Pubes Health Dictionary

Andrographis paniculata

Acanthaceae

San: Bhunimbah, Kiratatiktah

Hin: Kakamegh, Kalpanath

Ben: Kalmegh

Mal: Nilaveppu, Kiriyattu Tam: Nilavempu Kan: Kreata

Importance: Kalmegh, the Great or Green Chiretta is a branched annual herb. It is useful in hyperdipsia, burning sensation, wounds, ulcers, chronic fever, malarial and intermittent fevers, inflammations, cough, bronchitis, skin diseases, leprosy, pruritis, intestinal worms, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al, 1993). It is used to overcome sannipata type of fever, difficulty in breathing, hemopathy due to the morbidity of kapha and pitta, burning sensation, cough, oedema, thirst, skin diseases, fever, ulcer and worms. It is also useful in acidity and liver complaints (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1962). The important preparations using the drug are Tiktakagheta, Gorocandi gulika, Candanasava, Panchatiktam kasaya, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). A preparation called “Alui” is prepared by mixing powdered cumin (Cuminium cyminum) and large cardamom (Amomum subulatum) in the juice of this plant and administered for the treatment of malaria (Thakur et al, 1989). It is also a rich source of minerals.

Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout the tropics. It is found in the plains of India from U.P to Assam, M.P., A.P, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, also cultivated in gardens.

Botany: Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Wall ex.

Nees belongs to the family Acanthaceae. It is an erect branched annual herb, 0.3-0.9m in height with quadrangular branches. Leaves are simple, lanceolate, acute at both ends, glabrous, with 4-6 pairs of main nerves. Flowers are small, pale but blotched and spotted with brown and purple distant in lax spreading axillary and terminal racemes or panicles. Calyx-lobes are glandular pubescent with anthers bearded at the base. Fruits are linear capsules and acute at both ends. Seeds are numerous, yellowish brown and sub-quadrate (Warrier et al,1993).

Another species of Andrographis is A. echioides (Linn.) Nees. It is found in the warmer parts of India. The plant is a febrifuge and diuretic. It contains flavone-echiodinin and its glucoside-echioidin (Husain et al, 1992).

Agrotechnology: The best season of planting Andrographis is May-June. The field is to be ploughed well, mixed with compost or dried cowdung and seedbeds of length 3m, breadth 1/2m and 15cm height are to be taken at a distance of 3m. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are to be soaked in water for 6 hours before sowing. Sowing is to be done at a spacing of 20cm. Seeds may germinate within 15-20 days. Two weedings, first at one month after planting and the second at 2 month after planting are to be carried out. Irrigation during summer months is beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Flowering commences from third month onwards. At this stage, plant are to be collected, tied into small bundles and sun-dried for 4-5 days. Whole plant is the economic part and the yield is about 1.25t dried plants/ha (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Leaves contain two bitter substances lactone “andrographolid” and “kalmeghin”. The ash contains sodium chloride and potassium salts. Plant is very rich in chlorophyte. Kalmeghin is the active principle that contains 0.6% alkaloid of the crude plant. The plant contains diterpenoids, andrographolide, 14-deoxy-11-oxo-andrographolide, 14-deoxy-11,12-dihydroandrographolide, 14-deoxy andrographolide and neoandrographolide (Allison et al, 1968). The roots give flavones-apigenin-7,4-dio-O-methyl ether, 5-hydroxy-7,8,2’,3’- tetramethoxyflavone, andrographin and panicolin and -sitosterol (Ali et al, 1972; Govindachari et al, 1969). Leaves contain homoandrographolide, andrographosterol and andrographone.

The plant is vulnerary, antipyretic, antiperiodic, anti-inflammatory, expectorant, depurative, sudorific, anthelmintic, digestive, stomachic, tonic, febrifuge and cholagogue. The plant is antifungal, antityphoid, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic and cholinergic. Shoot is antibacterial and leaf is hypotensive(Garcia et al, 1980). This is used for the inflammation of the respiratory tract. In China, researchers have isolated the andrographolide from which soluble derivative such as 14-deoxy-11, 12-dehydro-andrographolide which forms the subject of current pharmacological and clinical studies. Apigenin 7,4’-O-dimethyl ether isolated from A. paniculata exhibits dose dependent, antiulcer activity in shay rat, histamine induced ulcer in guinea pigs and aspirin induced ulcers in rats. A crude substance isolated from methanolic extract of leaves has shown hypotensive activity. Pre-treatment of rats with leaf (500mg/kg) or andrographolide (5mg/kg) orally prevented the carbon tetrachloride induced increase of blood serum levels of glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase in liver and prevented hepatocellular membrane.... green chiretta

Bauhinia variegata

Caesalpiniaceae

San: Kancanarah, Kovidarah;

Hin: Kancanar;

Ben: Rakta Kanchan;

Tam: Sigappu-mandarai

Mal: Mandaram, Chuvannamandaram, Malayakatti, Kongu, Kongumandaram;

Tel: Daeva Kanchanamu, Mandara;

Kan: Ullipe, Kanchavala, Kempu Mandara

Importance: In traditional medicine, Bauhinia is extensively used in glandular diseases and as an antidote to poison. The drug is also reported to be useful in dysentery, diarrhoea, piles and worms (Kurup et al, 1979; Sharma et al, 1983). They are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, diarrhoea, dysentery, skin diseases, leprosy, intestinal worms, tumours, wounds, ulcers, inflammations, scrofula, protoptosis, haemorrhoids, haemoptysis, cough, menorrhagia and diabetics. Usirasavam and Candanasavam are some of the preparations using the drug. An important Ayurvedic preparation, “Kanchnar Guggal” contains bark of this plant. In Unani system, the flowers are used in “Hab Mussafi Khun”, for skin diseases, the bark is used in “Sufuf Kalan”-an aphrodisiac.

Distribution: The plant is distributed in the Sub-Himalayan tracts from the Indus eastwards and throughout the dry forests of India, ascending to 1300m. It is also cultivated throughout the plains.

