Any medicinal drug.
The term is also used in relation to the manufacture and sale of drugs.
The term is also used in relation to the manufacture and sale of drugs.
British National Formulary (BNF)
A pocket-book for those concerned with the prescribing, dispensing and administration of medicines in Britain. It is produced jointly by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society and the British Medical Association, is revised twice yearly and is distributed to NHS doctors by the Health Departments. The BNF is also available in electronic form.... british medical association (bma)
Pharmaceutical manufacturers usually give proprietary (brand) names to the drugs they develop, though doctors in the NHS are expected to prescribe using approved – nonproprietary or generic – titles. Most nonproprietary titles are those in the European Pharmacopoeia, British Pharmacopoeia Commission or the British Pharmaceutical Codex. The USA has its own legislation and arrangements covering the naming and prescribing of medicines. (See PROPRIETARY NAME; GENERIC DRUG; PATENT.)... approved names for medicines
Habitat: The Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan and the Khasi Hills, at 1,000-4,000 m.
English: Hare's Ear.Folk: Shingu (Himachal Pradesh), Sipil (Punjab), Thaanyo (Garhwal).Action: Roots—anti-inflammatory, haemolytic, antipyretic. Used in inflammations, muscle stiffness, neurosis, pain and pyrexia. Roots resolve inflammations of costal margin and diaphragm.
Key application: Extracts have been used for the treatment of chronic hepatitis, nephrotic syndrome and auto-immune diseases (WHO.).Therapeutic properties are attributed to saikoside or saikosaponins (yield from roots 2.06-3.02%), a complex mixture of triterpenic saponins. Saponin content varies with age. Saikos- aponins are analgesic, antipyretic as well as antitussive; anti-inflammatory on oral administration. In Japan and China, roots have been used traditionally in auto-immune diseases. Saikos- aponins form an ingredient of anti- tumour pharmaceuticals. A water- soluble crude polysaccharide fraction, prepared from the root, was reported to prevent HCl/ethanol-induced ulcero- genesis in mice significantly. Saiko- saponin-d, at a concentration of more than 5 ^m, inactivated measles virus and herpes simplex virus at room temperature.Several sterols, possessing metabolic activities and plasma cholesterol- lowering activity, have also been isolated from the root.... bupleurum flacutumAction. Inhibits growth of Staphylococcus aureus. Antibiotic.
Uses: Urinary tract infections, boils and internal ulceration. Enteritis, shigella, colitis, osteomyelitis, pneumonia.
Courtesy. Chris Low, Member of the Register of Traditional Chinese Medicine (RTCM), scientific advisor to the Herbal Pharmaceutical Industry; The Chinese Medicine Clinic, Cambridge. ... andrographis
Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: Moderate Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Low Sodium: Moderate to high Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium
About the Nutrients in This Food Globe artichokes are prickly plants with partly edible leaves enclosing a tasty “heart.” Their most important nutrients are vitamin C and iron. One medium boiled artichoke has 10.3 g dietary fiber, 8.9 mg vita- min C (12 percent of the R DA for a woman, 10 percent of the R DA for a man), and 0.7 mg iron (4 percent of the R DA for a woman, 9 percent of the R DA for a man). One-half cup artichoke hearts has 7.2 g dietary fiber, 6.2 mg vitamin C (8 percent of the R DA for a woman, 7 percent of the R DA for a man), and 0.5 mg iron (3 percent of the R DA for a woman, 6 percent of the R DA for a man). Raw globe artichokes contain an enzyme that interferes with protein digestion; cooking inactivates the enzyme.
The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Cooked.
Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food * * *
Buying This Food Look for: Compact vegetables, heavy for their size. The leaves should be tightly closed, but the color changes with the season—bright green in the spring, olive green or bronze in the winter if they have been exposed to frost. Avoid: Artichokes with yellowed leaves, which indicate the artichoke is aging (the chloro- phyll in its leaves has faded so the yellow carotenes underneath show through).
Storing This Food Do refrigerate fresh globe artichokes in plastic bags. Do refrigerate cooked globe artichokes in a covered container if you plan to hold them longer than a day or two.
Preparing This Food Cut off the stem. Trim the tough outer leaves. Then plunge the artichoke, upside down, into a bowl of cold water to flush out debris. To remove the core, put the artichoke upside down on a cutting board and cut out the center. Slicing into the base of the artichoke rips cell walls and releases polyphenoloxidase, an enzyme that converts phenols in the vegetable to brown compounds that darken the “heart” of the globe. To slow the reaction, paint the cut surface with a solution of lemon juice or vinegar and water.
What Happens When You Cook This Food Chlorophyll, the green plant pigment, is sensitive to acids. When you heat a globe artichoke, the chlorophyll in its green leaves reacts with acids in the artichoke or in the cooking water, forming brown pheophytin. The pheophytin, plus yellow carotenes in the leaves, can turn a cooked artichoke’s leaves bronze. To prevent this reaction, cook the artichoke very quickly so there is no time for the chlorophyll to react with the acid, or cook it in lots of water to dilute the acids, or cook it with the lid off the pot so that the volatile acids can float off into the air.
How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Canning. Globe artichoke hearts packed in brine are higher in sodium than fresh arti- chokes. Artichoke hearts packed in oil are much higher in fat. Freezing. Frozen artichoke hearts are comparable in nutritional value to fresh ones.
Medical Uses and/or Benefits Anti-inflammatory action. In 2006, a report in the Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan suggested that cynarin might be beneficial in lowering blood levels of cholesterol and that cynaropicrin, a form of cynarin found in artichoke leaves, might act as an anti-inflamma- tory agent, protecting the skin from sun damage, improving liver function, and reducing the effects of stress-related gastritis. Reduced levels of cholesterol. In 2008, researchers at the University of Reading (United King- dom) published a report in the journal Phytomedicine detailing the results of a 150-person study suggesting that an over-the-counter herbal supplement containing extract of globe arti- choke leaf lowers cholesterol in healthy people with moderately raised cholesterol readings. In the study, 75 volunteers were given 1,280 mg of the herbal supplement each day for 12 weeks; a control group got a placebo (a look-alike pill without the herbal supplement). At the end of the trial, those who took the artichoke leaf extract experienced an average 4.2 percent decrease in cholesterol levels, a result the researchers deemed “modest but significant.”
Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Contact dermatitis. Globe artichokes contain essential oils that may cause contact dermati- tis in sensitive people. Alterations in the sense of taste. Globe artichokes contain cynarin, a sweet tasting chemical that dissolves in water (including the saliva in your mouth) to sweeten the flavor of anything you eat next.
Food/Drug Interactions False-positive test for occult blood in the stool. The guaiac slide test for hidden blood in feces relies on alphaguaiaconic acid, a chemical that turns blue in the presence of blood. Arti- chokes contain peroxidase, a natural chemical that also turns alphaguaiaconic acid blue and may produce a positive test in people who do not have blood in the stool.... artichoke, globe
Clove oil is sometimes used to relieve abdominal pain due to flatulence and as a remedy for toothache.... clove oil
A pharmaceutical preparation of acetylcholine is instilled into the anterior chamber of the eye as a *miotic during intraocular surgery.... acetylcholine
The new Council for Healthcare Regulatory Excellence will help to promote the interests of patients and to improve co-operation between the existing regulatory bodies – providing, in e?ect, a quality-control mechanism for their activities. The government and relevant professions will nominate individuals for this overarching council. The new council will not have the authority to intervene in the determination by the eight regulatory bodies of individual ?tness-to-practise cases unless these concern complaints about maladministration.... council for healthcare regulatory excellence
Habitat: Native to West Europe. Cultivated in Tangmarg and Kishtawar in Kashmir, Darjeeling and the Nilgiris.
English: Digitalis, Foxglove.Ayurvedic: Hritpatri, Tilapushpi (non-classical). (Purple var.)Action: Main source of digoxin for the pharmaceutical industry. Digitalis glycosides increase the force of contraction of heart without increasing the oxygen consumption and slow the heart rate when auricular fibrillation is present. To be used only under strict medical supervision.
Not used as a herbal drug.... digitalis purpureaThe most common – Local Research Ethics Committees (LRECs) – have provided a monitoring system of research on humans since the late 1960s. Established by NHS health authorities, LRECs were primarily perceived as exercising authority over research carried out on NHS patients or on NHS premises or using NHS records. Their power and signi?cance, however, developed considerably in the 1980s and 90s when national and international guidance made approval by an ‘appropriately constituted’ ethics committee obligatory for any research project involving humans or human tissue. The work of LRECs is supplemented by so-called ‘independent’ ethics committees usually set up by pharmaceutical companies, and since 1997 by multicentre research ethics committees (MRECs). An MREC is responsible for considering all health-related research which will be conducted within ?ve or more locations. LRECs have become indispensable to the conduct of research, and are doubtless partly responsible for the lack of demand in the UK for legislation governing research. A plethora of guidelines is available, and LRECs which fail to comply with recognised standards could incur legal liability. They are increasingly governed by international standards of practice. In 1997, guidelines produced by the International Committee on Harmonisation of Good Clinical Practice (ICH-GCP) were introduced into the UK. These provide a uni?ed standard for research conducted in the European Union, Japan and United States to ensure the mutual acceptance of clinical data by the regulatory authorities in these countries.
Other categories of ethics committee include Ethics Advisory Committees, which debate dif?cult patient cases. Most are attached to specialised health facilities such as fertility clinics or children’s care facilities. The 1990s have seen a greatly increased interest in professional ethics and the establishment of many new ethics committees, including some like that of the National Council for Hospice and Specialist Palliative Care Services which cross professional boundaries. Guidance on professional and ethical standards is produced by these new bodies and by the well-established ethics committees of regulatory or representative bodies, such as the medical and nursing Royal Colleges, the General Medical Council, United Kingdom Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting, British Medical Association (see APPENDIX 8: PROFESSIONAL ORGANISATIONS) and bodies representing paramedics and professions supplementary to medicine. Their guidance ranges from general codes of practice to detailed analysis of single topics such as EUTHANASIA or surrogacy.
LRECs are now supervised by a central body
– COREC (www.corec.gov.org.uk).... ethics committees
Habitat: Native to Australia; now cultivated mainly at the hill-stations of India.
