve sedative, stimulant of leucocyte production, stomachic, sudorific, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flower heads (up to 1.9 per cent yield). An absolute is also produced in small quantities, which is a deeper blue colour and has greater tenacity and fixative properties.

CHARACTERISTICS: An inky-blue viscous liquid with a strong, sweetish warm-herbaceous odour. It blends well with geranium, lavender, patchouli, rose, benzoin, neroli, bergamot, marjoram, lemon, ylang ylang, jasmine, clary sage and labdanum.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Chamazulene, farnesene, bisabolol oxide, en-yndicycloether, among others. (NB The chamazulene is not present in the fresh flower but is only produced during the process of distillation.)

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; causes dermatitis in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, allergies, boils, burns, cuts, chilblains, dermatitis, earache, eczema, hair care, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, sensitive skin, teething pain, toothache, wounds.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, inflamed joints, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprains.

Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, indigestion, nausea.

Genito-Urinary System: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.

Nervous System: Headache, insomnia, nervous tension, migraine and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and in carminative, antispasmodic and tonic preparations. Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps, detergents, high-class perfumes and hair and bath products. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... chamomile, german

Chamomile, Maroc

Ormenis multicaulis

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: O. mixta, Anthemis mixta, Moroccan chamomile.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A handsome plant, 90 to 125 cms high with very hairy leaves and tubular yellow flowers, surrounded by white ligulets.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to north west Africa and southern Spain, having probably evolved from the very common Ormenis species which grows all around the Mediterranean. Also found growing on the plains in Israel. The oil is distilled in Morocco.

OTHER SPECIES: It is distantly related to the German and Roman chamomile botanically, although it does not resemble them physically.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This is one of the more recent oils to appear on the market, and as such it does not have a long history of usage. The oil is often mistaken for a ‘true’ chamomile, though it should more correctly be called ‘Ormenis oil’ since: ‘Chemically and olfactorily, the oil is distinctly different from the German or the Roman chamomile oils, and cannot be considered as a replacement for them.’.

ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, cholagogue, emmenagogue, hepatic, sedative.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: Pale yellow to brownish yellow mobile liquid with a fresh-herbaceous top note and a sweet rich-balsamic undertone. It blends well with cypress, lavender, lavandin, vetiver, cedarwood, oakmoss, labdanum, olibanum and artemisia oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Unknown.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic and non-irritant – more specific safety data is unavailable at present.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE ‘Sensitive skin, colic, colitis, headache, insomnia, irritability, migraine, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, menopause, liver and spleen congestion.’. Little is known about its therapeutic history and usage.

OTHER USES: Employed extensively in perfumery work, especially in colognes, chypres and fougère fragrance.... chamomile, maroc

Chamomile, Roman

Chamaemelum nobile

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Anthemis nobilis, camomile, English chamomile, garden chamomile, sweet chamomile, true chamomile.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, stocky, perennial herb, up to 25 cms high, with a much branched hairy stem, half spreading or creeping. It has feathery pinnate leaves, daisy-like white flowers which are larger than those of the German chamomile. The whole plant has an applelike scent.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern and western Europe; naturalized in North America. Cultivated in England, Belgium, Hungary, United States, Italy and France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are a great many varieties of chamomile found throughout the world, four of which are native to the British Isles, but the only one of these used therapeutically is the Roman chamomile (C. nobile).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has had a medical reputation in Europe and especially in the Mediterranean region for over 2000 years, and it is still in widespread use. It was employed by the ancient Egyptians and the Moors, and it was one of the Saxons’ nine sacred herbs, which they called ‘maythen’. It was also held to be the ‘plant’s physician’, since it promoted the health of plants nearby.

It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for the treatment of dyspepsia, nausea, anorexia, vomiting in pregnancy, dysmenorrhoea and specifically flatulent dyspepsia associated with mental stress.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-anaemic, antineuralgic, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, cholagogue, cicatrisant, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hepatic, hypnotic, nerve sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the flower heads.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale blue liquid (turning yellow on keeping) with a warm, sweet, fruity-herbaceous scent. It blends well with bergamot, clary sage, oakmoss, jasmine, labdanum, neroli, rose, geranium and lavender.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly esters of angelic and tiglic acids (approx. 85 per cent), with pinene, farnesol, nerolidol, chamazulene, pinocarvone, cineol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; can cause dermatitis in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See German chamomile.

OTHER USES: See German chamomile.... chamomile, roman

Cypress

Cupressus sempervirens

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS: Italian cypress, Mediterranean cypress.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree with slender branches and a statuesque conical shape. It bears small flowers and round, brownish-grey cones or nuts.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the eastern Mediterranean; now grows wild in France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, North Africa, England and, to a lesser degree, the Balkan countries. Cultivation and distillation usually take place in France, also Spain and Morocco.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many other species of cypress found throughout the world which are used to produce an essential oil, such as C. lusitanica found in Kenya. With regard to oil quality, however, C. sempervirens is considered superior.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was highly valued as a medicine and as an incense by ancient civilizations and it is still used as a purification incense by the Tibetans. It benefits the urinary system and is considered useful where there is excessive loss of fluid, such as heavy perspiration or menstrual loss and diarrhoea: ‘The cones are … very drying and binding, good to stop fluxes of all kinds.’.

The Chinese consider the nuts very nutritious, beneficial for the liver and respiratory system and to check profuse perspiration.

ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, deodorant, diuretic, hepatic, styptic, sudorific, tonic, vasoconstrictive.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs. An oil from the cones is available occasionally. (A concrete and absolute are also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow to greenish-olive mobile liquid with a smoky, sweet-balsamic tenacious odour. It blends well with cedarwood, pine, lavender, mandarin, clary sage, lemon, cardamon, Moroccan chamomile, ambrette seed, labdanum, juniper, benzoin, bergamot, orange, marjoram and sandalwood.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, camphene, sylvestrene, cymene, sabinol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Haemorrhoids, oily and overhydrated skin, excessive perspiration, insect repellent, pyorrhoea (bleeding of the gums), varicose veins, wounds.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, muscular cramp, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, spasmodic coughing.

Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.

Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Employed in some pharmaceutical products; used as a fragrance component in colognes, after-shaves and perfumes.... cypress

Deertongue

Carphephorus odoratissimus

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Trilisa odoratissima, Liatris odoratissima, Frasera speciosa, hound’s tongue, deer’s tongue, Carolina vanilla, vanilla leaf, wild vanilla, vanilla trilisa, whart’s tongue, liatrix (oleoresin or absolute).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A herbaceous perennial plant distinguished by a naked receptacle and feathery pappus, with large, fleshy, dark green leaves, clasped at the base. When fresh, the leaves have little odour but when dried they acquire a vanilla-like odour, largely due to the coumarin that can be seen in crystals on the upper sides of the leaves.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to eastern USA; gathered on the savannah land between North Carolina and Florida.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several species of deertongue native to America, for example blazing star or prairie pine (Liatris squarrosa), and gayfeather (L. spicata). Not to be confused with the common vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) or with the European hound’s tongue (Cynoglossum officinale), all of which have been used in herbal medicine.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The roots have been used for their diuretic effects, and applied locally for sore throats and gonorrhoea. It has also been used as a tonic in treating malaria. In folklore the plant is associated with contraception and sterility in women.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Oleoresin by solvent extraction from the dried leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark green, heavy, viscous liquid with a rich, herbaceous, new-mown hay scent. It blends well with oakmoss, labdanum, lavandin, frankincense, clove, patchouli and oriental-type fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly coumarin (1.6 per cent), with dihydrotoumarin and terpenes, aldehydes and ketones.

