See pulmonary function tests.
Symptoms: Influenza-like fever, breathlessness, cough.
Prognosis: Chronic lung damage and progressive disability.
Indicated: antifungals, antibiotics.
Alternatives. Teas. Marigold, Ground Ivy, Scarlet Pimpernel, Yarrow. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes; 1 cup freely.
Tablets/capsules. Garlic, Echinacea, Goldenseal, Thuja.
Powders. Combine, parts, Echinacea 3; Goldenseal 1; Thuja 1. Dose: 500mg, (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Decoction. Irish Moss, to promote expectoration and eliminate debris.
Tinctures. Alternatives. (1) Echinacea 2; Lobelia 1; Liquorice 1. (2) Equal parts: Wild Indigo, Thuja and Pleurisy root. (3) Echinacea 2; Marigold 1; Thuja half; Liquorice half. Dosage: two 5ml teaspoons in water thrice daily. Acute cases: every 2 hours.
Topical. Inhalation of Eucalyptus or Tea Tree oils.
Diet. See: DIET – GENERAL. Yoghurt in place of milk.
Note: Bronchodilators of little value. Those at risk should have an X-ray at regular intervals. ... farmer’s lung
The haemagglutination inhibition test This, and the subsequent tests to be mentioned, are known as immunological tests. They are based upon the e?ect of the urine from a pregnant woman upon the interaction of red blood cells, which have been sensitised to human gonadotrophin, and anti-gonadotrophin serum. They have the great practical advantage of being performed in a test-tube or even on a slide. Because of their ease and speed of performance, a result can be obtained in two hours.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) This is the basis of many of the pregnancy-testing kits obtainable from pharmacies. It is a highly sensitive antibody test and can detect very low concentrations of human chorionic gonadotrophin. Positive results show up as early as ten days after fertilisation – namely, four days before the ?rst missed period.
Ultrasound The fetal sac can be detected by ULTRASOUND from ?ve weeks, and a fetal echo at around six or seven weeks (see also PRENATAL SCREENING OR DIAGNOSIS).... pregnancy tests
Static lung volumes and capacities can be measured: these include vital capacity – the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly and completely after a maximum deep breath; forced vital capacity is a similar manoeuvre using maximal forceful exhalation and can be measured along with expiratory ?ow rates using simple spirometry; total lung capacity is the total volume of air in the chest after a deep breath in; functional residual capacity is the volume of air in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration, with all respiratory muscles relaxed.
Dynamic lung volumes and ?ow rates re?ect the state of the airways. The forced expiratory volume (FEV) is the amount of air forcefully exhaled during the ?rst second after a full breath – it normally accounts for over 75 per cent of the vital capacity. Maximal voluntary ventilation is calculated by asking the patient to breathe as deeply and quickly as possible for 12 seconds; this test can be used to check the internal consistency of other tests and the extent of co-operation by the patient, important when assessing possible neuromuscular weakness affecting respiration. There are several other more sophisticated tests which may not be necessary when assessing most patients. Measurement of arterial blood gases is also an important part of any assessment of lung function.... pulmonary function tests
The first and most common symptom is a cough. Other symptoms include coughing up blood, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Lung cancer can spread to other parts of the body, especially the liver, brain, and bones. In most cases, the cancer is revealed in a chest X-ray. To confirm the diagnosis, tissue must be examined microscopically for the presence of cancerous cells (see cytology). If lung cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, pneumonectomy (removal of the lung) or lobectomy (removal of part of the lung) may be possible. Anticancer drugs and radiotherapy may also be used. lung, collapse of See atelectasis; pneumothorax.... lung
Normal values for a 60 kg man are (in ml):
Total lung capacity (TLC) The volume of air that can be held in the lungs at maximum inspiration.
Tidal volume (TV) The volume of air taken into and expelled from the lungs with each breath.
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) The volume of air that can still be inspired at the end of a normal quiet inspiration.
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) The volume of air that can still be expired at the end of a normal quiet expiration.
Residual volume (RV) The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal expiration.
Vital capacity (VC) The maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximal inspiration.