English: Blue-Gum tree, Australian Gum tree.Ayurvedic: Tilaparna, Tailaparna, Sugandhapatra, Haritaparna Neela- niryaasa, Tribhandi, Triputaa, Sar- alaa, Suvahaa, Rechani, Nishotraa.Unani: Neelgiri oil.Siddha/Tamil: Karpooramaram.Action: Essential oil from leaves— antiseptic, antibiotic, antiviral, antifungal, antispasmodic, decon- gestant, antiasthmatic, expectorant, antirheumatic, diaphoretic. Used in chronic, bronchitis, migraine, congestive headache, neuralgia and ague, as an inhalant or internal medicine. Root—purgative.
Key application: Leaf tea for catarrhs of the respiratory tract. Oil used externally for rheumatic complaints, contraindicated internally in inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, bile ducts, and in severe liver diseases. (German Commission E.) Oil—internally as adjuvant treatment of chronic obstructive respiratory complaints, including bronchitis and bronchial asthma, also for symptomatic relief of colds and catarrh of the upper respiratory tract; externally for symptomatic treatment of colds and rheumatic complaints. (ESCOP.) Leaf—antiseptic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)E. globulus is the main commercial source of Eucalyptus leaf oil; yield is 2.12%; 1,8-cineole exceeds 70% (pharmaceutical grade oil requires a minimum cineole content of 70%).Several potent euglobals, having closely related acyl-phloroglucinol- monoterpene (or sesquiterpene) structures, are isolated from the leaves and flower buds. These compounds showed strong granulation-inhibiting activity and inhibition of TPA induced EBV (Epstein-Barr Virus) activation.Phloroglucin derivatives, isolated from leaves, showed better antiinflammatory activity than indomethacin.Natural antioxidants have also been isolated from the plant.Dosage: Leaf—50-100 ml infusion. (CCRAS.)... eucalyptus globulesHabitat: Native to the Mediterranean region; now cultivated mainly in Punjab, Assam, Maharashtra and Vadodara (Gujarat).
English: Fennel. (Poison hemlock has been misidentified as fennel.)Ayurvedic: Mishreyaa, Mishi, Mad- hurikaa, Madhuraa, Shatapushpaa, Shataahvaa. (Shatpushpaa is equated with Saunf and Shataahvaa with Soyaa. Some authors treat these as vice-versa.)Unani: Baadiyaan, Saunf.Siddha/Tamil: Sombu.Action: Carminative, stomachic, antispasmodic, emmenagogue, galactagogue, anti-inflammatory, diuretic. Relieves bloating, nausea, settles stomach and stimulates appetite. Also used in amenorrhoea and enuresis.
Key application: In dyspepsias such as mild, spastic, gastrointestinal afflictions, fullness, flatulence. Fennel syrup or honey can be used for the catarrh of the upper respiratory tract in children. Fennel oil preparations not recommended during pregnancy. (German Commission E, ESCOP, WHO.)German Commission E reported that fennel seed promotes gastrointestinal motility and in higher concentrations acts as antispasmodic. In experiments anethole and fenchone have been shown to have a secre- tolytic action in respiratory tract. The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia and Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia report its carminative and spasmolytic property.Fennel seed contain about 8% volatile oil (about 50-60% anethole, among others 10-15% fenchone and methyl- chavicol), flavonoids, coumarins (including bergapten) and sterols.The extract of seeds inhibits the growth of micro-organism, especially Streptococcus mutans, that are responsible for dental caries and periodontal diseases.The essential oil from the seed is reported to be antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, emmenagogue, oxytocic and abortifacient.The fatty acid, petroselenic acid, obtained from the oil, exhibited antimicrobial activity.Anethole, a major constituent of fennel seed/oil has been found to be an active estrogenic agent with minimal hepatotoxicity and no teratogenic effect.The oil also exhibits anticarcino- genic activity and can be used as a che- moprotective agent.It possesses antioxidant activity close to BHT.Anethole and limonene are used in pharmaceutical compositions for decreasing the side effects of chemotherapy and increasing the immune function.Limonene showed the capacity to inhibit mammary tumours in rats.The boiling water extract of leaves shows hypotensive effect in rats.The methanolic extract of seed showed antispasmodic activity, while aqueous extract accelerated the spontaneous movement of rabbit stomach.Dosage: Dried fruit—3-6 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... foeniculum vulgareHabitat: Native to Central America; introduced into India and grown for its fruit in Bangalore, Nandi Hills, Courtallam, Nagarcoil, Shevaroys, lower Palnis and the foothills of the Nilgiris; also in Pune.
English: Avocado, Alligator Pear, Butter Fruit.Action: Fruit—hypocholestero- laemic. Leaf—bacteriostatic; potentially toxic to goats and sheep.
The fruit is highly nutritious. The fruit from Nilgiris contains 22.8% fat, 1.7% protein; also manganese, phosphorus, iron, potassium, vitamin E, vitamin C, beta-carotene, thiamine, ri- boflavin, nicotinic acid and foliate. It is relatively low in sodium and simple sugars.American Avocado is rich in oil (1530 g/100 g fresh fruit) that is mainly monounsaturated and a good source of linoleic acid. Its high fiber content might be responsible for its cholesterol lowering effects.Preliminary evidence suggests that unsaponifiable fractions of Avocado and soybean oils (combination) can inhibit cartilage degradation and promote cartilage repair in osteoarthritic chondrocytes. (Properties of Avocado cited in Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.) Avocado oil is used in cosmetic preparations, soaps and pharmaceuticals. The peel of immature fruit contains antifungal compounds. The fruit pulp is used topically to promote hair growth.... persea americanaPharmacists work in hospitals (NHS and private) and in community pharmacies, as well as in the pharmaceutical industry where they conduct research and prepare and test pharmaceutical products. They have particular expertise on the use of drugs: for instance, the way in which one medicinal compound can affect another and their possible adverse effects; and they advise doctors and patients on these aspects. The NHS is also encouraging community pharmacists to o?er the public advice on the treatment of simple illnesses such as coughs, colds, headaches and stomach upsets. Hospital pharmacists are salaried employees of the NHS but community pharmacists enter into contract with the service, the terms of which are negotiated centrally between pharmacists’ representatives and the health departments. Hospital pharmacists are now invited by the COMMITTEE ON SAFETY OF MEDICINES (CSM) to report suspected adverse drug reactions under the ‘Yellow Card’ scheme in the same way as doctors.... pharmacists
Pharmacologists not only research for new drugs, but also look for ways of synthesising them on a large scale. Most importantly, they organise with clinicians the thorough testing of drugs to ensure that these are safe to use, additionally helping to monitor the effects of drugs in regular use so as to identify unforeseen side-effects. Doctors and hospital pharmacists have a special reporting system (‘Yellow Cards’) under which they notify the government’s MEDICINES CONTROL AGENCY of any untoward consequences of drug treatments on their patients (see also MEDICINES).... pharmacology
0.1 and 1 per cent. A ?gure of 1 per cent means that, in the United Kingdom at any one time, maybe 30 studies are being conducted, or their results published, which could contain false information. Examples include forged ethics-committee approval, patient signatures and diary cards; fabricated ?gures and results; invention of non-existent patient subjects; or sharing one electrocardiogram or blood sample amongst many subjects.
Research fraud should be ?rst suspected by a clinical-trial monitor who recognises that data are not genuine, or by a quality-assurance auditor who cannot reconcile data in clinical-trial report forms with original patient records. Unfortunately, it often comes to light by chance. There may be suspicious similarities between data ostensibly coming from more than one source, or visits may have been recorded when it was known that the clinic was shut. Statistical analysis of a likely irregularity will frequently con?rm such suspicion. The motivation for fraud is usually greed, but a desire to publish at all costs, to be the original author of a medical breakthrough, to bolster applications for research grants, or to strengthen a bid for more departmental resources are other recognised reasons for committing fraud.
In the USA, those proved to have committed fraud are debarred from receiving federal funds for research purposes or from undertaking government-funded therapeutic research. The four Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden) have committees on research dishonesty that investigate all cases of suspected research misconduct. In the United Kingdom, an informal system operated by the pharmaceutical industry, using the disciplinary mechanism of the General Medical Council (GMC), has led to more than 16 doctors in the past ten years being disciplined for having committed research fraud. Editors of many of the world’s leading medical journals have united to form the Committee on Publishing Ethics, which advises doctors on proper practice and assists them in retracting or refusing to publish articles found or known to be false. (See ETHICS; ETHICS COMMITTEES.) Where an author does not o?er a satisfactory explanation, the matter is passed to his or her institution to investigate; where an editor or the committee is not satis?ed with the result they may pass the complaint to the appropriate regulatory body, such as the GMC in Britain.... research fraud and misconduct
– an early graded return to activity gives the best long-term results, but doing too much too soon runs the risk of exacerbating the original injury.
Chronic (overuse) injuries affecting the bones (see BONE), tendons (see TENDON) or BURSAE of the JOINTS are common in many sports. Examples include chronic INFLAMMATION of the common extensor tendon where it
attaches to the later EPICONDYLE of the humerus – common in throwers and racquet sportspeople – and stress fractures of the TIBIA or METATARSAL BONES of the foot in runners. After an initial period of rest, management often involves coaching that enables the athlete to perform the repetitive movement in a less injury-susceptible manner.
Exercise physiology is the science of measuring athletic performance and physical ?tness for exercise. This knowledge is applied to devising and supervising training regimens based on scienti?c principles. Physical ?tness depends upon the rate at which the body can deliver oxygen to the muscles, known as the VO2max, which is technically di?cult to measure. The PULSE rate during and after a bout of exercise serves as a good proxy of this measurement.
Regulation of sport Sports medicine’s role is to minimise hazards for participants by, for example, framing rule-changes which forbid collapsing the scrum, which has reduced the risk of neck injury in rugby; and in the detection of the use of drugs taken to enhance athletic performance. Such attempts to gain an edge in competition undermine the sporting ideal and are banned by leading sports regulatory bodies. The Olympic Movement Anti-Doping Code lists prohibited substances and methods that could be used to enhance performance. These include some prohibited in certain circumstances as well as those completely banned. The latter include:
stimulants such as AMPHETAMINES, bromantan, ca?eine, carphedon, COCAINE, EPHEDRINE and certain beta-2 agonists.
NARCOTICS such as DIAMORPHINE (heroin), MORPHINE, METHADONE HYDROCHLORIDE and PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE.