SAFETY DATA: ‘Coumarin has toxic properties including liver injury and haemorrhages.’. (There is also the possibility of dermal irritation and phototoxicity due to the lactones present.)

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used as a fixative and fragrance component in soaps, detergents and perfumery work. Used for flavouring tobacco and; also employed for the isolation of coumarin.... deertongue

Elemi

Canarium luzonicum

FAMILY: Burseraceae

SYNONYMS: C. commune, Manila elemi, elemi gum, elemi resin, elemi (oleoresin).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical tree up to 30 metres high which yields a resinous pathological exudation with a green pungent odour. Although it is called a gum, it is almost entirely made up of resin and essential oil.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Philippine Islands and the Moluccas, where it is also cultivated. Distillation of the oil takes place at source.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several other species of Canarium which grow wild or are cultivated in the Philippines, which also yield a ‘gum’. It is also closely related to the trees yielding myrrh, frankincense and opopanax.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The gum or oleoresin is used locally for skin care, respiratory complaints and as a general stimulant. Elemi was one of the aromatics used by the ancient Egyptians for the embalming process.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant, expectorant, fortifying, regulatory, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the gum. (A resinoid and resin absolute are also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a light, fresh, balsamic-spicy, lemonlike odour. It blends well with myrrh, frankincense, labdanum, rosemary, lavender, lavandin, sage, cinnamon and other spices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The gum contains about 10–25 per cent essential oil of mainly phellandrene, dipentene, elemol, elemicin, terpineol, carvone and terpinolene among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Aged skin, infected cuts and wounds, inflammations, rejuvenation, wrinkles – signifies drying and ‘preservation’..

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, unproductive coughs.

Nervous system: Nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Resinoid and oil are used primarily as fixatives but also as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Occasionally used as a flavouring ingredient in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks.... elemi

Fir Needle, Silver

Abies alba

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: A. pectinata, whitespruce, European silver fir, edeltanne, weisstanne, templin (cone oil), Strassburg or Vosges turpentine (oil), fir needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A relatively small coniferous tree, with a regular pyramidal shape and a silvery white bark, grown chiefly for timber and as Christmas trees.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to north European mountainous regions; cultivated mainly in Switzerland, Poland, Germany, France, Austria and especially Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES: Oils that are distilled from the twigs and needles of various members of the coniferous families, Abies, Larix, Picea, Pinus, and Tsuga, are all commonly called fir needle oil – it is therefore important to know the specific botanical name. There are many other members of the fir or Abies family, notably the Canadian balsam (A. balsamifera) and the Siberian fir (A. siberica), the most popular fir needle oil in Europe and the USA due to its fine fragrance. Others include the Japanese fir needle oil from A.mayriana or A.sachalinensis. See also entries on spruce, pines and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is highly esteemed on the Continent for its medicinal virtues and its fragrant scent. It is used mainly for respiratory complaints, fever, muscular and rheumatic pain.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antiseptic (pulmonary), antitussive, deodorant, expectorant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the 1. needles and young twigs, and 2. fir cones, broken up pieces (templin oil)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A colourless or pale yellow liquid of pleasing, rich, sweet-balsamic odour. 2. Similar to the needle oil, but with a more orange-like fragrance. It blends well with galbanum, labdanum, lavender, rosemary, lemon, pine and marjoram.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Santene, pinene, limonene, bornyl acetate, lauraldehyde among others. 2. Pinene, limonene, borneol, bornyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs, sinusitis, etc.

Immune System: Colds, fever, ’flu.

OTHER USES: Employed as an ingredient in some cough and cold remedies and rheumatic treatments. Used as a fragrance component in deodorants, room sprays, disinfectants, bath preparations, soaps and perfumes.... fir needle, silver

Elecampane

Inula helenium

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Helenium grandiflorum, Aster officinalis, A. helenium, inula, scabwort, alant, horseheal, yellow starwort, elf dock, wild sunflower, velvet dock, ‘essence d’aunée’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A handsome perennial herb up to 1.5 metres high, with a stout stem covered in soft hairs. It has oval pointed leaves which are velvety underneath, large, yellow, daisy-like flowers and large, fleshy rhizome roots.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and Asia, naturalized in North America. Cultivated in Europe (Belgium, France, Germany) and Asia (China, India). The oil is mainly produced from imported roots in southern France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties of Inula; the European and Asian species are slightly different having a harsher scent. Other varieties include golden samphire (I. crithmoides) and sweet inula (I. graveolens or I. odora), which share similar properties.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient medical repute, which used to be candied and sold as a sweetmeat. It is used as an important spice, incense and medicine in the east. It is used in both western and eastern herbalism, mainly in the form of a tea for respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis and whooping cough, disorders of the digestion, intestines and gall bladder and for skin disorders.

Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for irritating cough or bronchitis. Elecampane root is the richest source of inulin.

ACTIONS: Alterative, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, astringent, bactericidal, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hyperglycaemic, hypotensive, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried roots and rhizomes. (An absolute and concrete are also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A semi-solid or viscous dark yellow or brownish liquid with a dry, soft, woody, honey-like odour, often containing crystals. It blends well with cananga, cinnamon, labdanum, lavender, mimosa, frankincense, orris, tuberose, violet, cedarwood, patchouli, sandalwood, cypress, bergamot and oriental fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, including alantolactone (or helenin), isolactone, dihydroisalantolactone, dihydralantolactone, alantic acid and azulene.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; however it is a severe dermal sensitizer. In clinical tests it caused ‘extremely severe allergic reactions’ in twenty-three out of twenty-five volunteers. On the basis of these results it is recommended that the oil ‘should not be used on the skin at all’..

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

NB In Phytoguide I, sweet inula (I. odora or I. graveolens), a deep green oil, is described as ‘queen of mucolytic essential oils’, having properties as diverse as: ‘anti-inflammatory, hyperthermic, sedative, cardia-regulative, diuretic and depurative’.. It is described as being an excellent oil for the cardiopulmonary zone including asthma, chronic bronchitis and unproductive coughs. This variety of Inula seems to avoid the sensitization problems of elecampane, at least when it is used as an inhalation or by aerosol treatment.

OTHER USES: Alantolactone is used as an anthelmintic in Europe (it is also an excellent bactericide). The oil and absolute are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient in alcoholic beverages, soft drinks and foodstuffs, especially desserts.... elecampane

Immortelle

Helichrysum angustifolium

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Helichrysum, everlasting, St John’s herb.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic herb, up to 0.6 metres high with a much-branched stem, woody at the base. The brightly coloured, daisy-like flowers become dry as the plant matures, yet retain their colour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, especially the eastern part and North Africa. It is cultivated mainly in Italy, Yugoslavia, Spain and France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several other Helichrysum species such as H. arenarium found in florist shops and H. stoechas which is also used to produce an absolute. H. orientale is grown for its oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Europe it is used for respiratory complaints such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and whooping cough; also for headaches, migraine, liver ailments and skin conditions including burns, allergies and psoriasis. Usually taken in the form of a decoction or infusion.