Functional residual capacity (FRC) The volume of air left in the lungs at the end of a normal quiet expiration.... lung volumes
Symptoms: dry cough, difficult breathing usually at night. Loss of weight, tiredness, feverishness with rise of temperature. (Clinical Allergy, 1984. 14,429)
Tea. Yarrow, Elderflowers, Comfrey herb: equal parts.
Tablets/capsules. Garlic. Lobelia. Iceland Moss.
Powders. Formula. Pleurisy root 2; Hyssop 1; Iceland Moss 1. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Liquid Extracts. Formula. Pleurisy root 2; Liquorice 1; Hyssop 1. 1 teaspoon in water thrice daily, and when necessary. ... canary fancier’s lung
Tablets/capsules. Iceland Moss.
Decoction. Irish Moss.
Tea. Combine equal parts, Comfrey, White Horehound, Liquorice. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup water simmered gently 1 minute. Dose: half-1 cup morning and evening. Pinch Cayenne improves.
Potential benefits of Comfrey for this condition outweigh risk. ... lung weakness
in septicaemia. Microbiology also looks for antibodies in the blood, which may confirm immunity to an infection. blood transfusion The infusion of large volumes of blood or blood products directly into the bloodstream to remedy severe blood loss or to correct chronic anaemia. In an exchange transfusion, nearly all of the recipient’s blood is replaced by donor blood. Before a transfusion, a sample of the recipient’s blood is taken to identify the blood groups, and it is matched with suitable donor blood. The donor blood is transfused into an arm vein through a plastic cannula. Usually, each unit (about 500 ml) of blood is given over 1–4 hours; in an emergency, 500 ml may be given in a couple of minutes. The blood pressure, temperature, and pulse are monitored during the procedure.
If mismatched blood is accidentally introduced into the circulation, antibodies in the recipient’s blood may cause donor cells to burst, leading to shock or kidney failure. Less severe reactions can produce fever, chills, or a rash. Reactions can also occur as a result of an allergy to transfused blood components. All
blood used for transfusion is carefully screened for a number of infectious agents, including HIV (the AIDS virus) and hepatitis B and hepatitis C.
In elderly or severely anaemic patients, transfusion can overload the circulation, leading to heart failure.
In patients with chronic anaemia who need regular transfusion over many years, excess iron may accumulate (haemosiderosis) and damage organs such as the heart, liver, and pancreas.
Treatment with desferrioxamine to remove excess iron may be needed.... blood tests
Urinalysis is a simple test in which a urine sample is examined under a microscope for blood cells, pus cells, and casts (cells and mucous material that accumulate in the tubules of the kidneys and pass into the urine).
Urine may be tested for substances, such as proteins, that leak into the urine when the kidneys are damaged.
Kidney function can be assessed by measuring the concentration in the blood of substances, such as urea and creatinine, that the kidneys normally excrete.
Kidney function may also be assessed by kidney imaging techniques.... kidney function tests
An audiometer (an electrical instrument) is used to test an individual’s ability to hear sounds at different frequencies and volumes. The lowest level at which a person can hear and repeat words (the speech reception threshold) is tested, as is the ability to hear words clearly (speech discrimination). The type of hearing loss (see deafness) is determined by holding a tuning fork to different parts of the ear.... hearing tests
A heart–lung machine consists of a pump (to replace the heart’s function) and an oxygenator (to replace the lung’s function). It bypasses the heart and lungs, and the heart can be stopped.
Use of a heart–lung machine tends to damage red blood cells and to cause blood clotting. These problems can be minimized, however, by the administration of heparin, an anticoagulant drug, beforehand.heart–lung transplant A procedure in which the heart and lungs of a patient are removed, and replaced with donor organs. This surgery is used to treat diseases in which the lung damage has affected the heart, or vice versa. Such diseases include cystic fibrosis, fibrosing alveolitis, and some severe congenital heart defects (see heart disease, congenital). A heart–lung machine is used to take over the function of the patient’s heart and lungs during the operation, which is no more dangerous than a heart transplant.
heart-rate The rate at which the heart contracts to pump blood around the body. Most people have a heart-rate of between 60 and 100 beats per minute at rest. This rate tends to be faster in childhood and to slow slightly with age. Very fit people may have a resting rate below 60 beats per minute.