ANABOLIC STEROIDS such as methandione, NANDROLONE, stanazol, TESTOSTERONE, clenbuterol, androstenedone and certain beta-2 agonists.
peptide HORMONES, mimetics and analogues such as GROWTH HORMONE, CORTICOTROPHIN, CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIC HORMONE, pituitary and synthetic GONADOTROPHINS, ERYTHROPOIETIN and INSULIN. (The list produced above is not comprehen
sive: full details are available from the governing bodies of relevant sports.) Among banned methods are blood doping (pre-competition administration of an athlete’s own previously provided and stored blood), administration of arti?cial oxygen carriers or plasma expanders. Also forbidden is any pharmacological, chemical or physical manipulation to affect the results of authorised testing.
Drug use can be detected by analysis of the URINE, but testing only at the time of competition is unlikely to detect drug use designed to enhance early-season training; hence random testing of competitive athletes is also used.
The increasing professionalism and competitiveness (among amateurs and juveniles as well as professionals) in sports sometimes results in pressures on participants to get ?t quickly after injury or illness. This can lead to
players returning to their activity before they are properly ?t – sometimes by using physical or pharmaceutical aids. This practice can adversely affect their long-term physical capabilities and perhaps their general health.... sports medicine
Habitat: Meghalaya, foothills of Assam and Peninsular India.
Ayurvedic: Tumburu (Kerala), Ashvaghra, Tejabala.Siddha/Tamil: Tratechai.Action: Fruits—used for diarrhoea, dyspepsia; asthma, bronchitis; rheumatism; diseases of the mouth and teeth. Pericarp—astringent, digestive, stimulant. Essential oil—disinfectant, used in infective dermatosis. Bark—cholinergic, diuretic, hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic. Root—emmenagogue, febrifuge.
The trunk-bark from Assam gave alkaloids—chelerythrine (0.014%), evodiamine (0.03%) and hydoxyevodi- amine (0.05%). The essential oil from the fruit contains l-sabinene, alpha- terpinene, beta-phellandrene, 1,4-cine- ole, decanal, octanal, terpinen-4-ol, dihydrocarveol, l-cryptone and cumi- naldehyde.The essential oil exhibits anti-inflammatory, anaesthetic and antago- nisic activity.Z. nitidum (Roxb.) DC. (Bihar eastwards to Sikkim and Assam) is known as Tezmul in Assam. The root is used in toothache and stomachache.The plant is used as one of the ingredients in the preparation of pharmaceutical tablets given to drug addicts for the treatment of withdrawl symptoms.Methanolic extract of the roots gave nitidine, chelerythrine and isogari- dine. The extract showed antitumour property.Z. ovalifolium Wight (Eastern Himalayas, Meghalaya, the Western Ghats of South Kanara and Kerala) is known as Armadalu in Karnataka and Diang-shih in Meghalaya (Khasi Hills). The leaf contains diosmetin and the heartwood contains flavonoids of dihydrofisetin and cinnamaldehyde. The bark and fruit possess properties similar to other species of the genus.... zanthoxylum budrungaConstituents: alkaloids, saponins, carotene.
Action: cholagogue, bitter, antispasmodic, antifungal.
Analgesic (Pharmaceutical Journal 8/3/1986, p.304)
Diuretic, laxative, vesicant (fresh juice), antibacterial, antimycotic.
Constituents. Alkaloids Chelidonine, Chelerythrine and Sanguinarine. Yellow juice resembles bile. Uses. Gall stones, inflammation of the gall bladder, jaundice with yellowness of skin, mild hepatitis, bilious headaches, aching pain in right shoulder of liver origin, skin diseases. Gonorrhoeal ophthalmia, as an eyewash 3-5 times daily. (T.J. Lyle)
Eye infections: traditional use – infusion as an eyewash. Warts, papillomas, condylomas and colonic polyposis.
Juice of fresh plant injected locally into cancer lesions gained a reputation in the old school. (U.S. Dispensatory 25, 1923)
Combination: with Barberry and Dandelion for gall bladder disease BHP (1983).
Preparations: Maximum dosage, dried herb: 2g (30 grains) thrice daily, by infusion. Daily dose not to exceed 6g.
Tea. Quarter of a teaspoon to each cup boiling water. Infuse 10 minutes; half-1 cup. Liquid extract: 15-30 drops, thrice daily.
Tincture BHP (1983). 1 part to 10 parts 45 per cent alcohol: 2-4ml, thrice daily. Ointment, for leg ulcer and skin diseases.
Fresh juice: warts, corns.
Side-effects, none; but large doses avoided. Note. Herb loses its efficacy after a few months. ... celandine, greater
Symptoms. Sharp stabbing pains are worse by intercourse. Pain radiates down the back; worse two weeks before menstruation. Incidence has increased since introduction of the vaginal tampon. Enlarged ‘boggy’ uterus. Menstrual irregularity and pain. Diagnosis confirmed by laparoscopy.
Treatment. Official treatment is by Danol hormone therapy which induces a state of artificial pregnancy. Shrinkage and remission of symptoms follow as long as medication is continued. Where the condition has not regressed too far, a number of phyto-pharmaceuticals may bring a measure of relief. These are believed to reduce levels of gonadotrophins and ovarian steroids and abolish cyclical hormonal changes. They are best administered by a qualified herbal practitioner: (MNIMH). Prescriptions vary according to the requirements of each individual case and are modified to meet changed symptoms and progress.
Formula.
Tr Zingiber fort BP (1973) 5 Tr Xanthoxylum 1:5 BHP (1983) 20 L.E. Glycyrrhiza BP (1973) 10 Tr Phytolacca 1:10 BPC (1923) 5 Tr Chamaelirium 1:5 BHP (1983) 50
Aq ad 250ml
Sig 5-10ml (3i) tds aq cal pc.
For pain episodes: pelvic antispasmodics – say Anemone: 10-20 drops (tincture) prn. Extra Ginger, pelvic stimulant, may be taken once or twice daily between meals. Chamomile tea: 1-2 cups daily to maintain endocrine balance.
Formula. Mrs Janet Hicks, FNIMH. Blue Flag root 30ml; Burdock root 20ml; Hawthorn berries 20ml; Pulsatilla herb 40ml; Vervain 50ml; Dandelion root 30ml; Ginger 10ml. Dose: 5ml in water, thrice daily. (Medical Herbalist, Alresford, Nr Winchester, UK)
Formula. Mrs Brenda Cooke, FNIMH. Helonias, Wild Yam, Vervain, Black Haw, Parsley Piert, Marigold, Butternut, aa 15. Goldenseal 10, Ginger 2.5. 5mls tds., pc. (Medical Herbalist, Mansfield, Notts, UK)
Topical. Castor oil packs to low abdomen, twice weekly.
Note: Vigorous exercise appears to reduce the risk of women developing the condition.
Danazol drug rash. Echinacea. Chickweed cream. ... endometriosis
Aims and objects. To develop a coordinated scientific framework to assess phytopharmaceuticals. To promote acceptance of phytopharmaceuticals, especially within the therapy of general medical practitioners. To support and initiate clinical and experimental research in phytotherapy. To improve and extend the international accumulation of scientific and practical knowledge.
National associations represented.
Federal Republic of Germany: Gesellschaft fu?r Phytotherapie e.V.
The Netherlands: Nederlandse Vereniging voor Fytotherapie.
Belgium: Socie?te? Belge de Phytothe?rapie, Belgische Vereniging voor Phytotherapie. France: Institut Francais de Phytothe?rapie.
United Kingdom: British Herbal Medicine Association.
Switzerland: Schweizerische Medizinische Gesellschaft fu?r Phytotherapie.
The Scientific Committee, with two delegates from each member country, has embarked on a programme of compiling proposals for European monographs on the medicinal uses of plant drugs. This task is expected to take about ten years to complete.
In preparing monographs the Committee assesses information from published scientific literature together with national viewpoints as expressed by delegates or included in the results of national reviews. Leading researchers on specific plant drugs are invited to relevant meetings and their contributions substantially assist the Committee’s work. Draft monographs prepared by the Scientific Committee are circulated for appraisal and comment to an independent Board of Supervising Editors, which includes eminent academic experts in the field of phytotherapy.
The monographs are offered to regulatory authorities as a means of harmonising the medicinal uses of plant medicines within the EC and in a wider European context. Phytotherapy (Herbalism) makes an important contribution to European medicine. ... escop
Alternatives. Balm tea. Melissa officinalis is active against the herpes simplex virus and clinical trials yield excellent results. (European Journal of Herbal Medicine, Vol 1, No 1)
Russian traditional. Handful of pulped Wild Garlic leaves (Ramsons) macerated in Vodka to saturation point; 7 days. 1-2 teaspoons in water thrice daily.
Oil of Cloves (3-5 drops). Anti-viral activity against herpes simplex.
Other anti-virals. Garlic, Echinacea, Aloe Vera, Eucalyptus, Yarrow, Elderflowers, Burdock, Wild Indigo. St John’s Wort.
Tea. Formula. Equal parts, Yarrow, Balm, Gotu Kola. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup thrice daily, before meals.
Powders. Combine: Echinacea 2; Goldenseal quarter, Myrrh quarter. 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Tinctures. (1) Combine: Echinacea 2; Chamomile 1; Liquorice half. Or (2) Combine: Peruvian bark half; Meadowsweet 1; Chamomile half. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons in water thrice daily.
Thuja. 70 per cent ethanolic extract of Thuja occ., inhibits herpes simplex (HSV) in vitro. (Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, Munich; C. Gerha?user, et al)
Topical. Houseleek juice. Wipe with sliced Garlic corm. Oils of Cade, Cajeput, Sesame, Aloe Vera, dilute oil Eucalyptus.
Diet. Wholefoods, high fibre, low fat. Plenty fresh raw fruit and vegetables, yoghurt.
Supplementation. Same as for Shingles.
Self-Care. Towels, face cloths and other personal linen should not be shared. ... herpes simplex
Misleading claims and the use of such words as “organic”, “wholesome”, “natural” or “biological” cannot be accepted on product labels. The Licensing Authority treats herbal manufacturers no differently than manufacturers of allopathic products for serious conditions.
The Advertising Standards Authority does not allow quotation of any medicinal claims, except where a Product Licence (PL) has been authorised by the Licensing Authority.