ACTIONS: Anti-allergenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antitussive, antiseptic, astringent, cholagogue, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hepatic, nervine.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowers and flowering tops. 2. An absolute (and concrete) are also produced by solvent extraction.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow to red oily liquid with a powerful, rich honeylike scent with a delicate tealike undertone. 2. A yellowy-brown viscous liquid with a rich, floral, tealike scent. It blends well with chamomile, boronia, labdanum, lavender, mimosa, oakmoss, geranium, clary sage, rose, Peru balsam, clove and citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Nerol and neryl acetate (30–50 per cent), geraniol, pinene, linalol, isovaleric aldehyde, sesquiterpenes, furfurol and eugenol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

Skin care: Abscess, acne, allergic conditions, boils, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, inflammation, spots, wounds etc.

Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, strained muscles.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, chronic coughs, whooping cough.

Digestive system: Liver congestion, spleen congestion.

Immune system: Bacterial infections, colds, ’flu, fever.

Nervous system: Depression, debility, lethargy, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes. The absolute is used to flavour certain tobaccos; used for the isolation of natural anethole.... immortelle

Juniper

Juniperus communis

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYM: Common juniper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or tree up to 6 metres high, with bluish green narrow stiff needles. It has small flowers and little round berries, which are green in the first year, turning black in the second and third.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere: Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada, northern Europe and northern Asia. The oil is mainly produced in Italy, France, Yugoslavia, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Germany and Canada.

OTHER SPECIES: In Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruit and twigs of J. smerka, less rich and sweet than that of common juniper. There are various other species of juniper such as J. oxycedrus which produces cade oil, J. virginiana which produces the so-called Virginian cedarwood oil, and J. sabina which produces savin oil. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The needles and berries have a long traditional history of use. It is used medicinally for urinary infections such as cystitis and urethritis; for respiratory problems such as bronchitis, colic and coughs; as well as gastro-intestinal infections and worms. It helps expel the build-up of uric acid in the joints, and is employed in gout, rheumatism and arthritis. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for rheumatic pain and cystitis.

ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the berries (sometimes fermented first as a by-product of juniper – brandy manufacture – the oil is considered an inferior product), and 2. the needles and wood. A resinoid, concrete and absolute are also produced on a small scale.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh, woody-balsamic odour. It blends well with vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, mastic, oakmoss, galbanum, elemi, cypress, clary sage, pine, lavender, lavandin, labdanum, fir needle, rosemary, benzoin, balsam tolu, geranium and citrus oils. 2. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet-balsamic, fresh, turpentine-like odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes: pinene, myrcene, sabinene with limonene, cymene, terpinene, thujene and camphene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-sensitizing, may be slightly irritating, generally non-toxic. However, it stimulates the uterine muscle (an abortifacient) and must not be used during pregnancy. Neither should it be used by those with kidney disease due to its nephrotoxic effect. The wood oil is usually adulterated with turpentine oil. It is best to use only juniper berry oil, in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, eczema, hair loss, haemorrhoids, oily complexions, as a skin toner, wounds.

Circulation muscles and joints: Accumulation of toxins, arteriosclerosis, cellulitis, gout, obesity, rheumatism.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Berries and extracts are used in diuretic and laxative preparations; also veterinary preventatives of ticks and fleas. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially spicy fragrances and aftershaves. Extensively used in many food products but especially alcoholic and soft drinks: the berries are used to flavour gin.... juniper

Laurel

Laurus nobilis

FAMILY: Lauraceae

SYNONYMS: Sweet bay, bay laurel, Grecian laurel, true bay, Mediterranean bay, Roman laurel, noble laurel, laurel leaf (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree up to 20 metres high with dark green, glossy leaves and black berries; often cultivated as an ornamental shrub.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region; extensively cultivated especially for its berries, in France, Spain, Italy, Morocco, Yugoslavia, China, Israel, Turkey and Russia. The oil is mainly produced in Yugoslavia.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several related species, all of which are commonly called Bay: Californian bay (Umbellularia california), West Indian bay (Pimenta racemosa) and the cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus), which is poisonous.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A popular culinary herb throughout Europe. The leaves were used by the ancient Greeks and Romans to crown their victors. Both leaf and berry were formerly used for a variety of afflictions including hysteria, colic, indigestion, loss of appetite, to promote menstruation and for fever. It is little used internally these days, due to its narcotic properties. A ‘fixed’ oil of bay, expressed from the berries, is still used for sprains, bruises, earache, etc.

ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, bactericidal, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, hypotensive, sedative, stomachic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaf and branchlets. (An oil from the berries is produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A greenish-yellow liquid with a powerful, spicy-medicinal odour. It blends well with pine, cypress, juniper, clary sage, rosemary, olibanum, labdanum, lavender, citrus and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (30–50 per cent), pinene, linalol, terpineol acetate, and traces of methyl eugenol.

SAFETY DATA: Relatively non-toxic and nonirritant; can cause dermatitis in some individuals. Use in moderation due to possible narcotic properties attributed to methyl eugenol. Should not be used during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Digestive system: Dyspepsia, flatulence, loss of appetite.

Genito-urinary system: Scanty periods. Immune system: Colds, ’flu, tonsillitis and viral infections.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in detergents, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially aftershaves. Extensively used in processed food of all types, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... laurel

Lavender, True

Lavandula angustifolia

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: L. vera, L. officinalis, garden lavender, common lavender

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen woody shrub, up to 1 metre tall, with pale green, narrow, linear leaves and flowers on blunt spikes of a beautiful violet-blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated all over the world. The oil is produced mainly in France, also Spain, Italy, England, Australia, Tasmania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria, Greece, etc.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of lavender; L. angustifolia is divided into two subspecies – L. delphinensis and L. fragrans. French lavender (L. stoechas) is a smaller shrub with dark violet flowers; see also entries on spike lavender, lavandin and the Botanical Classification section. The so-called cotton lavender (Santolina chamaecyparissus) and the sea lavender (Statice caroliniana) belong to different botanical families.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Lavender has a well-established tradition as a folk remedy, and its scent is still familiar to almost everyone. It was used to ‘comfort the stomach’ but above all as a cosmetic water, an insect repellent, to scent linen, and as a reviving yet soothing oil ‘The essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made from it, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms and colic ... A few drops of lavender in a hot footbath has a marked influence in relieving fatigue. Outwardly applied, it relieves toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. In hysteria, palsy and similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve power, lavender will act as a powerful stimulant.’.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops. 2. An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction in smaller quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, floral herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone; it has a more fragrant floral scent compared to spike lavender. It blends well with most oils, especially citrus and florals; also cedarwood, clove, clary sage, pine, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli, etc. 2. The absolute is a dark green viscous liquid with a very sweet herbaceous, somewhat floral odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 100 constituents including linalyl acetate (up to 40 per cent), linalol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene, caryophyllene, among others. Constituents vary according to source: high altitudes generally produce more esters.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Generally regarded as the most versatile essence therapeutically:

Skin care: Abscesses, acne, allergies, athlete’s foot, boils, bruises, burns, dandruff, dermatitis, earache, eczema, inflammations, insect bites and stings, insect repellent, lice, psoriasis, ringworm, scabies, sores, spots, all skin types, sunburn, wounds.