Botany: Bauhinia variegata Linn. syn. B.

candida Roxb. belonging to the family Caesalpiniaceae is a moderate sized deciduous tree with vertically cracked grey bark, wood moderately hard, greyish brown with irregular darker patches. Leaves are of 2 leaflets, connate for about two-thirds up. Leaflets are ovate with rounded apex, 10-15cm long, pubescent beneath when young and coriaceous. Flowers are white or pink, the uppermost petal darker and variegated usually appearing before the leaves in short axillary or terminal racemes. Stamens are 5 and stamenodes absent. Fruits are flat dehiscent pods with 10-15 seeds (Warrier et al, 1993).

Other important species of the genus Bauhinia are as follows.

1. B. tomentosa Linn.

It is the yellow or golden flowered one, commonly known as Manja Mandaram. It is found in Africa and Asia. In India it is found wild in dry deciduous forests and often cultivated. The plant is antidysenteric, antidote for snakebite and scorpion sting and also used in liver complaints. The bark is astringent. Root bark is vermifuge. Fruit is diuretic. Seed is tonic, wound healing and aphrodisiac.

2. B. purpurea Linn.

Pink Bauhinia or Camel’s Foot tree is found in South and S. E. Asia. In India, it is found in deciduous forests. Root is carminative and tonic. Bark is astringent and antidiarrhoeal and is used in ulcer and goitre. Flowers are laxative. The experimental studies conducted by Sijoria and Prasad (1979) on animals indicate that B. purpurea is very effective in normalising the thyroid gland.

3. B. racemosa Lam.

The plant is found in Sub-Himalayan tracts, in U.P, West Bengal, Central and South India. The leaf is anticephalalgic and antimalarial. Bark is astringent, antidiarrhoeal. The seeds are antibacterial. Stem-bark is CVS and CNS active, hypothermic and anticancerous.

4. B. malabarica Roxb.

Malabar Mountain Ebony is found in Sub-Himalayan tracts, from Kumaon to West Bengal, ascending to 1350m, Assam, Bihar and South India. The flowers of this plant are antidysenteric.

5. B. retusa Roxb.

The plant is distributed in north-western Himalayas from the Beas eastwards, Himachal Pradesh, U.P., Orissa, M.P. and A.P. The gum of the plant is emmenagogue, diuretic and can be used externally in sores. The seed is hypoglycaemic and hypocholesterolaemic. The aerial part is CVS active and has effect on respiration.

6. B. vahlii W.&A.

Camel’s Foot climber is found in Punjab, Bihar, Assam, Madhy Pradesh, Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Leaf is demulcent. Seed is tonic and aphrodisiac. Stem is CVS active, antiarrhythmic and spasmolytic.

Agrotechnology: Well drained hilly areas are ideal for the cultivation of Bauhinia. The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are formed in February-March. Seeds are to be collected from the dried pods, soaked in water for 12 hours before sowing in seedbeds. At four-leaved stage they are to be transferred to polybags. Two month old seedlings from polybags are used for field planting. Pits of size 60cm cube are to be taken and filled with 10kg dried cowdung mixed with topsoil and formed into a mound. On these seedlings are to be planted at a distance of 6-7.5m. Irrigation is to be given in the first year. Two weedings and application of organic manure once is required in a year. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests and diseases. The plant flowers on the third year. At the end of tenth year the tree can be cut and wood used for medicinal purposes (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Flowers contain flavanoids-kaempferol-3-galactoside and kaempferol-3- rhamnoglucoside. Stem bark yields hentriacontane, octacosanol and stigmasterol. Stem yields -sitisterol, lupiol and a flavanone glycoside-5, 7-dimethoxy flavanone 4-O- -L- rhamnopyranoside- -D-glucopyranoside. Seeds possess human blood agglutinating activity. Stem bark is hypothermic, CNS active and depressant. Bud, flower, leaf and stembark are antibacterial. Stem possesses juvenoid activity. Bark is alterative, tonic, antileprotic and antirheumatic. Bud is antidysenteric. Root is carminative and antidote for snakebite. Bark, flower and root promote suppuration. Bark and bud are astringent and vermifuge (Husain et al, 1992).... bauhinia

Cucurbitaceae

The family Cucurbitaceae includes a large group of plants which are medicinally valuable. The important genera belonging to the family are Trichosanthes, Lagenaria, Luffa, Benincasa, Momordica, Cucumis, Citrullus, Cucurbita, Bryonopsis and Corallocarpus. The medicinally valuable species of these genera are discussed below.

1. Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.

Eng: Wild Snake-gourd; San: Meki,Pargavi, Parvara, Patola;

Hin: Palval, Parvar

Ben: Potol;

Mal: Kattupatavalam, Patolam;

Tam: Kombuppudalai;

Tel: Kommupotta

Wild snake-gourd is a slender-stemmed, extensively climbing, more or less scabrous and woolly herb found throughout the plains of N. India, extending to Assam and W. Bengal. Tendrils are 2-4 fid. Leaves are 7.5x5cm in size, ovate-oblong, cordate, acute, sinuate- dentate, not lobed, rigid, rough on both surface and with a petiole of 2cm. Flowers are unisexual. Male flowers are not racemed but woolly outside. Calyx tube is 4.5cm long, narrow, teeth linear and erect. Anthers are free. Fruit is 5.9cm long, oblong or nearly spherical, acute, smooth and orange-red when ripe. Seeds are half-ellipsoid, compressed and corrugated on the margin (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The unripe fruit of this is generally used as a culinary vegetable and is considered very wholesome and specially suited for the convalescent. The tender shoots are given in decoction with sugar to assist digestion. The seeds are useful for disorders of the stomach. The leaf juice is rubbed over the chest in liver congestion and over the whole body in intermittent fevers (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruit is used as a remedy for spermatorrhoea. The fresh juice of the unripe fruit is often used as a cooling and laxative adjunct to some alterative medicines. In bilious fever, a decoction of patola leaves and coriander in equal parts is given. The fruit in combination with other drugs is prescribed in snakebite and scorpion sting (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988).

Fruits contain free amino acids and 5-hydroxy tryptamine. Fatty acids from seeds comprise elaeostearic, linoelic, oleic and saturated acids. The aerial part is hypoglycaemic. Leaf and root is febrifuge. Root is hydragogue, cathartic and tonic. Unripe leaf and fruit is laxative (Husain et al, 1992). The plant is alterative and tonic. Leaves are anthelmintic. Flower is tonic and aphrodisiac. The ripe fruit is sour to sweet, tonic, aphrodisiac, expectorant and removes blood impurities.