All labels must include: Name of product (as on Product Licence), description of pharmaceutical form (tablet, mixture etc), Product Licence No., Batch No., quantity of each active ingredient in each unit dose in metric terms; dose and directions for use; quantity in container (in metric terms); “Keep out of reach of children” or similar warning; Name and address of Product Licence Holder; expiry date (if applicable); and any other special warnings. Also to appear: excipients, method/route of administration, special storage instructions, and precautions for disposal, if any.
Where licences are granted, the following words should appear on the label of a product: “A herbal product traditionally used for the symptomatic relief of . . .”. “If symptoms persist see your doctor.” “Not to be used in pregnancy” (where applicable). “If you think you have . . . consult a registered medical practitioner before taking this product.” “If you are already receiving medical treatment, tell your doctor that you are taking this product.” These warnings are especially necessary should symptoms persist and be the start of something more serious than a self-limiting condition.
Herbal preparations should be labelled with the additives and colourings they contain, if any. This helps practitioners avoid prescribing medicines containing them to certain patients on whom they may have an adverse reaction.
Labels of medicinal products shall comply with the Medicines (Labelling) Regulations 1976 (SI 1976 No. 1726) as amended by the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1977 (SI 1977 No. 996), the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1981 (SI 1981 No. 1791) and the Medicines (Labelling) Amendment Regulations 1985 (SI 1985 No. 1558).
Leaflets issued with proprietory medicinal products shall comply with the requirements of the Medicines (Leaflets) Regulations 1977 (SI 1977 No. 1055).
See also: ADVERTISING: CODE OF PRACTICE. BRITISH HERBAL MEDICINE ASSOCIATION. ... labelling of herbal products
Anyone may administer a herbal product to a human being, except by injection. Under Section 12 of the Medicines Act 1968, any remedy may be sold or supplied which only specifies the plant and the process. The remedy shall be called by no other name. This applies to the process producing the remedy consisting only of drying, crushing and comminuting. It must be sold without any written recommendation for use.
Those who have a manufacturer’s licence, or who notify the Enforcement Authority (the Secretary of State and the Pharmaceutical Society) can sell dried, crushed or comminuted herbs which have also been subjected to certain other limited processes (tablet-making, etc) but not those herbs contained in the Schedule to the Medicines (Retail Sale or Supply of Herbal Remedies) Order 1977 (SI 1977 No.2130).
This Schedule has three parts.
Part 1 contains substances that may only be sold by retail at registered pharmacies under the supervision of a pharmacist.
Part 2 refers to remedies that can be sold only in a registered pharmacy. There is, however, an important exception, as follows.
Part 3 contains a list of considered toxic herbs. A practitioner can prescribe all remedies that a shopkeeper can sell. He may also prescribe and sell remedies on Part 3 of the Schedule which a shopkeeper cannot. Such supply must be in premises closed to the public and subject to a clear and accurate indication of maximum dosage and strength. These remedies are as follows:... licencing of herbal remedies – exemptions from
Herbal preparations are required to meet the same high pharmaceutical standards as conventional medicine.
Today’s exacting standards ensure an absence of sugar, yeast, gluten, milk derivatives, cornstarch, wheat, artificial colours, flavours, and preservatives.
The Department of Health expects manufacturers to standardise active constituents where possible and to ensure purity by eliminating from crude material pesticide residues, aflatoxins and heavy metal contaminants. Chromotography, in one of its forms (thin-layer, gas or high-pressure liquid) are used to assess purity, potency, accurate identity and contamination by lead, cadmium, etc. A Geiger-counter reveals the presence or absence of radio-activity. Each plant has its own signature or ‘fingerprint’ showing density and other important characteristics.
Failure to meet Government requirements empowers a purchaser to return the whole consignment to the supplier. Thus, a high standard of manufacturing practice is maintained.
See: Medicines Act leaflet 39, Revised Guidelines DHSS Nov 1985 ... manufacturing
To establish efficacy of treatment for a named specific disease by herbs, the DHSS requires scientific data presented to the Regulatory authorities for consideration and approval.
A product is not considered a herbal remedy if its active principle(s) have been isolated and concentrated, as in the case of digitalis from the Foxglove. (MAL 2. Guidance notes)
A herbal product is one in which all active ingredients are of herbal origin. Products that contain both herbal and non-vegetable substances are not considered herbal remedies: i.e. Yellow Dock combined with Potassium Iodide.
The British Government supports freedom of the individual to make an informed choice of the type of therapy he or she wishes to use and has affirmed its policy not to restrict the general availability of herbal remedies. Provided products are safe and are not promoted by exaggerated claims, the future of herbal products is not at risk. A doctor with knowledge and experience of herbal medicine may prescribe them if he considers that they are a necessary part of treatment for his patient.
Herbalism is aimed at gently activating the body’s defence mechanisms so as to enable it to heal itself. There is a strong emphasis on preventative treatment. In the main, herbal remedies are used to relieve symptoms of self-limiting conditions. They are usually regarded as safe, effective, well-tolerated and with no toxicity from normal use. Some herbal medicines are not advised for children under 12 years except as advised by a manufacturer on a label or under the supervision of a qualified practitioner.
World Health Organisation Guidelines
The assessment of Herbal Medicines are regarded as:–
Finished, labelled medicinal products that contain as active ingredients aerial or underground parts of plants, or other plant material, or combinations thereof, whether in the crude state or as plant preparations. Plant material includes juices, gums, fatty oils, essential oils, and any other substances of this nature. Herbal medicines may contain excipients in addition to the active ingredients. Medicines containing plant material combined with chemically defined active substances, including chemically defined, isolated constituents of plants, are not considered to be herbal medicines.
Exceptionally, in some countries herbal medicines may also contain, by tradition, natural organic or inorganic active ingredients which are not of plant origin.
The past decade has seen a significant increase in the use of herbal medicines. As a result of WHO’s promotion of traditional medicine, countries have been seeking the assistance of WHO in identifying safe and effective herbal medicines for use in national health care systems. In 1989, one of the many resolutions adopted by the World Health Assembly in support of national traditional medicine programmes drew attention to herbal medicines as being of great importance to the health of individuals and communities (WHA 42.43). There was also an earlier resolution (WHA 22.54) on pharmaceutical production in developing countries; this called on the Director-General to provide assistance to the health authorities of Member States to ensure that the drugs used are those most appropriate to local circumstances, that they are rationally used, and that the requirements for their use are assessed as accurately as possible. Moreover, the Declaration of Alma-Ata in 1978 provided for inter alia, the accommodation of proven traditional remedies in national drug policies and regulatory measures. In developed countries, the resurgence of interest in herbal medicines has been due to the preference of many consumers for products of natural origin. In addition, manufactured herbal medicines from their countries of origin often follow in the wake of migrants from countries where traditional medicines play an important role.
In both developed and developing countries, consumers and health care providers need to be supplied with up-to-date and authoritative information on the beneficial properties, and possible harmful effects, of all herbal medicines.
The Fourth International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities, held in Tokyo in 1986, organised a workshop on the regulation of herbal medicines moving in international commerce. Another workshop on the same subject was held as part of the Fifth International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities, held in Paris in 1989. Both workshops confined their considerations to the commercial exploitation of traditional medicines through over-the-counter labelled products. The Paris meeting concluded that the World Health Organisation should consider preparing model guidelines containing basic elements of legislation designed to assist those countries who might wish to develop appropriate legislation and registration.
The objective of these guidelines, therefore, is to define basic criteria for the evaluation of quality, safety, and efficacy of herbal medicines and thereby to assist national regulatory authorities, scientific organisations, and manufacturers to undertake an assessment of the documentation/submission/dossiers in respect of such products. As a general rule in this assessment, traditional experience means that long-term use as well as the medical, historical and ethnological background of those products shall be taken into account. Depending on the history of the country the definition of long-term use may vary but would be at least several decades. Therefore the assessment shall take into account a description in the medical/pharmaceutical literature or similar sources, or a documentation of knowledge on the application of a herbal medicine without a clearly defined time limitation. Marketing authorisations for similar products should be taken into account. (Report of Consultation; draft Guidelines for the Assessment of Herbal Medicines. World Health Organisation (WHO) Munich, Germany, June 1991) ... herbal medicine
Mercury has an affinity for the central nervous system. Soon it concentrates in the kidney causing tubular damage. A common cause is the mercurial content (50 per cent) in the amalgam fillings in teeth which, under certain conditions, release a vapour. Fortunately, its use in dentistry is being superceded by an alternative composite filling.
A common cause of poisoning was demonstrated in 1972 when 6,000 people became seriously ill (600 died) from eating bread made from grain treated with a fungicide containing methylmercury. For every fungus in grain there is a mercuric compound to destroy it. The seed of all cereal grain is thus treated to protect its power of germination.
Those who are hypersensitive to the metal should as far as possible avoid button cells used in tape recorders, cassette players, watch and camera mechanisms. As the mercury cells corrode, the metal enters the environment and an unknown fraction is converted by micro organisms to alkylmercury compounds which seep into ground waters and eventually are borne to the sea. When cells are incinerated, the mercury volatilises and enters the atmosphere. (Pharmaceutical Journal, July 28/1984)
Mercury poisoning from inhalation of mercury fumes goes directly to the brain and pituitary gland. Autopsies carried out on dentists reveal high concentrations of mercury in the pituitary gland. (The Lancet, 5-27-89,1207 (letter))
Treatment. For years the common antidote was sulphur, and maybe not without reason. When brought into contact sulphur and mercury form an insoluble compound enabling the mercury to be more easily eliminated from the body. Sulphur can be provided by eggs or Garlic.
Old-time backwoods physicians of the North American Medical School used Asafoetida, Guaiacum and Echinacea. German pharmacists once used Bugleweed and Yellow Dock. Dr J. Clarke, USA physician recommends Sarsaparilla to facilitate breakdown and expulsion from the body.
Reconstructed formula. Echinacea 2; Sarsaparilla 1; Guaiacum quarter; Asafoetida quarter; Liquorice quarter. Dose: Liquid Extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Thrice daily.
Chelation therapy.
Formula. Tinctures. Skullcap 2-15 drops; Pleurisy root 20-45 drops; Horehound 5-40 drops. Mercurial salivation. Thrice daily. (Indian Herbology of North America, by Alma Hutchens) Dental fillings: replace amalgam with safe alternative – ceramic, etc. Evidence of a link between tooth fillings containing mercury and ME has caused the use of dental amalgam to be banned in Sweden. ... mercury poisoning
FAMILY: Illiciaceae
SYNONYMS: Chinese anise, illicium, Chinese star anise.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Evergreen tree up to 12 metres high with a tall, slender white trunk. It bears fruit which consist of five to thirteen seed-bearing follicles attached to a central axis in the shape of a star.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south east China, also Vietnam, India and Japan. Mainly produced in China.