Circulation muscles and joints: Lumbago, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, halitosis, laryngitis, throat infections, whooping cough.

Digestive system: Abdominal cramps, colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.

Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Immune system: ’Flu.

Nervous system: Depression, headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions, PMT, sciatica, shock, vertigo.

OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and as a fragrance. Extensively employed in all types of soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, etc, especially toilet waters and colognes. Employed as a flavouring agent in most categories of food as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... lavender, true

Opopanax

Commiphora erythraea

FAMILY: Burseraceae

SYNONYMS: C. erythraea var. glabrascens, bisabol myrrh, sweet myrrh.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall tropical tree, similar to myrrh (to which it is closely related), which contains a natural oleogum resin in tubular vessels between the bark and wood of the trunk. The natives make incisions in the trunk of the tree to increase the yield. The crude gum dries to form dark reddish-brown tear-shaped lumps with a sweet-woody, rootlike odour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to East Africa (Somalia) and eastern Ethiopia (Harrar Province) where it grows wild. The essential oil production is generally carried out in the USA and Europe from the crude oleogum resin.

OTHER SPECIES: The original or ‘true’ opopanax used in perfumery was derived from a large plant Opopanax chironium or Pastinaca opopanax, a plant similar to the parsnip of the Umbelliferae family and native to the Levant region, Sudan and Arabia. The oleogum resin was obtained by cutting into the stem at the base, which then produces reddish-yellow tears of a strong rootlike, parsnip or celery-type smell. This type of opopanax is now unavailable, and has been replaced by a similar type of oil known as ‘bisabol myrrh’.

Not to be confused with cassie (Acacia farnesiana), which is also known as ‘opopanax’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Opopanax derived from O. chironium is described as having antispasmodic, expectorant, emmenagogue and antiseptic properties, which used to be employed in asthma, hysteria and visceral afflictions. In the Far East the bisabol myrrh is used extensively as an ingredient in incense.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, expectorant.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleogum resin. 2. A resinoid by solvent extraction from the crude oleogum resin.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. An orange, yellow or olive liquid with a sweet-balsamic, spicy, warm, animal-like odour (it does not contain a medicinal note like myrrh). It resinifies on exposure to air. 2. A solid dark mass with a warm, powdery, sweet-balsamic, rooty odour. It blends well with clary sage, coriander, labdanum, bergamot, myrrh, frankincense, vetiver, sandalwood, patchouli, mimosa, fir needle and neroli.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude contains resins, gums (50–80 per cent) and essential oils (10–20 per cent), notably the sesquiterpene ‘bisabolene’ and sesquiterpene alcohols.

SAFETY DATA: Frequently adulterated – it is more expensive than the ‘hirabol myrrh’. The commercial resinoid is also usually mixed with a solvent such as myristate, because it is otherwise unpourable at room temperatures.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Possibly similar uses to myrrh.

OTHER USES: Used as a fixative and fragrance component in high-class perfumery. Used in liqueurs to lend body and add winelike notes.... opopanax

Lemon

Citrus limon

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYMS: C. limonum, cedro oil.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small evergreen tree up to 6 metres high with serrated oval leaves, stiff thorns and very fragrant flowers. The fruit turns from green to yellow on ripening.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Asia, probably east India; it now grows wild in the Mediterranean region especially in Spain and Portugal. It is cultivated extensively worldwide in Italy, Sicily, Cyprus, Guinea, Israel, South and North America (California and Florida).

OTHER SPECIES: There are about forty-seven varieties which are said to have been developed in cultivation, such as the Java lemon (C. javanica). The lemon is also closely related to the lime, cedrat (or citron) and bergamot.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The juice and peel are widely used as a domestic seasoning. It is very nutritious, being high in vitamins A, B and C. In Spain and other European countries, lemon is something of a ‘cure-all’, especially with regard to infectious illness. It was used for fever, such as malaria and typhoid, and employed specifically for scurvy on English ships at sea.

Taken internally, the juice is considered invaluable for acidic disorders, such as arthritis and rheumatism, and of great benefit in dysentery and liver congestion.

ACTIONS: Anti-anaemic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antisclerotic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, haemostatic, hypotensive, insecticidal, rubefacient, stimulates white corpuscles, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by cold expression from the outer part of the fresh peel. A terpeneless oil is also produced on a large scale (cedro oil).

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale greeny-yellow liquid (turning brown with age), with a light, fresh, citrus scent. It blends well with lavender, neroli, ylang ylang, rose, sandalwood, olibanum, chamomile, benzoin, fennel, geranium, eucalyptus, juniper, oakmoss, lavandin, elemi, labdanum and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Limonene (approx. 70 per cent), terpinene, pinenes, sabinene, myrcene, citral, linalol, geraniol, octanol, nonanol, citronellal, bergamotene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic; may cause dermal irritation or sensitization reactions in some individuals – apply in moderation. Phototoxic do not use on skin exposed to direct sunlight.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, anaemia, brittle nails, boils, chilblains, corns, cuts, greasy skin, herpes, insect bites, mouth ulcers, spots, varicose veins, warts.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, high blood pressure, nosebleeds, obesity (congestion), poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Asthma, throat infections, bronchitis, catarrh.

Digestive system: Dyspepsia.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, fever and infections.

OTHER USES: Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, toilet waters and perfumes. Extensively employed by the food industry in most types of product, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... lemon

Patchouli

Pogostemon cablin

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: P. patchouly, patchouly, puchaput.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial bushy herb up to 1 metre high with a sturdy, hairy stem, large, fragrant, furry leaves and white flowers tinged with purple.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially Indonesia and the Philippines. It is extensively cultivated for its oil in its native regions as well as India, China, Malaysia and South America. The oil is also distilled in Europe and America from the dried leaves.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the Java patchouli (P. heyneanus), also known as false patchouli, which is also occasionally used to produce an essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil is used in the East generally to scent linen and clothes, and is believed to help prevent the spread of disease (prophylactic). In China, Japan and Malaysia the herb is used to treat colds, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and halitosis. In Japan and Malaysia it is used as an antidote to poisonous snakebites.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antitoxic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, nervine, prophylactic, stimulant (nervous), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried leaves (usually subjected to fermentation previously). A resinoid is also produced, mainly as a fixative.

CHARACTERISTICS: An amber or dark orange viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, herbaceous earthy odour – it improves with age. It blends well with labdanum, vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, oakmoss, geranium, clove, lavender, rose, neroli, bergamot, cassia, myrrh, opopanax, clary sage and oriental-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Patchouli alcohol (40 per cent approx.), pogostol, bulnesol, nor patchoulenol, bulnese, patchoulene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, athlete’s foot, cracked and chapped skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema (weeping), fungal infections, hair care, impetigo, insect repellent, sores, oily hair and skin, open pores, wounds, wrinkles.