The other important species belonging to the genus Trichosanthes are as follows.

T. palmata Roxb. T. cordata Roxb. T. nervifolia Linn.

T. cucumerina Linn.

T. anguina Linn.

T. wallichiana Wight. syn. T. multiloba Clarke

2. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. syn. Cucurbita Lagenaria Linn. ; Roxb.

Eng: Bottle gourd San: Alabu Hin: Lauki, Jangli-khaddu

Ben: Lau, Kodu

Mal: Katuchuram, Churakka

Tam: Soriai-kay

Tel: Surakkaya

Bottle gourd is a large softly pubescent climbing or trailing herb which is said to be indigenous in India, the Molucas and in Abyssinia. It has stout 5-angled stems with bifid tendrils. Leaves are ovate or orbiculate, cordate, dentate, 5-angular or 5-lobed, hairy on both surfaces. Flowers are large, white, solitary, unisexual or bisexual, the males long and females short peduncled. Ovary is oblong, softly pubescent with short style and many ovules. Fruits are large, usually bottle or dumb-bell-shaped, indehiscent and polymorphous. Seeds are many, white, horizontal, compressed, with a marginal groove and smooth. There are sweet fruited and bitter-fruited varieties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit contains a thick white pulp which, in the cultivated variety (kodu) is sweet and edible, while in the smaller wild variety (tamri) it is bitter and a powerful purgative. The seeds yield clear limpid oil which is cooling and is applied to relieve headache. The pulp of the cultivated forms is employed as and adjunct to purgatives and considered cool, diuretic and antibilious, useful in cough, and as an antidote to certain poisons. Externally it is applied as a poultice. The leaves are purgative and recommended to be taken in the form of decoction for jaundice (Nadkarni, 1998). In the case of sweet-fruited variety, the stem is laxative and sweet. The fruit is sweet oleagenous, cardiotonic, general tonic, aphrodisiac, laxative and cooling. In the case of bitter-fruited variety, the leaves are diuretic, antibilious; useful in leucorrhoea, vaginal and uterine complaints and earache. The fruit is bitter, hot, pungent, emetic, cooling, cardiotonic, antibilious; cures asthma, vata, bronchitis, inflammations ulcers and pains.

3. Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb.

Eng: Ridged gourd; San: Dharmargavah, Svadukosataki;

Hin: Tori, Katitori;

Ben: Ghosha

Mal: Peechil, Peechinga;

Tam: Pikangai, Prikkangai;

Tel: Birakaya;

Kan: Kadupadagila

Ridged gourd or ribbed gourd is a large monoecious climber cultivated throughout India. It is with 5-angled glabrous stems and trifid tendrils. Leaves are orbicular-cordate, palmately 5-7 lobed, scabrous on both sides with prominent veins and veinlets. Flowers are yellow, males arranged in 12-20 flowered axillary racemes. Female flowers are solitary, arranged in the axils of the males. Ovary is strongly ribbed. Fruits are oblong-clavate with 10-sharp angles 15-30cm long, tapering towards the base. Seeds are black, ovoid-oblong, much compressed and not winged (Warrier et al, 1995). The leaves are used in haemorrhoids, leprosy, granular-conjunctivitis and ringworm. The seeds are useful in dermatopathy. The juice of the fresh leaves is dropped into the eyes of children in granular conjunctivitis, also to prevent the lids from adhering at night on account of excessive meihomian secretion (Nadkarni, 1998). Fruits are demulcent, diuretic, tonic, expectorant, laxative and nutritive. The seeds are bitter, emetic, cathartic, expectorant and purgative.

The other important species of the genus Luffa are:

L. aegyptiaca Mill.

L. acutangula var. amara Clarke

L. echinata Roxb.

4. Benincasa hispida (Thumb.) Cogn. syn. B. cerifera Savi.

Eng: Ash gourd, White gourd melon; San: Kusmandah;

Hin: Petha, Raksa;

Ben: Kumra

Mal: Kumpalam;

Tam: Pusanikkai;

Kan: Bile Kumbala;

Tel: Bodigummadi

Ash gourd or White gourd melon is a large trailing gourd climbing by means of tendrils which is widely cultivated in tropical Asia. Leaves are large and hispid beneath. Flowers are yellow, unisexual with male peduncle 7.5-10cm long and female peduncle shorter. Fruits are broadly cylindric, 30-45cm long, hairy throughout and ultimately covered with a waxy bloom. The fruits are useful in asthma, cough, diabetes, haemoptysis, hemorrhages from internal organs, epilepsy, fever and vitiated conditions of pitta. The seeds are useful in dry cough, fever, urethrorrhea, syphilis, hyperdipsia and vitiated conditions of pitta (Warrier et al,1993). It is a rejuvenative drug capable of improving intellect and physical strength. In Ayurveda, the fresh juice of the fruit is administered as a specific in haemoptysis and other haemorrhages from internal organs. The fruit is useful in insanity, epilepsy and other nervous diseases, burning sensation, diabetes, piles and dyspepsia. It is a good antidote for many kinds of vegetable, mercurial and alcoholic poisoning. It is also administered in cough, asthma or respiratory diseases, heart diseases and catarrah. Seeds are useful in expelling tapeworms and curing difficult urination and bladder stones. The important formulations using the drug are Kusmandarasayana, Himasagarataila, Dhatryadighrita, Vastyamantakaghrita, Mahaukusmandakaghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

Fruits contain lupeol, -sitosterol, n-triacontanol, vitamin B, mannitol and amino acids. The fruit is alterative, laxative, diuretic, tonic, aphrodisiac and antiperiodic. Seed and oil from seed is anthelmintic (Husain et al, 1992).