OTHER SPECIES: Several other related species, e.g. Japanese star anise which is highly poisonous!
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used in Chinese medicine for over 1300 years for its stimulating effect on the digestive system and for respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and unproductive coughs. In the East generally, it is used as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and often chewed after meals to sweeten the breath and promote digestion. A common oriental domestic spice.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, carminative, expectorant, insect repellent, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits, fresh or partially dried. An oil is also produced from the leaves in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, extremely sweet, liquorice like scent. It blends well with rose, lavender, orange, pine and other spice oils, and has excellent masking properties.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Trans-anethole (80–90 per cent).
SAFETY DATA: Despite the anethole content, it does not appear to be a dermal irritant, unlike aniseed. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; it can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive System: Colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures, lozenges, etc. and to mask undesirable odours and flavours in drugs. As a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste and detergents as well as cosmetics and perfumes. Widely used for flavouring food, especially confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.... anise, star
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Anisum officinalis, A. vulgare, anise, sweet cumin.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual herb, less than a metre high, with delicate leaves and white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Greece and Egypt, now widely cultivated mainly in India and China and to a lesser extent in Mexico and Spain.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different chemotypes of aniseed according to the country of origin. Not to be confused with star anise, which belongs to a different family altogether.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Widely used as a domestic spice. The volatile oil content provides the basis for its medicinal applications: dry irritable coughs, bronchitis and whooping cough. The seed can be used in smoking mixtures. Aniseed tea is used for infant catarrh, also flatulence, colic and griping pains, also for painful periods and to promote breast milk. In Turkey a popular alcoholic drink, raki, is made from the seed.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, galactagogue, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds.
CHARACTERISTICS: Colourless to pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy-sweet characteristic scent. Like star anise, it is a good masking agent.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Trans-anethole (75–90 per cent).
SAFETY DATA: Its major component, anethole, is known to cause dermatitis in some individuals – avoid in allergic and inflammatory skin conditions. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See star anise.
OTHER USES: By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures and lozenges and to mask undesirable flavours in drugs. Also used in dentifrices and as a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, mostly of the industrial type. Employed in all major food categories.... aniseed
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: A. fulgens, A. sororia, leopard’s bane, wolf’s bane.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial alpine herb with a creeping underground stem, giving rise to a rosette of pale oval leaves. The flowering erect stem is up to 60 cms high, bearing a single, bright yellow, daisy-like flower. The whole plant is very difficult to cultivate.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to northern and central Europe; also found growing wild in the USSR, Scandinavia and northern India. The oil is produced mainly in France, Belgium and Germany.
OTHER SPECIES: A related plant, A. cordifolia, and other species of arnica are used in America, where it is known as ‘mountain tobacco’.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb stimulates the peripheral blood supply when applied externally, and is considered one of the best remedies for bruises and sprains. It helps relieve rheumatic pain and other painful or inflammatory skin conditions, so long as the skin is not broken! It is never used internally due to toxicity levels.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, stimulant, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of 1. flowers, and 2. root. The yield of essential oil is very small. An absolute, tincture and resinoid are also produced.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A yellowy-orange liquid with a greenish-blue hint and a strong bitter-spicy scent reminiscent of radish. 2. Dark yellow or butter-brown oil more viscous than the flower oil, with a strong bitter scent.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether (80 per cent approx.), isobutyric ester of phlorol (20 per cent approx.) and other minor traces.
SAFETY DATA: The essential oil is highly toxic and should never be used internally or on broken skin. However, the tincture or arnica ointment are valuable additions to the home medicine cabinet.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: The tincture is mainly employed in pharmaceutical skin products. The oil from the flowers finds occasional use in herbaceous-type perfumes. It is also used to flavour certain liqueurs.... arnica
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Asafoetida, gum asafetida, devil’s dung, food of the gods, giant fennel.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large branching perennial herb up to 3 metres high, with a thick fleshy root system and pale yellow-green flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Afghanistan, Iran and other regions of south west Asia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other species of Ferula which yield the oleoresin known as ‘asafetida’, e.g. Tibetan asafetida, which is also used to a lesser extent in commerce.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Chinese medicine it has been used since the seventh century as a nerve stimulant in treating neurasthenia. It is also widely used in traditional Indian medicine, where it is believed to stimulate the brain. In general, it has the reputation for treating various ailments including asthma, bronchitis, convulsions, coughs, constipation, flatulence and hysteria. The foliage of the plant is used as a local vegetable. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for intestinal flatulent colic.
ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant, hypotensive, stimulant. Animals are repelled by its odour.
EXTRACTION: The oleoresin is obtained by making incisions into the root and above ground parts of the plant. The milky juice is left to leak out and harden into dark reddish lumps, before being scraped off and collected. The essential oil is then obtained from the resin by steam distillation. An absolute, resinoid and tincture are also produced.
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellowy-orange oil with a bitter acrid taste and a strong, tenacious odour resembling garlic. However, beneath this odour there is a sweet, balsamic note.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Disulphides, notably 2-butyl propenyl disulphide with monoterpenes, free ferulic acid, valeric, traces of vanillin, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates the oil to be relatively non-toxic and non-irritant. However, it has the reputation for being the most adulterated ‘drug’ on the market. Before being sold, the oleoresin is often mixed with red clay or similar substitutes.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Respiratory System: ‘There is evidence that the volatile oil is expelled through the lungs, therefore it is excellent for asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough etc.’3
Nervous system: Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Now rarely used in pharmaceutical preparations; formerly used as a local stimulant for the mucous membranes. Occasionally used as a fixative and fragrance component in perfumes, especially rose bases and heavy oriental types. Employed in a wide variety of food categories, mainly condiments and sauces.... asafetida
FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS: Copahu balsam, copaiba, copaiva, Jesuit’s balsam, Maracaibo balsam, para balsam.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Wild-growing tropical tree up to 18 metres high, with thick foliage and many branches. The natural oleoresin occurs as a physiological product from various Copaifera species. Not a ‘true’ balsam.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to north east and central South America. Mainly produced in Brazil; also Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and Colombia.
OTHER SPECIES: Several Copaifera speices yield an oleoresin: the Venezuelan type ‘Maracaibo balsam’ has a low oil content, the Brazilian type ‘para balsam’ has a high oil content. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used for centuries in Europe in the treatment of chronic cystitis and bronchitis; also for treating piles, chronic diarrhoea and intestinal problems.
ACTIONS: Batericidal, balsamic, disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: 1. The crude balsam is collected by drilling holes into the tree trunks; it is one of the most plentiful naturally occurring perfume materials. 2. An essential oil is obtained by dry distillation from the crude balsam. It is mainly the ‘para balsams’ with a high oil content (60–80 per cent), which are used for distillation.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The crude balsam is a viscous, yellowy-brown or greenish-grey liquid which hardens upon exposure to air with a mild, woody, slightly spicy odour. It blends well with styrax, amyris, lavandin, cedarwood, lavender, oakmoss, woods and spices. 2. The oil is a pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a mild, sweet, balsamic-peppery odour. It blends well with cananga, ylang ylang, vanilla, jasmine, violet and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly caryophyllene.
SAFETY DATA: Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Large doses cause vomiting and diarrhoea.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Intestinal infections, piles.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, colds, coughs, etc.
Genito-Rinary System: Cystitis.
Nervous System: Stress-related conditons.
OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in pharmaceutical products especially cough medicines and iuretics. The oil and crude balsam are extensively used as a fixative and fragrance component in all types of perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and detergents. The crude is also used in porcelain painting.
BALSAM, PERU... balsam, copaiba
FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS: Toluifera balsamum, Balsamum tolutanum, B. americanum, Myrospermum toluiferum, Thomas balsam, resin Tolu, opobalsam.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, graceful tropical tree, similar in appearance to the Peru balsam tree. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained by making V-shaped incisions into the bark and sap wood, often after the trunk has been beaten and scorched. It is a ‘true’ balsam.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America, mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba; also cultivated in the West Indies.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many types of South American balsam-yielding trees, such as the Peru balsam – see entry.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The balsam works primarily on the respiratory mucous membranes, and is good for chronic catarrh and non-inflammatory chest complaints, laryngitis and croup. It is still used as a flavour and mild expectorant in cough syrups and lozenges. As an ingredient in compound benzoin tincture and similar formulations, it is helpful in the treatment of cracked nipples, lips, cuts, bedsores, etc.
ACTIONS: Antitussive, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: The crude balsam is collected from the trees. It appears first in liquid form, then hardens and solidifies into an orange-brown brittle mass. An ‘essential oil’ is obtained from the crude by 1. steam distillation, or 2. dry distillation. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced for use primarily as fixatives.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow-brown liquid with a sweet-floral scent and peppery undertone. 2. An amber-coloured liquid with a rich balsamic-floral scent, which slowly solidfies on cooling into a crystalline mass. Tolu balsam blends well with mimosa, ylang ylang, sandalwood, labdanum, neroli, patchouli, cedarwood and oriental, spicy and floral bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The balsam contains approx. 80 per cent resin, 20 per cent oil, with cinnamic and benzoic acids, small amounts of terpenes, and traces of eugenol and vanillin.
SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates it to be non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization, see Peru Balsam.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
SKIN CARE: Dry, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, rashes, scabies, sores, wounds.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, croup, laryngitis. ‘It may be used as an inhalant by putting about a teaspoon into a steam bath.’6
OTHER USES: As a fixative and fragrance component in colognes, cosmetics and perfumes (especially the dry distilled type). Some use in pharmaceutical preparations, e.g. cough syrups. Low levels used in many major food products, especially baked goods.... balsam, tolu
FAMILY: Styracaceae
SYNONYMS: Gum benzoin, gum benjamin, styrax benzoin.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large tropical tree up to 20 metres high with pale green citrus-like leaves, whitish underneath, bearing hard-shelled flattish fruit about the size of a nutmeg. The benzoin is a pathological product, formed when the trunk is cut; the tree exudes a balsamic resin which hardens upon exposure, to air and sunlight.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia; the two main regions of production are Sumatra, Java and Malaysia for ‘Sumatra’ benzoin, and Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, China and Thailand for ‘Siam’ benzoin.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many different varieties within the Styrax family which produce benzoin, but these are generally classified under either Sumatra benzoin (S. paralleloneurus) or Siam benzoin (S. tonkinensis) – see also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It has been used for thousands of years in the east as a medicine and incense; the fumigations were believed to drive away evil spirits. It was used by the Chinese herbalists for its heating and drying qualities, as a good urinary antiseptic and as an aid to digestion.