Nervous system: Frigidity, nervous exhaustion and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in cosmetic preparations, and as a fixative in soaps and perfumes, especially oriental types. Extensively used in the food industry, in alcoholic and soft drinks. It makes a good masking agent for unpleasant tastes and smells.... patchouli

Orris

Iris pallida

FAMILY: Iridaceae

SYNONYMS: Orris root, iris, flag iris, pale iris, orris butter (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A decorative perennial plant up to 1.5 metres high, with sword-shaped leaves, a creeping fleshy rootstock and delicate, highly scented, pale blue flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the eastern Mediterranean region; also found in northern India and North Africa. Most commercial orris is produced in Italy where it grows wild. The oil is mainly produced in France and Morocco and to lesser extent in Italy and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of iris; cultivation has also produced further types. In Italy the pale iris (I. pallida) is collected indiscriminately with the Florentine orris (I. florentina) which has white flowers tinged with pale blue, and the common or German iris (I. germanica) which has deep purple flowers with a yellow beard. Other species which have been used medicinally include the American blue flag (I. versicolor), and the yellow flag iris (I. pseudacorus).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In ancient Greece and Rome orris root was used extensively in perfumery, and its medicinal qualities were held in high esteem by Dioscorides. The juice of the root was used for cosmetic purposes, and the root bruised in wine was employed for dropsy, bronchitis, coughs, hoarseness, chronic diarrhoea and congested headaches. In Russia the root was used to make a tonic drink with honey and ginger.

Iris is little used medicinally these days, but it still appears in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as being formerly used in upper respiratory catarrh, coughs, and for diarrhoea in infants.

ACTIONS: Dried Root – antidiarrhoeal, demulcent, expectorant. Fresh Root – diuretic, cathartic, emetic.

EXTRACTION: 1. An essential oil (often called a ‘concrete’) by steam distillation from the rhizomes which have been peeled, washed, dried and pulverized. The rhizomes must be stored for a minimum of three years prior to extraction otherwise they have virtually no scent! 2. An absolute produced by alkali washing in ethyl ether solution to remove the myristic acid from the ‘concrete’ oil. 3. A resin or resinoid by alcohol extraction from the peeled rhizomes.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil solidifies at room temperature to a cream-coloured mass with a woody, violet-like scent and a soft, floral-fruity undertone. 2. The absolute is a water-white or pale yellow oily liquid with a delicate, sweet, floral-woody odour. 3. The resin is a brown or dark orange viscous mass with a deep, woody sweet, tobacco-like scent – very tenacious.

Orris blends well with cedarwood, sandalwood, vetiver, cypress, mimosa, labdanum, bergamot, clary sage, rose, violet and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Myristic acid, an odourless substance which makes the ‘oil’ solid (85–90 per cent), alpha-irone and oleic acid.

SAFETY DATA: The fresh root causes nausea and vomiting in large doses. The oil and absolute are much adulterated or synthetic – ‘true’ orris absolute is three times the price of jasmine.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. However, the powdered orris, which is a common article, may be used as a dry shampoo, a body powder, a fixative for pot pourris, and to scent linen.

OTHER USES: The powder is used to scent dentifrices, toothpowders, etc. The resin is used in soaps, colognes and perfumes; the absolute and ‘concrete’ oil are reserved for high-class perfumery work. Occasionally used on the Continent for confectionery and fruit flavours.... orris

Petitgrain

Citrus aurantium var. amara

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYMS: C. bigaradia, petitgrain bigarade (oil), petitgrain Paraguay (oil). See also bitter orange.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The oil of petitgrain is produced from the leaves and twigs of the same tree that produces bitter orange oil and neroli oil: see bitter orange and neroli.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern China and north east India. The best quality petitgrain oil comes from France but a good-quality oil is also produced in North Africa, Paraguay and Haiti from semi-wild trees.

OTHER SPECIES: A type of petitgrain is also produced in small quantities from the leaves, twigs and small unripe fruit of the lemon, sweet orange, mandarin and bergamot trees.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: At one time the oil used to be extracted from the green unripe oranges when they were still the size of a cherry – hence the name petitgrains or ‘little grains’. One of the classic ingredients of eau-de-cologne.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, deodorant, digestive, nervine, stimulant (digestive, nervous), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs. An orange ‘leaf and flower’ water absolute is also produced, known as petitgrain sur fleurs.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow to amber liquid with a fresh-floral citrus scent and a woody-herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rosemary, lavender, geranium, bergamot, bitter orange, labdanum, neroli, oakmoss, clary sage, jasmine, benzoin, palmarosa, clove and balsams.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 40–80 per cent esters: mainly linalyl acetate and geranyl acetate, as well as linalol, nerol, terpineol, geraniol, nerolidol, farnesol, limonene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing, non-phototoxic.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, excessive perspiration, greasy skin and hair, toning.

Digestive system: Dyspepsia, flatulence.

Nervous system: Convalescence, insomnia, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially colognes (sometimes used to replace neroli). Employed as a flavour component in many foods, especially confectionery, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... petitgrain

Pine, Dwarf

Pinus mugo var. pumilio

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: P. mugo, P. montana, P. pumilio, mountain pine, Swiss mountain pine, pine needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A pyramidal shrub or small tree up to 12 metres high with a black bark, stiff and twisted needles borne in clusters, and brown cones, initially of a bluish hue.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of central and southern Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Austria (Tirol), Yugoslavia, Denmark and Italy.

OTHER SPECIES: There are very many species of pine used to produce essential oil from their needles and wood or employed in the production of turpentine. NB: The so-called huon pine (Dacrydium franklinii), the essential oil of which is also a skin irritant, belongs to a different family, the Podcarpaceae. For further details see Scotch pine and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A preparation made from the needles has been used internally for bladder, kidney and rheumatic complaints, as a liniment for rheumatism and muscular pain, and as an inhalant for bronchitis, catarrh, colds, etc.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, antiviral, balsamic, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white liquid with a very pleasant, balsamic-sweet, spicy-woody scent of good tenacity. This is the favoured pine fragrance for perfumery use due to its unique delicate odour, which blends well with cedarwood, lavandin, rosemary, sage, cananga, labdanum, juniper and other coniferous oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons; limonene, pinenes, phellandrene, dipentene, camphene, myrcene and bornyl acetate among others. The unusual scent is believed to be due to its aldehyde content.

SAFETY DATA: Dermal irritant, common sensitizing agent; otherwise non-toxic. It is best avoided therapeutically due to irritant hazards.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance and flavour component in pharmaceutical preparations for coughs and colds, nasal congestion and externally in analgesic ointments and liniments. Extensively employed in soaps, bath preparations, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially ‘leather’ and ‘woody’ type fragrances. It is also used in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... pine, dwarf

Spikenard

Nardostachys jatamansi

FAMILY: Valerianaceae

SYNONYMS: Nard, ‘false’ Indian valerian root (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender aromatic herb with a pungent rhizome root.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of northern India; also China and Japan (see other species). The oil is mainly distilled in Europe or the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the common valerian (Valeriana officinalis) and the Indian valerian (V. wallichii) with which it shares many qualities. There are also several other similar species, notably the Chinese spikenard (N. chinensis) which is also used to produce an essential oil. Not to be confused with aspic or spike lavender (Lavandula latifolia), nor with essential oils from the musk root (Ferula sumbul) which is collected from the same area. The roots of several other plants are also commonly sold as ‘Indian valerian root’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Spikenard is one of the early aromatics used by the ancient Egyptians and is mentioned in the Song of Solomon in the Bible. It is also the herb which Mary used to anoint Jesus before the Last Supper; ‘Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair; and the house was filled with the odour of the ointment.’.