5. Momordica charantia Linn.

Eng: Bitter gourd, Carilla fruit San: Karavellam

Hin: Karela, Kareli

Mal: Kaypa, Paval

Tam: Pavakkai, Paval, Pakar

Tel: Kakara

Bitter gourd or Carilla fruit is a branched climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India. It is a monoecious plant with angled and grooved stems and hairy or villous young parts. Tendrils are simple, slender and elongate. Leaves are simple, orbicular, cordate and deeply divided into 5-7 lobes. Flowers are unisexual, yellow and arranged on 5-10cm long peduncles. Fruits are 5-15cm long with 3-valved capsules, pendulous, fusiform, ribbed and beaked bearing numerous triangular tubercles. Seeds are many or few with shining sculptured surface. The roots are useful in coloptosis and ophthalmopathy. The leaves are useful in vitiated conditions of pita, helminthiasis, constipation, intermittent fever, burning sensation of the sole and nyctalopia. The fruits are useful in skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers, wounds, burning sensation, constipation, anorexia, flatulence, colic, helminthiasis, rheumatalgia, gout, diabetes, asthma, cough, dysmenorrhoea, impurity of breast milk, fever and debility. Seeds are useful in the treatment of ulcers, pharyngodynia, and obstructions of the liver and spleen. The leaves and fruits are used for external application in lumbago, ulceration and bone fractures and internally in leprosy, haemorrhoids and jaundice (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug improves digestion, calms down sexual urge, quells diseases due to pitta and kapha and cures anaemia, anorexia, leprosy, ulcers, jaundice, flatulence and piles. Fruit is useful in gout, rheumatism and complaints of liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954; Aiyer and Kolammal, 1966; Mooss, 1976; Kurup et al, 1979). Kaccoradi taila is an important preparation using the drug (Sivarajan et al, 1994).

The seeds give triterpene glycosides, named momordicosides A, B, C, D and E, which are glycosides of cucurbit-5-en-triol, tetraol or pentaol. Leaves and vines give tetracyclic triterpenes-momordicines I, II and III (bitter principles). Immature fruits give several non-bitter and 2 bitter cucurbitacin glycosides. Four of the non-bitter glycosides, momordicosides F1, F2, G and I and the bitter momordicosides; K and L have also been characterized. Fruits, seeds and tissue culture give a polypeptide which contained 17 types of amino acids and showed hypoglycaemic activity. Fruits also give 5-hydroxy tryptamine and a neutral compound charantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin, cholesterol, lanosterol and -sitosterol. Leaf is emetic, purgative and antibilious. Fruit is stomachic, tonic, carminative, febrifuge, antirheumatic and hypoglycaemic. Root is astringent. Fruit and leaf is anti-leprotic. Fruit, leaf and root are abortifacient and anti-diabetic. Leaf and seed is anthelmintic. Seed oil possesses antifeeding and insecticidal properties. Unsaponifiable matter from seed oil exhibited pronounced inhibitory activity against gram negative bacteria. Seed and fruit are hypoglycaemic, cytotoxic and anti-feedant (Husain et al, 1992).

Other important species belonging to the genus Momordica are as follows.

M. dioica Roxb.

M. cochinchinensis Spreng.

M. tuberosa Cogn.

M. balsamina Linn.

6. Cucumis melo Linn. syn. C. melo Linn. var. cultis Kurz., C. pubescens

Willd., C. callosus (Rottl.) Cogn.

Eng: Sweet melon San,

Hin: Kharbuja

Ben: Kharmul

Mal: Mulam

Tam: Chukkari-kai, Thumatti-kai, Mulampazham

Tel: Kharbuja-doshavSweet melon is a creeping annual extensively cultivated throughout India, found wild in India, Baluchistan and tropical Africa. The stem is creeping, angular and scabrous. Leaves are orbicular-reniform in outline, 5-angled or lobed, scabrous on both surfaces and often with soft hairs. Lobes of leaves are not very deep nor acute and with 5cm long petiole. Female peduncle is 5cm. Fruit is spherical, ovoid, elongate or contorted, glabrous or somewhat hairy, not spinous nor tuberculate.

Cucumis melo includes two varieties, namely,

C. melo var. momordica syn. C. momordica Roxb.

C. melo var. utilissimus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. utilissimus Roxb.

The fruit is eaten raw and cooked. Its pulp forms a nutritive, demulcent, diuretic and cooling drink. It is beneficial as a lotion in chronic and acute eczema as well as tan and freckles and internally in cases of dyspepsia. Pulp mixed with cumin seeds and sugar candy is a cool diet in hot season. Seeds yield sweet edible oil which is nutritive and diuretic, useful in painful discharge and suppression of urine. The whole fruit is useful in chronic eczema (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

Seeds contain fatty acids-myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic; asparagine, glutamine, citrulline, lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine, valine, tyrosine, leucine, iso-leucine, methionine, proline, threonine, tryptophan and crystine. Seed is tonic, lachrymatory, diuretic and urease inhibitor. Fruit pulp is eczemic. Fruit is tonic, laxative, galactagogue, diuretic and diaphoretic. The rind is vulnerary (Husain et al, 1992).

7. Cucumic sativus Linn.

Eng: Cucumber, Common cucumber; San: Trapusah;

Hin,

Ben: Khira;

Mal: Vellari

Tam: Vellarikkai, Pippinkai;

Kan: Mullusavte;

Tel: Dosekaya

Cucumber is a climbing annual which is cultivated throughout India, found wild in the Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim. It is a hispidly hairy trailing or climbing annual. Leaves are simple, alternate, deeply cordate, 3-5 lobed with both surfaces hairy and denticulate margins. Flowers are yellow, males clustered, bearing cohering anthers, connective crusted or elevated above the cells. Females are solitary and thickly covered with very bulbous based hairs. Fruits are cylindrical pepo of varying sizes and forms. Seeds are cream or white with hard and smooth testa. The fruits are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, hyperdipsia, burning sensation, thermoplegia, fever, insomnia, cephalgia, bronchitis, jaundice, haemorrhages, strangury and general debility. The seeds are useful in burning sensation, pitta, constipation, intermittent fevers, strangury, renal calculus, urodynia and general debility (Warrier et al, 1994). The leaves boiled and mixed with cumin seeds, roasted, powdered and administered in throat affections. Powdered and mixed with sugar, they are powerful diuretic (Nadkarni, 1998). The fruits and seeds are sweet, refrigerant, haemostatic, diuretic and tonic. Other important species belonging to the genus are:

C. trigonus Roxb. syn. C. pseudo-colocynthis

C. prophetarum Linn.

8. Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrader. syn. Cucumis colocynthis Linn.