In the west, it is best known in the form of compound tincture of benzoin or Friars Balsam, used for respiratory complaints. Externally it is used for cuts and irritable skin conditions; internally it is used as a carminative for indigestion, etc. It also acts as a preservative of fats.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cordial, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, sedative, styptic, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: The crude benzoin is collected from the trees directly. Benzoin resinoid, or ‘resin absolute’, is prepared from the crude using solvents, for example benzene and alcohol, which are then removed. Commercial benzoin is usually sold dissolved in ethyl glycol or a similar solvent. A ‘true’ absolute is also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Sumatra crude benzoin occurs as greyish-brown brittle lumps with reddish streaks, with a styrax-like odour. There are several different qualities available; the so-called ‘almond’ grade is considered superior. 2. Siam benzoin comes in pebble or tear-shaped orange-brown pieces, with a sweet-balsamic vanilla-like scent, this type having a more refined odour than the Sumatra type.
Benzoin resinoid is produced from both the Siam and Sumatra types, or a mix of the two. It is an orange-brown viscous mass with an intensely rich sweet-balsamic odour. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, jasmine, copaiba balsam, frankincense, myrrh, cypress, juniper, lemon, coriander and other spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Sumatra Benzoin: mainly coniferyl cinnamate and sumaresinolic acid, with benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and traces of styrene, vanillin and benzaldehyde. 2. Siam benzoin: mainly coniferyl benzoate (65–75 per cent), with benzoic acid, vanillin, siaresinolic acid and cinnamyl benzoate.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Compound benzoin tincture is ‘regarded as moderately toxic, due probably to occasional contact dermatitis developed in some individuals … which contains, in addition to benzoin, aloe, storax, Tolu balsam and others.’.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, chapped skin, inflamed and irritated conditions.
Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, gout, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, chills, colic, coughs, laryngitis.
Immune System: ’Flu.
Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints. It warms and tones the heart and circulation, both physically and metaphorically: ‘This essence creates a kind of euphoria; it interposes a padded zone between us and events.’.
OTHER USES: Compound benzoin tincture is used in pharmaceuticals and in dentistry to treat gum inflammation. The resinoid and absolute are used extensively as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially Siam benzoin. Both types are used in most food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... benzoin
FAMILY: Betulaceae
SYNONYMS: B. alba var. pubescens, B. odorata, B. pendula, European white birch, silver birch.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Decorative tree, up to 15–20 metres high, with slender branches, silvery-white bark broken into scales, and light green oval leaves. The male catkins are 2–5 cms long, the female up to 15 cms long.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere; found throughout Eastern Europe, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic coast, northern China and Japan.
OTHER SPECIES: Many cultivars exist of this species of birch. The paper birch (B. papyrifera) and B. verrucosa are also used for the production of birch bud oil and/or birch tar. NB Should not be confused with the oil from the sweet birch (B. lenta) which is potentially toxic.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Birch buds were formerly used as a tonic in hair preparations. Birch tar is used in Europe for all types of chronic skin complaints: psoriasis, eczema, etc. In Scandinavia the young birch leaflets and twigs are bound into bundles and used in the sauna to tone the skin and promote the circulation. The sap is also tapped in the spring and drunk as a tonic. Buds, leaves and bark are used for ‘rheumatic and arthritic conditions, especially where kidney functions appear to need support … oedematous states; urinary infections and calculi.’.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, tonic.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaf-buds. 2. Crude birch tar is extracted by slow destructive distillation from the bark; this is subsequently steam distilled to yield a rectified birch tar oil.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pale yellow, viscous oil with a woody-green balsamic scent. It crystallizes at low temperatures. 2. The crude tar is an almost black, thick oily mass. The rectified oil is a brownish-yellow, clear oily liquid with a smoky, tar-like, ‘Russian leather’ odour. It blends well with other woody and balsamic oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Mainly betulenol and other sesquiterpenes. 2. In the tar oil: phenol, cresol, xylenol, guaiacol, creosol, pyrocatechol, pyrobetulin (which gives the ‘leather’ scent).
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Dermatitis, dull or congested skin, eczema, hair care, psoriasis etc.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, cellulitis, muscular pain, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.
OTHER USES: Birch bud oil is used primarily in hair tonics and shampoos, and in some cosmetics for its potential skin-healing effects. The crude tar is used in pharmaceutical preparations, ointments, lotions, etc. for dermatological diseases. It is also used in soap and leather manufacture – rectified birch tar oil provides the heart for many ‘leather’ type perfumes and aftershaves.... birch, white
FAMILY: Monimiaceae
SYNONYMS: Boldu boldus, Boldoa fragrans, boldus, boldu.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or small tree up to 6 metres high, with slender branches, sessile coarse leaves and bearing yellowish-green fruit; when dried the leaves turn a deep reddish-brown colour. The whole plant is aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Chile; naturalized in the Mediterranean region. Some essential oil is produced in Nepal and Vietnam.
OTHER SPECIES: The Australian tree Monimia rotundifolia contains a similar oil, which has been used as a substitute. The oil of chenopodium or wormseed is also chemically related.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The bark is used for tanning, the wood utilized in charcoal making and the fruit eaten by locals. In South America it has long been recognized as a valuable cure for gonorrhoea. In Western herbalism, the dried leaves are used for genito-urinary inflammation, gallstones, liver or gall bladder pain, cystitis and rheumatism. The dried leaves are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for cholelithiasis with pain.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, hepatic, sedative, tonic, urinary demulcent.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the leaves.
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow liquid with a powerful spicy-camphoraceous, disagreeable odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cymene, ascaridole, cineol, linalol.
SAFETY DATA: Extremely toxic. ‘The oil has powerful therapeutic effects, and it can be considered harmful to the human organism even when used in very small doses … should not be used in therapy, either internally or externally.’.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceuticals in minute amounts for its therapeutic properties.... boldo leaf
FAMILY: Dipterocarpaceae
SYNONYMS: D. camphora, Borneo camphor, East Indian camphor, Baros camphor, Sumatra camphor, Malayan camphor.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The camphora tree grows to a great height, a majestic tree often over 25 metres high, with a thick trunk up to 2 metres in diameter. Borneol is a natural exudation found beneath the bark in crevices and fissures of some mature trees (about 1 per cent); young trees produce only a clear yellow liquid known as ‘liquid camphor’.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Borneo and Sumatra.
OTHER SPECIES: To be distinguished from the Japanese or Formosa type of camphor, more commonly used in Europe, which is relatively toxic. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Borneol has long been regarded as a panacea by many Eastern civilizations, especially in ancient Persia, India and China. It was used as a powerful remedy against plague and other infectious diseases, stomach and bowel complaints. In China it was also used for embalming purposes. ‘It is mentioned by Marco Polo in the thirteenth century and Camoens in 1571 who called it the “balsam of disease”.’. It is valued for ceremonial purposes in the east generally, and in China particularly for funeral rites. Its odour repels insects and ants, and it is therefore highly regarded as timber for the construction of buildings.
ACTIONS: Mildly analgesic, antidepressant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, carminative, rubefacient, stimulant of the adrenal cortex, tonic (cardiac and general).
EXTRACTION: The borneol is collected from the tree trunk in its crude crystalline form (the natives test each tree first by making incisions in the trunk to detect its presence). The so-called ‘oil of borneol’ is extracted by steam distillation of the wood.
CHARACTERISTICS: Watery white to viscous black oil depending upon the amount of camphor which it contains, with a distinctive, sassafras-like, camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude is made up of mainly cl-borneol which is an alcohol, not a ketone (like Japanese camphor). The oil contains approx. 35 per cent terpenes: pinene, camphene, dipentene; 10 per cent alcohols: d-borneol, terpineol; 20 per cent sesquiterpenes, and 35 per cent resin.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, dermal irritant in concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, bruises, insect repellent,
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Debility, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Immune System: Colds, fever, ‘flu and other infectious diseases.
Nervous System: Nervous exhaustion, stress-related conditions, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: It is used to scent soap in the East but is still relatively unknown in the West in pharmaceutical and perfumery work. In China and Japan it is used for making varnish and ink; also asa dilutant for artists’ colours. Mainly used for ritual purposes in the East.... borneol
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: Barosma betulina, short buchu, mountain buchu, bookoo, buku, bucca.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small shrub with simple wrinkled leaves about 1–2 cms long; other much smaller leaves are also present which are bright green with finely serrated margins. It has delicate stems bearing five petalled white flowers. The whole plant has a strong, aromatic, blackcurrant-like odour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, it now grows wild all over South Africa. Dried leaves are exported to Holland, England and America.
OTHER SPECIES: There are more than twelve so-called Barosma species in South Africa – the ‘true’ buchus are B. crenulata (contains high amounts of pulegone, a toxic constituent), B. serratifolia and B. betulina.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The leaves are used locally for antiseptic purposes and to ward off insects. In western herbalism, the leaves are used for infections of the genito-urinary system, such as cystitis, urethritis and prostatitis. Current in British Herbal Pharmacopoeia 1983.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic (especially urinary), diuretic, insecticide.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaves.
CHARACTERISTICS: Dark yellowy-brown oil with a penetrating minty-camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Diosphenol (25–40 per cent), limonene and menthane, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Should not be used during pregnancy. The toxicity of buchu is unknown but since B. betulina yields oils high in diophenols and B. crenulata yields oils high in pulegone, they should both be regarded as questionable at present.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: A tincture, extract and oleoresin are produced for pharmaceutical use. Limited use in blackcurrant flavour and fragrance work, for example colognes and chypre bases.... buchu
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYMS: Juniper tar, prickly cedar, medlar tree, prickly juniper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large evergreen shrub up to 4 metres high, with long dark needles and brownish-black berries about the size of hazelnuts.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern France; now common throughout Europe and North Africa. The tar is produced mainly in Spain and Yugoslavia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of juniper which are used commercially apart from the prickly juniper: J. communis produces juniper oil, J. virginiana produces Virginian cedarwood oil, and in Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruits and twigs of J. smreka.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used in the treatment of cutaneous diseases, such as chronic eczema, parasites, scalp disease, hair loss, etc. especially in France and other continental countries. It is also used as an antiseptic wound dressing and for toothache.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antipruritic, antiseptic, disinfectant, parasiticide, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: The crude oil or tar is obtained by destructive distillation from the branches and heartwood (usually in the form of shavings or chips). A rectified oil is produced from the crude by steam or vacuum distillation. In addition, an oil is occasionally produced from the berries by steam distillation.