The oil was also used by the Roman perfumers, or unguentarii, in the preparation of nardinum, one of their most celebrated scented oils, and by the Mughal empress Nur Jehan in her rejuvenating cosmetic preparations. It was also a herb known to Dioscorides as ‘warming and drying’, good for nausea, flatulent indigestion, menstrual problems, inflammations and conjunctivitis.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, bactericidal, deodorant, fungicidal, laxative, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried and crushed rhizome and roots.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or amber coloured liquid with a heavy, sweet-woody, spicy-animal odour, somewhat similar to valerian oil. It blends well with labdanum, lavender, oakinoss, patchouli, pine needle, vetiver and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Bornyl acetate, isobornyl valerianate, borneol, patchouli alcohol, terpinyl valerianate, terpineol, eugenol and pinenes, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Probably similar to valerian, i.e. non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Allergies, inflammation, mature skin (rejuvenating), rashes, etc.

Nervous system: Insomnia, nervous indigestion, migraine, stress and tension.

OTHER USES: Little used these days, usually as a substitute for valerian oil.... spikenard

Rosemary

Rosmarinus officinalis

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: R. coronarium, compass plant, incensier.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A shrubby evergreen bush up to 2 metres high with silvery green, needle-shaped leaves and pale blue flowers. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated worldwide in California, Russia, Middle East, England, France, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Morocco, China, etc. The main oil-producing countries are France, Spain and Tunisia.

OTHER SPECIES: R. officinalis is the type used for oil production but it is generally not specified, although there are many different cultivars, for example pine-scented rosemary (R. officinalis var. angustifolius). See also Botanical Classification.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest plants to be used for food, medicine and magic, being regarded as sacred in many civilizations. Sprigs of rosemary were burnt at shrines in ancient Greece, fumigations were used in the Middle Ages to drive away evil spirits, and to protect against plague and infectious illness.

It has been used for a wide range of complaints including respiratory and circulatory disorders, liver congestion, digestive and nervous complaints, muscular and rheumatic pain, skin and hair problems. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘depressive states with general debility and indications of cardiovascular weakness’..

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, hepatic, hypertensive, nervine, parasiticide, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (circulatory, adrenal cortex, hepatobiliary), stomachic, sudorific, tonic (nervous, general), vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh flowering tops or (in Spain) the whole plant (poorer quality).

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, fresh, minty herbaceous scent and a woody-balsamic undertone. Poor quality oils have a strong camphoraceous note. It blends well with olibanum, lavender, lavandin, citronella, oregano, thyme, pine, basil, peppermint, labdanum, elemi, cedarwood, petitgrain, cinnamon and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinenes, camphene, limonene, cineol, borneol with camphor, linalol, terpineol, octanone, bornyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution only), non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Not to be used by epileptics.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, greasy hair, insect repellent, promotes hair growth, regulates seborrhoea, scabies, stimulates scalp, lice, varicose veins.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arteriosclerosis, fluid retention, gout, muscular pain, palpitations, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough.

Digestive system: Colitis, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatic disorders, hypercholesterolaemia, jaundice.

Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.

Nervous system: Debility, headaches, hypotension, neuralgia, mental fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related disorders.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, household sprays and perfumes, especially colognes. Also used as a masking agent. Extensively employed in most major food categories, especially meat products, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks. Serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.... rosemary

Tarragon

Artemisia dracunculus

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Estragon (oil), little dragon, Russian tarragon.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb with smooth narrow leaves; an erect stem up to 1.2 metres tall, and small yellowy-green, inconspicuous flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, southern Russia and western Asia. Now cultivated worldwide, especially in Europe and the USA. The oil is mainly produced in France, Holland, Hungary and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: The so-called French tarragon or ‘sativa’, which is cultivated as a garden herb, is a smaller plant with a sharper flavour than the Russian type and is a sterile derivative of the wild species.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The leaf is commonly used as domestic herb, especially with chicken or fish, and to make tarragon vinegar. The name is thought to derive from an ancient use as an antidote to the bites of venomous creatures and ‘madde dogges’. It was favoured by the maharajahs of India who took it as a tisane, and in Persia it was used to induce appetite.

‘The leaves, which are chiefly used, are heating and drying, and good for those that have the flux, or any prenatural discharge.’. The leaf was also formerly used for digestive and menstrual irregularities, while the root was employed as a remedy for toothache.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aperitif, carminative, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypnotic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid (turning yellow with age), with a sweet-anisic, spicy-green scent. It blends well with labdanum, galbanum, lavender, oakmoss, vanilla, pine and basil.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Estragole (up to 70 per cent), capillene, ocimene, nerol, phellandrene, thujone and cineol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Moderately toxic due to ‘estragole’ (methyl chavicol); use in moderation only. Possibly carcinogenic. Otherwise non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Digestive system: Anorexia, dyspepsia, flatulence, hiccoughs, intestinal spasm, nervous indigestion, sluggish digestion.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, PMT.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially condiments and relishes, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... tarragon

Sage, Clary

Salvia sclarea

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Clary, clary wort, muscatel sage, clear eye, see bright, common clary, clarry, eye bright.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Stout biennial or perennial herb up to 1 metre high with large, hairy leaves, green with a hint of purple, and small blue flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe; cultivated worldwide especially in the Mediterranean region, Russia, the USA, England, Morocco and central Europe. The French, Moroccan and English clary are considered of superior quality for perfumery work.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the garden sage (S. officinalis) and the Spanish sage (S. lavendulaefolia), which are both used to produce essential oils. Other types of sage include meadow clary (S. pratensis) and vervain sage (S. verbenaca). Clary sage should not be confused with the common wayside herb eyebright (Euphrasia).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb, highly esteemed in the Middle Ages, has now largely fallen out of use. It was used for digestive disorders, kidney disease, uterine and menstrual complaints, for cleansing ulcers and as a general nerve tonic. The mucilage from the seeds was used for treating tumours and for removing dust particles from the eyes.

Like garden sage, it cools inflammation and is especially useful for throat and respiratory infections.

ACTIONS: Anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, emmenagogue, hypotensive, nervine, regulator (of seborrhoea), sedative, stomachic, tonic, uterine.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops and leaves. (A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellowy-green liquid with a sweet, nutty herbaceous scent. It blends well with juniper, lavender, coriander, cardamon, geranium, sandalwood, cedarwood, pine, labdanum, jasmine, frankincense, bergamot and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Linalyl acetate (up to 75 per cent), linalol, pinene, myrcene and phellandrene, among others. Constituents vary according to geographical origin – there are several different chemotypes.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Do not use clary sage oil while drinking alcohol since it can induce a narcotic effect and exaggerate drunkenness. Clary sage is generally used in preference to the garden sage in aromatherapy due to its lower toxicity level.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, boils, dandruff, hair loss, inflamed conditions, oily skin and hair, ophthalmia, ulcers, wrinkles.