Eng: Colocynth, Bitter apple; San: Visala, Mahendravaruni;

Hin: Badi indrayan, Makkal

Ben: Makhal;

Mal: Kattuvellari (Valutu), Valiya pekkummatti;

Tel: Etti-puchcha

Tam: Paitummatti, Petummatti;

Colocynth or Bitter apple is found, cultivated and wild, throughout India in warmer areas. It is an extensively trailing annual herb with bifid tendrils angular branching stems and wooly tender shoots. Leaves are deeply divided, lobes narrow thick, glabrous or somewhat hairy. Flowers are unisexual, yellow, both males and females solitary and with pale-yellow corolla. Fruit is a globose or oblong fleshy indehiscent berry, 5-7.5cm in diameter and variegated with green and white. Seeds are pale brown. The fruits are useful in tumours, ascites, leucoderma, ulcers, asthma, bronchitis, urethrorrhea, jaundice, dyspepsia, constipations, elephantiasis, tubercular glands of the neck and splenomegaly (Warrier et al, 1994). It is useful in abnormal presentations of the foetus and in atrophy of the foetus. In addition to the above properties, the root has a beneficial action in inflammation of the breasts, pain in the joints; externally it is used in ophthalmia and in uterine pains. The fruit and root, with or without is rubbed into a paste with water and applied to boils and pimples. In rheumatism, equal parts of the root and long pepper are given in pill. A paste of the root is applied to the enlarged abdomen of children (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). The fruit is useful in ascites, biliousness, jaundice, cerebral congestion, colic, constipation dropsy, fever, worms and sciatica. Root is given in cases of abdominal enlargement, cough, asthma, inflammation of the breast, ulcers, urinary diseases and rheumatism. Oil from seeds is used for poisonous bites, bowel complaints, epilepsy and also for blackening the hair (Nadkarni, 1954; Dey, 1980). The important formulations using the root and fruit are Abhayarista, Mahatiktakam kasaya, Manasamitravatakam, Cavikasava, Madhuyastyadi taila, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The powder is often used as an insecticide. The extract should never be given without some aromatic to correct its griping tendency (Nadkarni, 1998).

Fruit contains a glycoside- colocynthin, its aglycone- -elaterin, citrulluin, citrullene and citrullic acid. Unripe fruit contains p-hydroxy benzyl methyl ester. Roots contain - elaterin and hentriacontane (Husain et al, 1992). Colocynth is, in moderate doses, drastic, hydrogogue, cathartic and diuretic. In large doses, it is emetic and gastro-intestinal irritant and in small doses, it is expectorant and alterative. Colocynthin is a cathartic and intensely bitter principle. It has a purgative action. All parts of the plant are very bitter. The fruit has been described as cathartic (Nadkarni, 1982).

9. Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. syn. C. lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai.

Eng: Water melon; San: Tarambuja;

Hin: Tarbuj;

Ben: Tarbuz

Mal: Thannimathan;

Tam: Pitcha, Dharbusini

Watermelon is an extensively climbing annual which is largely cultivated throughout India and in all warm countries. It has thick angular branching stems. Tendrils are bifid, stout and pubescent. Leaves are long, deeply divided or moderately lobed, glabrous or somewhat hairy and hardly scabrous. Petiole is a little shorter than the limb and villous. Calyx-lobes are narrowly lanceolate, equalling the tube. Corolla is yellow within, greenish outside and villous. Lobes are ovate-oblong, obtuse and prominently 5-nerved. Fruit is sub-globose or ellipsoid, smooth, greenish or clouded, often with a glaucous waxy coating. Flesh is juicy, red or yellowish white. Seeds are usually margined. C. vulgaris var. fistulosus Duthie & Fuller. syn. C. fistulosus has its fruit about the size of small turnip, the seeds of which are used medicinally. The fruit is tasteless when unripe and sweet when ripe. The unripe fruit is used to cure jaundice. Ripe fruit cures kapha and vata and causes biliousness. It is good for sore eyes, scabies and itching. The seeds are tonic to the brain and used as a cooling medicine. An emulsion of the seeds is made into a poultice with the pounded leaves and applied hot in cases of intestinal inflammations (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Fruit juice is good in quenching thirst and it is used as an antiseptic in typhus fever with cumin and sugar. It is used as a cooling drink in strangury and affections of urinary organs such as gonorrhoea; in hepatic congestion and intestinal catarrh. The bitter watermelon of Sind is known as “Kirbut” and is used as a purgative.

Seeds yield a fixed oil and proteids; citrullin. Seeds are cooling, demulcent, diuretic, vermifuge and nutritive. Pulp is cooling and diuretic. Fruit-juice is cooling and refreshing (Nadkarni, 1982).

10. Curcurbita pepo Linn. syn. Pepo vulgaris et P. verrucosus Moench

Meth.

Eng: Pompion, Pumpkin, Vegetable Marrow; San: Karkaru, Kurkaru, Kushmandi

Hin,

Ben: Kadimah, Konda, Kumra, Safedkkadu;

Mal: Mathan, Matha

Tel: Budadegummadi, Pottigummadi

Pompion or Pumpkin is a climbing herb which is considered to be a native of America and cultivated in many parts of India. The stem and leaves are with a harsh prickly armature. Foliage is stiff, more or less rigid and erect. Leaves are with a broad triangular pointed outline and often with deep lobes. Corolla is mostly with erect or spreading (not drooping) pointed lobes, the tube narrowing towards the base. Peduncle is strongly 5-angled and little or much expanding near the fruit. The fruit is cooling and astringent to the bowels, increases appetite, cures leprosy, ‘kapha and vata’, thirst, fatigue and purifies the blood. The leaves are used to remove biliousness. Fruit is good for teeth, throat and eyes and allays thirst. Seeds cure sore chests, haemoptysis, bronchitis and fever. It is good for the kidney and brain. The leaves are used as an external application for burns. The seeds are considered anthelmintic. The seeds are largely used for flavouring certain preparations of Indian hemp, and the root for a nefarious purpose, viz., to make the preparation more potent. The seeds are taeniacide, diuretic and demulcent. The fruit is cooling, laxative and astringent. The leaves are digestible, haematinic and analgesic.