CHARACTERISTICS: The rectified oil is an orange-brown, oily liquid with a woody, smoky, leatherlike odour. It blends well with thyme, origanum, clove, cassia, tea tree, pine and medicinal-type bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cadinene, cadinol, p-cresol, guaiacol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization problems. Use with care, especially when treating inflammatory or allergic skin conditions. Turpentine (terebinth) oil makes a useful alternative, with less possibility of an allergic reaction.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, spots, etc.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in pharmaceutical work as a solvent for chemical drugs, in dermatological creams and ointments, as well as in veterinary medicine. Rectified cade is used in fragrance work, in soaps, lotions, creams and perfumes (especially leather and spice).... cade
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: M. minor, cajuput, white tea tree, white wood, swamp tea tree, punk tree, paperbark tree.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree up to 30 metres high, with thick pointed leaves and white flowers. The flexible trunk has a whitish spongy bark which flakes off easily. In Malaysia it is called ‘caju-puti’, meaning ‘white wood’, due to the colour of the timber.
DISTRIBUTION: It grows wild in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Java, Australia and south eastern Asia.
OTHER SPECIES: Several other varieties of Melaleuca are used to produce cajeput oil, such as M. quinquenervia – see Botanical Classification section. Closely related to other members of the Melaleuca group, notably eucalyptus, clove, niaouli and tea tree.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Held in high regard in the East, it is used locally for colds, headaches, throat infections, toothache, sore and aching muscles, fever (cholera), rheumatism and various skin diseases. Only the oil is used in the Western herbal tradition, known for producing a sensation of warmth and quickening the pulse. It is used for chronic laryngitis and bronchitis, cystitis, rheumatism and to expel roundworm.
ACTIONS: Mildly analgesic, antimicrobial, antineuralgic, antispasmodic, antiseptic (pulmonary, urinary, intestinal), anthelmintic, diaphoretic, carminative, expectorant, febrifuge, insecticide, sudorific, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-green, mobile liquid (the green tinge derives from traces of copper found in the tree), with a penetrating, camphoraceous-medicinal odour. Compared with eucalyptus oil, it has a slightly milder fruity body note.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (14–65 per cent depending on source), terpineol, terpinyl acetate, pinene, nerolidol and other traces.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, may irritate the skin in high concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Insect bites, oily skin, spots.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, urethritis, urinary infection.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, viral infections.
OTHER USES: Used in dentistry and pharmaceutical work as an antiseptic; in expectorant and tonic formulations, throat lozenges, gargles, etc. Used as a fragrance and freshening agent in soaps, cosmetics, detergents and perfumes. Occasionally employed as a flavour component in food products and soft drinks.... cajeput
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Apium carvi, carum, caraway fruits.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A biennial herb up to 0.75 metres high with a much-branched stem, finely cut leaves and umbels of white flowers, with a thick and tapering root. The small seeds are curved with five distinct pale ridges.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia, naturalized in North America. Now widely cultivated especially in Germany, Holland, Scandinavia and Russia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties depending on origin – the English, Dutch and German types derive from Prussia, which are distinct from the Scandinavian variety. Those plants grown in northerly latitudes produce more oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used extensively as a domestic spice, especially in bread, cakes and cheeses. Traditional remedy for dyspepsia, intestinal colic, menstrual cramps, poor appetite, laryngitis and bronchitis. It promotes milk secretion and is considered specific for flatulent colic in children, according to the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.
ACTIONS: Antihistaminic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, aperitif, astringent, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue, larvicidal, stimulant, spasmolytic, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried ripe seed or fruit (approx. 2–8 per cent yield).
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude caraway oil is a pale yellowish-brown liquid with a harsh, spicy odour. The redistilled oil is colourless to pale yellow, with a strong, warm, sweet-spicy odour, like rye bread. It blends well with jasmine, cinnamon, cassia and other spices; however, it is very overpowering.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly carvone (50–60 per cent) and limonene (40 per cent), with carveol, dihydrocarveol, dihydrocarvone, pinene, phellandrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, may cause dermal irritation in concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs, laryngitis.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, gastric spasm, nervous indigestion, poor appetite. See also sweet fennel and dill.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: Used in carminative, stomachic and laxative preparations and as a flavour ingredient in pharmaceuticals; also to mask unpleasant tastes and odours. Fragrance component in toothpaste, mouthwash products, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially condiments. The German brandy ‘Kummel’ is made from the seeds.... caraway
FAMILY: Zingiberaceae
SYNONYMS: Elettaria cardomomum var. cardomomum, cardamom, cardamomi, cardamum, mysore cardamom.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial, reed-like herb up to 4 metres high, with long, silky blade-shaped leaves. Its long sheathing stems bear small yellowish flowers with purple tips, followed by oblong red-brown seeds.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially southern India; cultivated extensively in India, Sri Lanka, Laos, Guatemala and El Salvador. The oil is produced principally in India, Europe, Sri Lanka and Guatemala.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous related species found in the east, used as local spices and for medicinal purposes, such as round or Siam cardamon (Amomum cardamomum) found in India and China. An oil is also produced from wild cardamon (E. cardamomum var. major).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used extensively as a domestic spice, especially in India, Europe, Latin America and Middle Eastern countries. It has been used in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine for over 3000 years, especially for pulmonary disease, fever, digestive and urinary complaints. Hippocrates recommended it for sciatica, coughs, abdominal pains, spasms, nervous disorders, retention of urine and also for bites of venomous creatures. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cephalic, digestive, diuretic, sialogogue, stimulant, stomachic, tonic (nerve).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam, distillation from the dried ripe fruit (seeds). An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet-spicy, warming fragrance and a woody-balsamic undertone. It blends well with rose, olibanum, orange, bergamot, cinnamon, cloves, caraway, ylang ylang, labdanum, cedarwood, neroli and oriental bases in general.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinyl acetate and cineol (each may be present at up to 50 per cent), limonene, sabinene, linalol, linalyl acetate, pinene, zingiberene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, griping pains, halitosis heartburn, indigestion, vomiting.
Nervous System: Mental fatigue, nervous strain.
OTHER USES: Employed in some carminative, stomachic and laxative preparations; also in the form of compound cardamon spirit to flavour pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types. Important flavour ingredient, particularly in curry and spice products.... cardamon
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: C. aromaticum, Laurus cassia, Chinese cinnamon, false cinnamon, cassia cinnamon, cassia lignea.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A slender, evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with leathery leaves and small white flowers. It is usually cut back to form bushes for commercial production.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the south eastern parts of China; found to a lesser extent in Vietnam and India (Cochin).
OTHER SPECIES: Not to be confused with the Ceylon Cinnamon bark (C. verum) which is from a related species. There are also several other varieties from different regions used for essential oil production – see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Extensively used as local domestic spice. It is used medicinally in much the same way as Ceylon cinnamon, mainly for digestive complaints such as flatulent dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea and nausea, as well as the common cold, rheumatism, kidney and reproductive complaints.
The powdered bark is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia or colic with nausea.
ACTIONS: Antidiarrhoeal, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, astringent, carminative, spasmolytic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil 1. by steam distillation from the leaves, and 2. by water distillation from the bark, leaves, twigs and stalks.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Leaf oil is brownish yellow (the rectified oil is pale yellow), with a sweet woody-spicy tenacious odour. 2. Bark oil is a dark brown liquid with a strong, spicy warm, resinous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Leaf and Bark oil contain mainly cinnamic aldehyde (75–90 per cent) with some methyl eugenol, salicylaldehyde and methylsalicylaldehyde.
SAFETY DATA: Dermal toxin, dermal irritant, dermal sensitizer, mucous membrane irritant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should never be used on the skin (one of the most hazardous oils).’.
OTHER USES: Some pharmaceutical applications due to bactericidal properties, such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, gargles; also tonic and carminative preparations. Extensively used in food flavouring, including alcoholic and soft drinks. Little used in perfumes and cosmetics, due to its dark colour.
CASSIE... cassia
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: M. chamomilla, camomile, blue chamomile, matricaria, Hungarian chamomile, sweet false chamomile, single chamomile, chamomile blue (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual, strongly aromatic herb, up to 60 cms tall with a hairless, erect, branching stem. It has delicate feathery leaves and simple daisy-like white flowers on single stems. In appearance it is very similar to the corn chamomile (Anthemis arvensis) but can be distinguished from it because the latter is scentless.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and north and west Asia; naturalized in North America and Australia. It is cultivated extensively, especially in Hungary and eastern Europe, where the oil is produced. It is no longer grown in Germany, despite the herbal name.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of chamomile, such as the pineapple weed (Chamaemelium suaveolens) and the Roman chamomile (C. nobile), both of which are used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This herb has a long-standing medicinal tradition, especially in Europe for ‘all states of tension and the visceral symptoms that can arise therefrom, such as nervous dyspepsia and nervous bowel, tension headaches, and sleeplessness; especially useful for all children’s conditions, calming without depressing …’.
An excellent skin care remedy, it has many of the same qualities as Roman chamomile, except that its anti-inflammatory properties are greater due to the higher percentage of azulene.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, anti inflammatory, antiphlogistic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carlminative, cicatrisant, cholagogue, digestive, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, hepatic, nerve sedative, stimulant of leucocyte production, stomachic, sudorific, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flower heads (up to 1.9 per cent yield). An absolute is also produced in small quantities, which is a deeper blue colour and has greater tenacity and fixative properties.
CHARACTERISTICS: An inky-blue viscous liquid with a strong, sweetish warm-herbaceous odour. It blends well with geranium, lavender, patchouli, rose, benzoin, neroli, bergamot, marjoram, lemon, ylang ylang, jasmine, clary sage and labdanum.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Chamazulene, farnesene, bisabolol oxide, en-yndicycloether, among others. (NB The chamazulene is not present in the fresh flower but is only produced during the process of distillation.)