Circulation muscles and joints: High blood pressure, muscular aches and pains.

Respiratory system: Asthma, throat infections, whooping cough.

Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, labour pain, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Nervous system: Depression, frigidity, impotence, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related disorders.

OTHER USES: The oil and absolute are used as fragrance components and fixatives in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. The oil is used extensively by the food and drink industry, especially in the production of wines with a muscatel flavour.... sage, clary

Turmeric

Curcuma longa

FAMILY: Zingiberaceae

SYNONYMS: C. domestica, Amomoum curcuma, curcuma, Indian saffron, Indian yellow root, curmuma (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial tropical herb up to 1 metre high, with a thick rhizome root, deep orange inside, lanceolate root leaves tapering at each end, and dull yellow flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Asia; extensively cultivated in India, China, Indonesia, Jamaica and Haiti. The oil is mainly distilled in India, China and Japan. Some roots are imported to Europe and the USA for distillation.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the common ginger (Zingiber officinale). Not to be confused with the Indian turmeric or American yellow root (Hydrastis canadensis).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A common household spice, especially for curry powder. It is high in minerals and vitamins, especially vitamin C. It is also used extensively as a local home medicine.

In Chinese herbalism it is used for bruises, sores, ringworm, toothache, chest pains, colic and menstrual problems, usually in combination with remedies. It was once used as a cure for jaundice.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-arthritic, anti inflammatory, anti-oxidant, bactericidal, cholagogue, digestive, diuretic, hypotensive, insecticidal, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the ‘cured’ rhizome – boiled, cleaned and sun-dried. (An oleoresin, absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellowy-orange liquid with a faint blue fluorescence and a fresh spicy woody odour. It blends well with cananga, labdanum, elecampane, ginger, orris, cassie, clary sage and mimosa.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly tumerone (60 per cent), with ar-tumerone, atlantones, zingiberene, cineol, borneol, sabinene and phellandrene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: The ketone ‘tumerone’ is moderately toxic and irritant in high concentration. Possible sensitization problems. ‘The essential oil of turmeric must be used in moderation and with care for a fairly limited period.’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.

Digestive system: Anorexia, sluggish digestion, liver congestion.

OTHER USES: Employed in perfumery work, for oriental and fantasy-type fragrances. The oleoresin is used as a flavour ingredient in some foods, mainly curries, meat products and condiments.... turmeric

Sandalwood

Santalum album

FAMILY: Santalaceae

SYNONYMS: White sandalwood, yellow sandalwood, East Indian sandalwood, sandalwood Mysore, sanders-wood, santal (oil), white saunders (oil), yellow saunders (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, evergreen, parasitic tree up to 9 metres high with brown-grey trunk and many smooth, slender branches. It has leathery leaves and small pinky-purple flowers. The tree must be over thirty years old before it is ready for the production of sandalwood oil.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia and Taiwan. India is the main essential oil producer; the region of Mysore exports the highest quality oil, although some oil is distilled in Europe and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: The Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum or Eucarya spicata) produces a very similar oil, but with a dry-bitter top note. The so-called West Indian sandalwood or amyris (Amyris balsamifera) is a poor substitute and bears no botanical relation to the East Indian sandalwood.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the oldest known perfume materials, with at least 4000 years of uninterrupted use. It is used as a traditional incense, as a cosmetic, perfume and embalming material all over the East. It is also a popular building material, especially for temples.

In Chinese medicine it is used to treat stomach ache, vomiting, gonorrhoea, choleraic difficulties and skin complaints. In the Ayurvedic tradition it is used mainly for urinary and respiratory infections, for acute and chronic diarrhoea. In India it is often combined with rose in the famous scent aytar.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic (urinary and pulmonary), antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative; cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, insecticidal, sedative, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the roots and heartwood, powdered and dried.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, greenish or brownish viscous liquid with a deep, soft, sweet-woody balsamic scent of excellent tenacity. It blends well with rose, violet, tuberose, clove, lavender, black pepper, bergamot, rosewood, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, benzoin, vetiver, patchouli, mimosa, cassie, costus, myrrh and jasmine.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: About 90 per cent santalols, 6 per cent sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: santene, teresantol, borneol, santalone, tri-cyclo-ekasantalal, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dry, cracked and chapped skin, aftershave (barber’s rash), greasy skin, moisturizer.

Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs (dry, persistent), laryngitis, sore throat.

Digestive system: Diarrhoea, nausea.

Genito-urinary system: Cystitis.

Nervous system: Depression, insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Used to be used as a pharmaceutical disinfectant, now largely abandoned. Extensively employed as a fragrance component and fixative in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes – especially oriental, woody, aftershaves, chypres, etc. Extensively used in the production of incense. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including soft and alcoholic drinks.... sandalwood

Skin Care

Acne (M,S,F,B,I,N):

Bergamot, camphor (white), cananga, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, galbanum, geranium, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lemongrass, lime, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, violet, yarrow, ylang ylang.

Allergies (M,S,F,B,I):

Melissa, chamomile (German & Roman), immortelle, true lavender, spikenard.

Athlete’s foot (S):

Clove bud, eucalyptus, lavender (true &spike), lemon, lemongrass, myrrh, patchouli, tea tree.

Baldness & hair care (S,H):

West Indian bay, white birch, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), grapefruit, juniper, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), yarrow, ylang ylang.

Boils, abscesses & blisters (S,C,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, mastic, niaouli, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, turpentine.

Bruises (S,C):

Arnica (cream), borneol, clove bud, fennel, geranium, hyssop, sweet marjoram, lavender, thyme.

Burns (C,N):

Canadian balsam, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, eucalyptus blue gum, geranium, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, niaouli, tea tree, yarrow.

Chapped & cracked skin (S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, benzoin, myrrh, patchouli, sandalwood.

Chilblains (S,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, black pepper.

Cold sores/herpes (S):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lemon, tea tree.

Congested & dull skin (M,S,F,B,I):

Angelica, white birch, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), palmarosa, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, rosewood, ylang ylang.

Cuts/sores (S,C):

Canadian balsam, benzoin, borneol, cabreuva, cade, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), galbanum, geranium, hyssop, immortelle, lavender (spike & true), lavandin, lemon, lime, linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, Scotch pine, Spanish sage, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Dandruff (S,H):

West Indian bay, cade, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), eucalyptus, spike lavender, lemon, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tea tree.

Dermatitis (M,S,C,F,B):

White birch, cade, cananga, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hops, hyssop, juniper, true lavender, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mint (peppermint & spearmint), palmarosa, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Dry & sensitive skin (M,S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, cassie, chamomile (German & Roman), frankincense, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), rosewood, sandalwood, violet.

Eczema (M,S,F,B):

Melissa, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, white birch, cade, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, thyme, violet, yarrow.

Excessive perspiration (S,B):

Citronella, cypress, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, petitgrain, Scotch pine, Spanish sage.