The other important species belonging to the genus Cucurbita is C. maxima Duchena, the seeds of which are a popular remedy for tape-worm and oil as a nervine tonic (Kirtikar & Basu, 1988).

11. Corallocarpus epigaeus Benth. ex Hook. f. syn. Bryonia epigaea Wight.

San: Katunahi;

Hin: Akasgaddah;

Mal: Kadamba, Kollankova

Tam: Akashagarudan, Gollankovai;

Tel: Murudonda, Nagadonda

Corallocarpus is a prostrate or climbing herb distributed in Punjab, Sind, Gujarat, Deccan, Karnataka and Sri Lanka. It is monoecious with large root which is turnip-shaped and slender stem which is grooved, zigzag and glabrous. Tendrils are simple, slender and glabrous. Leaves are sub-orbicular in outline, light green above and pale beneath, deeply cordate at the base, angled or more or less deeply 3-5 lobed. Petiole is long and glabrous. Male flowers are small and arranged at the tip of a straight stiff glabrous peduncle. Calyx is slightly hairy, long and rounded at the base. Corolla is long and greenish yellow. Female flowers are usually solitary with short, stout and glabrous peduncles. Fruit is stalked, long, ellipsoid or ovoid. Seeds are pyriform, turgid, brown and with a whitish corded margin. It is prescribed in later stages of dysentery and old veneral complaints. For external use in chronic rheumatism, it is made into a liniment with cumin seed, onion and castor oil. It is used in case of snakebite where it is administered internally and applied to the bitten part. The root is given in syphilitic rheumatism and later stages of dysentery. The plant is bitter, sweet, alexipharmic and emetic. The root is said to possess alterative and laxative properties (Kirtikar and Basu, 1988). Root contains a bitter principle like Breyonin (Chopra et al, 1980).

Agrotechnology: Cucurbits can be successfully grown during January-March and September- December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can also be started after the receipt of the first few showers.

Pits of 60cm diameter and 30-45cm depth are to be taken at the desired spacing. Well rotten FYM or vegetable mixture is to be mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are to be sown at 4-5/pit. Unhealthy plants are to be removed after 2 weeks and retained 2-3 plants/pit. FYM is to be applied at 20-25t/ha as basal dose along with half dose of N (35kg/ha) and full dose of P (25kg) and K (25kg). The remaining dose of N (35kg) can be applied in 2 equal split doses at fortnightly intervals. During the initial stages of growth, irrigation is to be given at an interval of 3-4 days and at alternate days during flowering and fruiting periods. For trailing cucumber, pumpkin and melon, dried twigs are to be spread on the ground. Bitter gourd, bottle gourd, snake gourd and ash gourd are to be trailed on Pandals. Weeding and raking of the soil are to be conducted at the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be done during rainy season. The most dreaded pest of cucurbits is fruit flies which can be controlled by using fruit traps, covering the fruits with polythene, cloth or paper bags, removal and destruction of affected fruits and lastly spraying with Carbaryl or Malathion 0. 2% suspension containing sugar or jaggery at 10g/l at fortnightly intervals after fruit set initiation. During rainy season, downy mildew and mosaic diseases are severe in cucurbits. The former can be checked by spraying Mancozeb 0.2%. The spread of mosaic can be checked by controlling the vectors using Dimethoate or Phosphamidon 0.05% and destruction of affected plants and collateral hosts. Harvesting to be done at least 10 days after insecticide or fungicide application (KAU,1996).... cucurbits

Datura metel

Solanaceae

San: Dhustura Hin.: Kaladhatura

Ben: Dhatura Mal: Ummam Kan; Dattura

Tam: Vellummattai

Tel: Tellavummetta

Importance: Downy datura or thorn apple is an erect branched under shrub whose intoxicating and narcotic properties have been made use of by man from ancient time. The plant and fruit are spasmolytic, anticancerous and anthelmintic. Leaves and seeds are inhaled in whooping cough, asthma and other respiratory diseases. Root, leaf and seed are febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal, anticatarrhal and are used in insanity, cerebral complications and skin diseases. Leaf is antitumour, antirheumatic and vermicide. Flower is antiasthamatic, anaesthetic and is employed in swellings and eruptions on face. Fruit juice is used in earache and seed decoction in ophthalmia. For the rheumatic swellings of joints, lumbago, sciatica and neuralgia, warm leaf smeared with an oil is used as a bandage or sometimes the leaf is made into a poultice and applied. The root boiled with milk is used in insanity. It is also an ingredient in the ayurvedic preparation Kanakasva used in bronchial troubles, and the Unani formulations “Roghan dhatura” used as a massage oil for the paralysed part. The alkaloids of pharmaceutical interest present in the plant are hyoscyamine, hyoscine and meteloidine. Datura is the chief commercial source of hyoscine available from natural source. Hyoscine, in the form of hyoscine hydrobromide, is used as a pre-anaesthetic in surgery, child birth, ophthalmology and prevention of motion sickness. It is also employed in the relief of withdrawal symptoms in morphine and alcoholic addiction, paralysis agitans, post- encephaletic parkinsonianism and to allay sexual excitement. Hyoscyamine and its salt hyoscyamine sulphate and hyoscyamine hydrobromide are used in delerium, tremour, menia and parkinsonianism (Kaul and Singh, (1995).

Distribution: Datura is distributed throughout the world, particularly the warmer regions. Datura stramonium is indigenous to India. Out of 15 species reported from different parts of the world, only 10 are known to occur in India. They are found commonly in wastelands, gardens and roadsides. They are distributed in rich localities under semi -arid and arid regions of Punjab, Haryana, Rajastan, and Gujarat; the Central Plateau of Andhra Pradesh and Maharastra and the southern peninsular region of Tamil Nadu. Datura innoxia is indigenous to Mexico and is distributed in Latin American countries. A wealth of genetic stock on genotypes and varieties are maintained in several research institutes in Germany, Bulgaria, USSR and Poland.