The heart muscle responds automatically to any increase in the amount of blood returned to it from active muscles by increasing its output. During extreme exercise, heart-rate may increase to 200 contractions per minute and the output to almost 250 ml per beat.
The heart-rate is also regulated by the autonomic nervous system. The parts of this system concerned with heart action are a nucleus of nerve cells, called the cardiac centre, in the brainstem, and 2 sets of nerves (the parasympathetic and sympathetic).
At rest, the parasympathetic nerves – particularly the vagus nerve – act on the sinoatrial node to maintain a slow heart-rate. During or in anticipation of muscular activity, this inhibition lessens and the heart-rate speeds up.
Sympathetic nerves release noradrenaline, which further increases the heart-rate and force of contraction. Sympathetic activity can be triggered by fear or anger, low blood pressure, or a reduction of oxygen in the blood.
Release of adrenaline and noradrenaline by the adrenal glands also acts to increase heart-rate.
The rate and rhythm of the heart can be measured by feeling the pulse or by listening with a stethoscope; a more accurate record is provided by an ECG.
A resting heart-rate above 100 beats per minute is termed a tachycardia, and a rate below 60 beats per minute a bradycardia. (See also arrhythmia, cardiac.)... heart–lung machine
In most intelligence tests, scoring is based on mental age (MA) in relation to chronological age (CA). The intelligence quotient (IQ) is MA divided by CA, multiplied by 100. The tests are devised to ensure that 3 in 4 people have an IQ between 80 and 120. They are standardized so that the score indicates the same relative ability at different age levels.
Intelligence tests may be used to assess school or job aptitude. However, they have been criticized for their alleged bias regarding gender and race.... intelligence tests
The tests can also show whether liver cells are healthy or being damaged.... liver function tests
Most lung disorders can be detected by chest X-ray.
CT scanning and MRI play an important role in detecting the presence and spread of lung tumours.
Ultrasound scanning is sometimes used to reveal pleural effusion.
Radioisotope scanning is used to detect evidence of pulmonary embolism.... lung imaging
Noncancerous tumours occur less frequently than cancers.
The most common form of noncancerous tumour is a bronchial adenoma, which arises in the lining of a bronchus.
Adenomas often cause bronchial obstruction; affected people may also cough up blood.
Treatment involves surgical removal of the tumour.
Other rare noncancerous tumours include fibromas (which consist of fibrous tissue) and lipomas (which consist of fatty tissue).
No treatment is necessary unless the tumours are causing problems.... lung tumours
cystic fibrosis. The lungs can also be affected by allergic disorders. The most important of these is asthma. Another such disorder is allergic alveolitis, which is usually a reaction to dust of plant or animal origin. Irritation of the airways, usually by tobacco-smoking, can cause diseases characterized by damage to lung tissue and narrowing of the airways (see pulmonary disease, chronic obstructive). The lungs can also be affected by cancerous tumours; lung cancer is one of the most common cancers. Noncancerous lung tumours are uncommon.
Injury to a lung, usually resulting from penetration of the chest wall, can cause the lung to collapse (see pneumothorax; haemothorax). Damage to the interior of the lungs can be caused by inhalation of toxic substances (see asbestosis; silicosis). Blood supply to the lungs may be reduced by pulmonary embolism.
Lung disorders can be investigated in various ways, such as chest X-ray, bronchoscopy, and pulmonary function tests.... lung, disorders of
Patch tests are used in the diagnosis of contact allergic dermatitis.
They can also be used to test immunity to certain infectious diseases (such as in the tuberculin test).... skin tests
The accuracy of a test is based on its sensitivity (ability to correctly identify diseased subjects), specificity (ability to correctly identify healthy subjects), and predictive value.
The predictive value is determined by a mathematical formula that involves the number of accurate test results and the total number of tests performed.
The best tests have both high specificity and high sensitivity, and therefore high predictive value.... tests, medical
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