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; causes dermatitis in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, allergies, boils, burns, cuts, chilblains, dermatitis, earache, eczema, hair care, inflammations, insect bites, rashes, sensitive skin, teething pain, toothache, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, inflamed joints, muscular pain, neuralgia, rheumatism, sprains.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, indigestion, nausea.
Genito-Urinary System: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.
Nervous System: Headache, insomnia, nervous tension, migraine and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and in carminative, antispasmodic and tonic preparations. Extensively used in cosmetics, soaps, detergents, high-class perfumes and hair and bath products. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... chamomile, german
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Coriander seed, Chinese parsley.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic annual herb about 1 metre high with bright green delicate leaves, umbels of lacelike white flowers, followed by a mass of green (turning brown) round seeds.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia; naturalized in North America. Cultivated throughout the world, the oil is mainly produced in the USSR, Yugoslavia and Romania.
OTHER SPECIES: Various chemotypes of the same species are found according to geographical location.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb with a long history of use the seeds were found in the ancient Egyptian tomb of Rameses 11. The seeds and leaves are widely used as a garnish and domestic spice, especially in curries. It has been used therapeutically, mainly in the form of an infusion for children’s diarrhoea, digestive upsets, griping pains, anorexia and flatulence.
In Chinese medicine the whole herb is used for dysentery, piles, measles, nausea, toothache and for painful hernia.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, depurative, digestive, carminative, cytotoxic, fungicidal, larvicidal, lipolytic, revitalizing, stimulant (cardiac, circulatory, nervous system), stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the crushed ripe seeds. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the fresh and dried leaves, which contains a high proportion of decylaldehyde.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, woody-spicy, slightly musky fragrance. It blends well with clary sage, bergamot, jasmine, olibanum, neroli, petitgrain, citronella, sandalwood, cypress, pine, ginger, cinnamon and other spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly linalol (55–75 per cent), decylaldehyde, borneol, geraniol, carvone, anethole, among others; constituents; vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non irritant, non-sensitizing. Stupefying in large doses – use in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation, Muscles And Joints:
Accumulation of fluids or toxins, arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, stiffness.
Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea, piles, spasm.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, infections (general), measles.
Nervous System: Debility, migraine, neuralgia, nervous exhaustion.
OTHER USES: Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceutical preparations, especially digestive remedies. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. Employed by the food industry especially in meat products and to flavour liqueurs such as Chartreuse and Benedictine; also used for flavouring tobacco.... coriander
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYMS: Italian cypress, Mediterranean cypress.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree with slender branches and a statuesque conical shape. It bears small flowers and round, brownish-grey cones or nuts.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the eastern Mediterranean; now grows wild in France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, North Africa, England and, to a lesser degree, the Balkan countries. Cultivation and distillation usually take place in France, also Spain and Morocco.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many other species of cypress found throughout the world which are used to produce an essential oil, such as C. lusitanica found in Kenya. With regard to oil quality, however, C. sempervirens is considered superior.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was highly valued as a medicine and as an incense by ancient civilizations and it is still used as a purification incense by the Tibetans. It benefits the urinary system and is considered useful where there is excessive loss of fluid, such as heavy perspiration or menstrual loss and diarrhoea: ‘The cones are … very drying and binding, good to stop fluxes of all kinds.’.
The Chinese consider the nuts very nutritious, beneficial for the liver and respiratory system and to check profuse perspiration.
ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, deodorant, diuretic, hepatic, styptic, sudorific, tonic, vasoconstrictive.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs. An oil from the cones is available occasionally. (A concrete and absolute are also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow to greenish-olive mobile liquid with a smoky, sweet-balsamic tenacious odour. It blends well with cedarwood, pine, lavender, mandarin, clary sage, lemon, cardamon, Moroccan chamomile, ambrette seed, labdanum, juniper, benzoin, bergamot, orange, marjoram and sandalwood.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, camphene, sylvestrene, cymene, sabinol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Haemorrhoids, oily and overhydrated skin, excessive perspiration, insect repellent, pyorrhoea (bleeding of the gums), varicose veins, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, muscular cramp, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, spasmodic coughing.
Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.
Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Employed in some pharmaceutical products; used as a fragrance component in colognes, after-shaves and perfumes.... cypress
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Peucedanum graveolens, Fructus anethi, European dill, American dill.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Annual or biennial herb up to 1 metre high with a smooth stem, feathery leaves and umbels of yellowish flowers followed by flat small seeds.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions; now cultivated worldwide, especially in Europe, USA, China and India. Dill seed oil is mainly produced in Europe (France, Hungary, Germany, England, Spain); dill weed oil in the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: Indian dill or East Indian dil (A. sowa) is widely cultivated in the east, especially in India and Japan. A commercial oil is produced from the seed which has a different chemical composition and contains ‘dill apiol’.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used since the earliest times as a medicinal and culinary herb. In Germany and Scandinavia especially, it is used with fish and cucumber, and the seeds baked in bread. In the west and east it is used as a soothing digestive aid for indigestion, wind, colic etc. especially in children, for which it is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.
ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue, galactagogue, hypotensive, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (sometimes water) distillation from 1. fruit or seed, 2. herb or weed (fresh or partially dried).
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A colourless to pale yellow mobile liquid with a light fresh warm spicy scent. 2. A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a powerful sweet-spicy aroma. It blends well with elemi, mint, caraway, nutmeg, spice and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Carvone (30–60 per cent), limonene, phellandrene, eugenol, pinene among others. 2. Carvone (much less), limonene, pinene, etc. as well as terpinene. There are several different chemotypes of dill, for example, phellandrene is present in the English and Spanish oils but not in the German.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Digestive System: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, indigestion.
Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Lack of periods; promotes milk flow in nursing mothers.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical digestive preparations such as ‘dill water’. The weed oil is used as a fragrance component in detergents, cosmetics, perfumes and especially soaps. Both oils are used extensively in alcoholic, soft drinks and foodstuffs, especially pickles and condiments.... dill
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: F. gummosa, galbanum gum, galbanum resin, ‘bubonion’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large perennial herb with a smooth stem, shiny leaflets and small flowers. It contains resin ducts which exude a milky juice, a natural oleoresin. The dried resinous exudation is collected by making incisions at the base of the stem.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Middle East and western Asia; cultivated in Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan and Lebanon. Distillation usually takes place in Europe or the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are two distinct types: Levant galbanum which is liquid or soft, and Persian galbanum which is solid or hard. Other Ferula species also yield galbanum gum, such as the muskroot; see also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was used by the ancient civilizations as an incense, and in Egypt for cosmetics and in the embalming process. It is generally used in the east in a similar way to asafetida: for treating wounds, inflammations and skin disorders and also for respiratory, digestive and nervous complaints. Zalou root (F. hermonic) is used in Beirut as an aphrodisiac.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, hypotensive, restorative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the oleoresin or gum – only the Levant or soft type is used for oil production. A partially deterpenized oil is produced, known as ‘galbanol’. (A resinoid is also produced, mainly for use as a fixative.)
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude – A dark amber or brown viscous liquid with a green-woody scent and a soft balsamic undertone. Oil – A colourless, or pale yellow or olive liquid with a fresh green topnote and woody-dry balsamic undertone. It blends well with hyacinth, violet, narcissus, lavender, geranium, oakmoss, opopanax, pine, fir, styrax and oriental bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, cadinol, cadinene and myrcene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Abscesses, acne, boils, cuts, heals scar tissue, inflammations, tones the skin, mature skin, wrinkles, wounds – ‘signifies drying and preservation’..
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Poor circulation, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs.
Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion.
Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: The Persian gum used to be employed in pharmaceutical products. Both oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes. Also used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... galbanum
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Gum tree, southern blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum, fever tree, stringy bark.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A beautiful, tall, evergreen tree, up to 90 metres high. The young trees have bluish-green oval leaves while the mature trees develop long, narrow, yellowish leaves, creamy-white flowers and a smooth, pale grey bark often covered in a white powder.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia. Mainly cultivated in Spain and Portugal, also Brazil, California, Russia and China. Very little of this oil now comes from its native countries.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 different species of eucalyptus, of which at least 500 produce a type of essential oil. Many have been extracted simply for experimental purposes, and research is still being carried out with regard to the different constituents of each oil. In general, they can be divided into three categories. 1. The medicinal oils containing large amounts of cineol (or eucalyptol), such as the blue gum, but increasingly the blue malee (E. polybractea), the narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. australiana) and the gully gum (E. smithii). 2. The industrial oils containing mainly piperitone and phellandrene, such as the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita), grey peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra) and increasingly the broad-leaved peppermint (E. dives var. Type). 3. The perfumery oils containing mainly citronellal, such as the lemon-scented eucalyptus (E. citriodora). See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional household remedy in Australia, the leaves and oil are especially used for respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and croup, and the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco for asthma. It is also used for feverish conditions (malaria, typhoid, cholera, etc.) and skin problems like burns, ulcers and wounds. Aqueous extracts are used for aching joints, bacterial dysentery, ringworms, tuberculosis, etc. and employed for similar reasons in western and eastern medicine. The wood is also used for timber production in Spain.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, balsamic, cicatrisant, decongestant, deodorant, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hypoglycaemic, parasiticide, prophylactic, rubefacient, stimulant, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and young twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless mobile liquid (yellows on ageing), with a somewhat harsh camphoraceous odour and woody-sweet undertone. It blends well with thyme, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, pine, cedarwood and lemon. (The narrow-leaved eucalyptus (E. radiata var. australiana) is often used in preference to the blue gum in aromatherapy work, being rich in cineol but with a sweeter and less harsh odour.)
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (70–85 per cent), pinene, limonene, cymene, phellandrene, terpinene, aromadendrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Externally non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. ‘When taken internally eucalyptus oil is toxic and as little as 3.5ml has been reported as fatal’..
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Burns, blisters, cuts, herpes, insect bites, insect repellent, lice, skin infections, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea.
Immune System: Chickenpox, colds, epidemics, ’flu, measles.
Nervous System: Debility, headaches, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: The oil and cineol are largely employed in the preparation of liniments, inhalants, cough syrups, ointments, toothpaste and as pharmaceutical flavourings also used in veterinary practise and dentistry. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents and toiletries – little used in perfumes. Used for the isolation of cineol and employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories.... eucalyptus, blue gum
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