Botany: The genus Datura, belonging to the family solanaceae, consists of annual and perennial herbs, shrubs and trees. Three species,viz, Datura metel Linn., D. stramonium Linn. and D. innoxia Mill. are medicinally important. D. innoxia mill. and D. metel Linn. (var. alba, and var, fastuosa) are the choice drug plants, rich in hyoscine. D. metel Linn. is the most common in India. The names, D. metel Linn., D. fastuosa Linn., D. alba Nees., D. fastuosa Linn. var. alba (Nees) C.B. Clarke and D. metel Linn. var. fastuosa (Linn.) Safford are synonymously used by many workers. Two varieties are often noted in D. metel Linn., namely the white flowered var. alba and purple flowered var. fastuosa. D. metel Linn. is an erect succulent branched undershrub divaricate often purplish branches and ovate pubescent leaves which are oblique at the base of lamina. Flowers are large, solitary, short pedicelled, purplish outside and white inside. Fruits are sub-globose capsules covered all over with numerous, fleshy prickles, irregularly breaking when mature. Seeds are numerous, smooth, yellowish brown. (warrier et al, 1994).

Agrotechnology: Datura grows well in a wide range of climate from tropical to temperate conditions.

The plant thrives best in areas of low rainfall where winter and monsoon rains are followed by long dry periods. Areas with annual rainfall below 1000mm with mean temperature of 10-15oC in winter and 27 - 28oC in May-June are ideal. The crop cannot stand frost, high rainfall or high temperature in the plains in May-June. It grows on majority of soils, however, alkaline or neutral clay loam soil or those tending to saline-alkaline reaction rich in organic matter are ideal for vigorous growth. The clayey, acidic, water-logged or moisture deficient soils do not suit this crop.

The plant is propagated by seeds but it is characterised by poor and often erratic seed germination which can be improved either by leaching out the inhibitor from the seeds or by alternate freezing and thawing of seeds. The optimum season for raising the crop is Rabi in tropical and subtropical areas while Kharif in temperate areas. The seeds can be broadcast - sown or seedlings can be raised in nursery and then transplanted. Seed rate is 7-8 kg/ha for broadcasting and 2-3 kg/ha. for transplanting. The field is ploughed and disced adequately to produce fine seed bed. In the case of direct seeding, seeds are drilled in rows taken 45-60 cm apart. The plants are thinned to keep a spacing of 30-45 cm at the time of first weeding. In the case of transplanting 4-6 weeks old seedlings are planted at 45-60 x 30-45 cm spacing. The field should be irrigated immediately after sowing or planting if soil moisture is inadequate. Thereafter 3-4 irrigations may be given if sufficient rainfall is not received. Application of organic manure at 10-15 t/ha and fertilisers at 60:40:40 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/ha is recommended for the crop for better growth and yield N may be applied in 3-4 equal split doses at planting and after each weeding which is required 2-3 times during the growing season. Application of micronutrients is reported to improve the alkaloid contents. No major insect pest is known to attack this crop. However, leaf spot, wilt and mosaic diseases cause damage to this crop. Leaf spot is caused by Alternaria tennuissima (Nees) Wiltshire and characterised by brown round to oval spots, becoming necrotic at later stage which leads to withering and dropping of leaves. Wilt is caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sace; it starts with dropping of leaves and finally wilting of the entire plant. Root and foot wilt, caused by Corticium solani, appears as damping off of seedlings and mature plants. Datura distortion mosaic is characterised by yellowing of the veins followed by inward rolling and distortion of leaves with a reduction in plant size. For reducing the impact of these diseases, field sanitation, use of resistant varieties, crop rotation for 3-4 years and fungicide application should be resorted to. For the purpose of leaf and top, harvesting is done as soon as flowering starts. Entire top containing leaves and twigs is cut, dried in shade and stored in gunny bags. For seed and fruit, fully grown fruits, still green are picked 2-3 times before final harvest when the entire plant is cut from the base and dried in the open. The dried fruits are then thrashed with a stick to separate the seeds. The seed yield is 1-1.5 t/ha. (Husain, 1993; Kaul and Singh, 1995)

Properties and activity: The alkaloids hyoscyamine and hyoscine (scopolamine) and meteloidine are found in all parts of the plant. The total alkaloid content is 0.26 - 0.42 % Fruits contain daturaolone and daturadiol while roots contain additionally ditigloyloxy tropane derivatives, tigloidine, apohyoscine, norhyoscine, norhyocyamine, cusiohygrine and tropine. Other alkaloids isolated from the plant are apohyoscyamine, DL-scopolamine, normeteloidine, tigloylputrescine, scopine, nortigloidine, tropine, psuedo valeroidine, fastudine, fastunine, fastusinine, 7-hydroxy-3, 6-ditigloyloxytropane (2) datura nolone and fastusic acid. The physiological effects of hyoscyamine are qualitatively the same as those of its recemic derivative atropine. This is relatively more active in its paralysing affect on nerve endings and less active in its stimulant action on the central nervous system. The sedative and hypnotic action of hyoscyamine is weaker than that of hyoscine. Atropine has a stimulant action on the central nervous system and depresses the nerve endings to the secretary glands and plain muscles. The plant or the different alkaloids have narcotic, anthelmintic, spasmolytic anaesthetic, sedative, ophthalmic, anticancerous, antitumour, antirheumatic, antiasthmatic, antidiarrhoeal and anticatarrhal activities. (Thakur et al, 1989).... datura

Commiphora mukul

Burseraceae

San: Gugulu, Mahisaksah, Koushikaha, Devadhupa

Hin: Gugal Mal:Gulgulu Tam,

Tel: Gukkulu

Kan: Guggul

Ben: Guggul

Importance: Indian bdellium is a small, armed, deciduous tree from the bark of which gets an aromatic gum resin, the ‘Guggul’ of commerce. It is a versatile indigenous drug claimed by ayurvedists to be highly effective in the treatment of rheumatism, obesity, neurological and urinary disorders, tonsillitis, arthritis and a few other diseases. The fumes from burning guggul are recommended in hay- fever, chronic bronchitis and phytises.

The price of guggulu gum has increased ten fold in ten years or so, indicating the increase in its use as well as decrease in natural plant stand. It has been listed as a threatened plant by Botanical Survey of India (Dalal, 1995) and is included in the Red Data Book (IUCN) and over exploited species in the country (Billare,1989).