Greasy or oily skin/scalp (M,S,H,F,B):

West Indian bay, bergamot, cajeput, camphor (white), cananga, carrot seed, citronella, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, juniper, lavender, lemon, lemongrass, !itsea cubeba, mandarin, marigold, mimosa, myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sandalwood, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, ylang ylang.

Haemorrhoids/piles (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Copaiba balsam, coriander, cubebs, cypress, geranium, juniper, myrrh, myrtle, parsley, yarrow.

Insect bites (S,N):

French basil, bergamot, cajeput, cananga, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, marigold, melissa, niaouli, tea tree, thyme, ylang ylang.

Insect repellent (S,V):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), Virginian cedarwood, citronella, clove bud, cypress, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), geranium, lavender, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, mastic, melissa, patchouli, rosemary, turpentine.

Irritated & inflamed skin (S,C,F,B):

Angelica, benzoin, camphor (white), Atlas cedarwood, chamomile (German & Roman), elemi, immortelle, hyssop, jasmine, lavandin, true lavender, marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Lice (S,H):

Cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, geranium, lavandin, spike lavender, parsley, Scotch pine, rosemary, thyme, turpentine.

Mouth & gum infections/ulcers (S,C):

Bergamot, cinnamon leaf, cypress, sweet fennel, lemon, mastic, myrrh, orange (bitter & sweet), sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Psoriasis (M,S,F,B):

Angelica, bergamot, white birch, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), true lavender.

Rashes (M,S,C,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), hops, true lavender, marigold, sandalwood, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Ringworm (S,H):

Geranium, spike lavender, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine.

Scabies (S):

Tolu balsam, bergamot, cinnamon leaf, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), Scotch pine, rosemary, Levant styrax, thyme, turpentine.

Scars & stretch marks (M,S):

Cabreuva, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, true lavender, mandarin, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rosewood, sandalwood, spikenard, violet, arrow.

Slack tissue (M,S,B):

Geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lemongrass, lime, mandarin, sweet marjoram, orange blossom, black pepper, petitgrain, rosemary, yarrow.

Spots (S,N):

Bergamot, cade, cajeput, camphor (white), eucalyptus (lemon), immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, litsea cubeba, mandarin, niaouli, tea tree.

Ticks (S,N):

Sweet marjoram.

Toothache & teething pain (S,C,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh.

Varicose veins (S,C):

Cypress, lemon, lime, neroli, yarrow.

Verrucae (S,N):

Tagetes, tea tree.

Warts & corns (S,N):

Cinnamon leaf, lemon, lime, tagetes, tea tree.

Wounds (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, cabreuva, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, cypress, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), frankincense, galbanum, geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, patchouli, rosewood, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Wrinkles & mature skin (M,S,F,B):

Carrot seed, elemi, sweet fennel, frankincense, galbanum, geranium, jasmine, labdanum, true lavender, mandarin, mimosa, myrrh, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, spikenard, ylang ylang.... skin care

Respiratory System

Asthma (M,V,I):

Asafetida, Canadian balsam, Peru balsam, benzoin, cajeput, clove bud, costus, cypress, elecampane, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), frankincense, galbanum, immortelle, hops, hyssop, lavender (spike & true), lavandin, lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme.

Bronchitis (M,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, asafetida, Canadian balsam, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, French basil, benzoin, borneol, cajeput, camphor (white), caraway, cascarilla bark, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), clove bud, costus, cubebs, cypress, elecampane, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, frankincense, galbanum, immortelle, hyssop, labdanum, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), melissa, myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, sandalwood, hemlock spruce, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, violet.

Catarrh (M,V,I):

Canadian balsam, Tolu balsam, cajeput, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), cubebs, elecampane, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), frankincense, galbanum, ginger, hyssop, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), sandalwood, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, violet.

Chill (M,B):

Copaiba balsam, benzoin, cabreuva, calamintha, camphor (white), cinnamon leaf, ginger, grapefruit, orange (bitter & sweet), black pepper.

Chronic coughs (M,V,I):

Canadian balsam, costus, cubebs, cypress, elecampane, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, immortelle hops, hyssop, jasmine, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, myrtle, sandalwood, Levant styrax.

Coughs (M,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, French basil, benzoin, borneol, cabreuva, cajeput, mmphor (white), caraway, cascarilla bark, Atlas cedarwood, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, hyssop, labdanum, sweet marjoram, myrrh, niaouli, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), hemlock spruce, tea tree.

Croup (M,I):

Tolu balsam.

Earache (C):

French basil, chamomile (German & Roman), lavender (spike & true).

Halitosis/offensive breath (S):

Bergamot, cardamon, sweet fennel, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh.

Laryngitis/hoarseness (1):

Tolu balsam, benzoin, caraway, cubebs, lemon eucalyptus, frankincense, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), myrrh, sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, thyme.

Sinusitis (1):

French basil, cajeput, cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, silver fir, ginger, labdanum, peppermint, niaouli, pine (longleaf & Scotch), tea tree.

Sore throat & throat infections (V,I):

Canadian balsam, bergamot, cajeput, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), geranium, ginger, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, pine (longleaf & Scotch), sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, violet.

Tonsillitis (1):

Bergamot, geranium, hyssop, laurel, myrtle, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Whooping cough (M,I):

Asafetida, immortelle, hyssop, true lavender, mastic, niaouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tea tree, turpentine.

Digestive System

Colic (M):

Star anise, aniseed, calamintha, caraway, cardamon, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, coriander, cumin, dill, sweet fennel, ginger, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), neroli, parsley, black pepper, rosemary, clary sage.

Constipation & sluggish digestion (M,B):

Cinnamon leaf, cubebs, sweet fennel, lovage, sweet marjoram, nutmeg, orange (bitter & sweet), palmarosa, black pepper, tarragon, turmeric, yarrow.

Cramp/gastric spasm (M,C):

Allspice, star anise, aniseed, caraway, cardamon, cinnamon leaf, coriander, costus, cumin, galbanum, ginger, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, mint (peppermint & spearmint), neroli, orange (bitter & sweet), black pepper, clary sage, tarragon, lemon verbena, yarrow.

Griping pains (M):

Cardamon, dill, sweet fennel, parsley.

Heartburn (M):

Cardamon, black pepper. Indigestion/flatulence (M):

Allspice, angelica, star anise, aniseed, French basil, calamintha, caraway, cardamon, carrot seed, cascarilla bark, celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, clove bud, coriander, costus, cubebs, cumin, dill, sweet fennel, galbanum, ginger, hops, hyssop, laurel, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, linden, litsea cubeba, lovage, mandarin, sweet marjoram, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, neroli, nutmeg, orange (bitter & sweet), parsley, black pepper, petitgrain, rosemary, clary sage, tarragon, thyme, valerian, lemon verbena, yarrow.

Liver congestion (M):

Carrot seed, celery seed, immortelle, linden, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, turmeric, lemon verbena.

Loss of appetite (M):

Bergamot, caraway, cardamon, ginger, laurel, myrrh, black pepper.

Nausea/vomiting (M,V):

Allspice, French basil, cardamon, cascarilla bark, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, coriander, sweet fennel, ginger, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), nutmeg, black pepper, rose (cabbage & damask), rosewood, sandalwood.... respiratory system


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