Distribution: The center of origin of Commiphora spp. is believed to be Africa and Asia. It is a widely adapted plant well distributed in arid regions of Africa (Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia in north east and Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zaire in south west Africa), Arabian peninsula (Yemen, Saudi Arabia and Oman). Different species of Commiphora are distributed in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka states of India and Sind and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan (Tajuddin et al, 1994). In India, the main commercial source of gum guggul is Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Botany: The genus Commiphora of family Burseraceae comprises about 185 species. Most of them occur in Africa, Saudi Arabia and adjoining countries. In India only four species have been reported. They are C. mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. syn. Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks), C. wightii (Arnott) Bhandari, C.stocksiana Engl., C. berryi and C.agallocha Engl.

In early studies about the flora of India, the ‘guggul’ plant was known as Commiphora mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl. or Balsamodendron mukul (Hook. ex Stocks). It was renamed as C. roxburghii by Santapau in 1962. According to Bhandari the correct Latin name of the species is C. wightii(Arnott) Bhandari, since the specific name ‘wightii’ was published in 1839, prior to ‘roxburghi’ in 1848 (Dalal and Patel, 1995).

C. mukul is a small tree upto 3-4m height with spinescent branching. Stem is brownish or pale yellow with ash colored bark peeling off in flakes. Young parts are glandular and pubescent. Leaves are alternate, 1-3 foliate, obovate, leathery and serrate (sometimes only towards the apex). Lateral leaflets when present only less than half the size of the terminal ones. Flowers small, brownish red, with short pedicel seen in fascicles of 2-3. Calyx campanulate, glandular, hairy and 4-5 lobed. Corolla with brownish red, broadly linear petals reflexed at apex. Stamens 8-10, alternatively long and short. Ovary oblong, ovoid and stigma bifid. Fruit is a drupe and red when ripe, ovate in shape with 2-3 celled stones. The chromosome number 2n= 26 (Warrier et al, 1994; Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Agrotechnology: Guggal being a plant of arid zone thrives well in arid- subtropical to tropical climate.

The rainfall may average between 100mm and 500mm while air temperature may vary between 40 C in summer and 3 C during winter. Maximum relative humidity prevails during rainy season (83% in the morning and 48% in the evening).Wind velocity remains between 20-25 km/hour during the year is good. Though they prefer hard gypseous soil, they are found over sandy to silt loam soils, poor in organic matter but rich in several other minerals in arid tracks of western India (Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Plants are propagated both by vegetatively and seeds. Plants are best raised from stem cuttings from the semi woody (old) branch. For this purpose one metre long woody stem of 10mm thickness is selected and the cut end is treated with IBA or NAA and planted in a well manured nursery bed during June-July months; the beds should be given light irrigation periodically. The cuttings initiate sprouting in 10-15 days and grow into good green sprout in 10-12 months. These rooted plants are suitable for planting in the fields during the next rainy season. The cuttings give 80-94% sprouting usually. Air layering has also been successfully attempted and protocol for meristem culture is available in literature. Seed germination is very poor (5%) but seedling produce healthier plants which withstand high velocity winds.

The rooted cuttings are planted in a well laid-out fields during rainy season. Pits of size 0.5m cube are dug out at 3-4 m spacing in rows and given FYM and filler soil of the pit is treated with BHC (10%) or aldrin (5%) to protect the new plants from white ants damage. Fertilizer trials have shown little response except due to low level of N fertilization. Removal of side branches and low level of irrigation supports a good growth of these plants. The plantation does not require much weeding and hoeing. But the soil around the bushes be pulverised twice in a year to increase their growth and given urea or ammonium sulphate at 25- 50g per bush at a time and irrigated. Dalal et al (1989) reported that cercospora leaf spot was noticed on all the cultures. Bacterial leaf blight was also noticed to attack the cultures. A leaf eating caterpillar (Euproctis lanata Walker) attack guggal, though not seriously. White fly (Bemisia tabaci) is observed to suck sap of leaves and such leaves become yellowish and eventually drop. These can be effectively controlled by using suitable insecticide.

Stem or branch having maximum diameter of about 5cm at place of incision, irrespective of age is tapped. The necrotic patch on the bark is peeled off with a sharp knife and Bordeaux paste is applied to the exposed (peeled off) surface of the stem or branch. A prick chisel of about 3cm width is used to make bark- deep incisions and while incising the bark, the chisel is held at an acute angle so that scooped suspension present on the body of the chisel flows towards the blade of the chisel and a small quantity of suspension flows inside the incised bark. If tapping is successful, gum exudation ensures after about 15-20 days from the date of incision and continues for nearly 30-45 days. The exuded gum slides down the stem or branch, and eventually drops on the ground and gets soiled. A piece of polythene sheet can be pouched around the place of incision to collect gum. Alternatively, a polythene sheet can be spread on the ground to collect exuded gum. A maximum of about 500g of gum has been obtained from a plant (Dalal, 1995).

Post harvest technology: The best grade of guggul is collected from thick branches of tree. These lumps of guggul are translucent. Second grade guggul is usually mixed with bark, sand and is dull coloured guggul. Third grade guggul is usually collected from the ground which is mixed with sand, stones and other foreign matter. The final grading is done after getting cleansed material. Inferior grades are improved by sprinkling castor oil over the heaps of the guggul which impart it a shining appearance (Tajuddin et al, 1994).

Properties and activity: The gum resin contains guggul sterons Z and E, guggul sterols I-V, two diterpenoids- a terpene hydrocarbon named cembreneA and a diterpene alcohol- mukulol, -camphrone and cembrene, long chain aliphatic tetrols- octadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol, eicosan-1,2,3,4-tetrol and nonadecan-1,2,3,4-tetrol. Major components from essential oil of gum resin are myrcene and dimyrcene. Plant without leaves, flowers and fruits contains myricyl alcohol, -sitosterol and fifteen aminoacids. Flowers contain quercetin and its glycosides as major flavonoid components, other constituents being ellagic acid and pelargonidin glucoside (Patil et al, 1972; Purushothaman and Chandrasekharan, 1976).

The gum resin is bitter, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, aromatic, expectorant, digestive, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, antiseptic, demulcent, carminative, emmenagogue, haematinic, diuretic, lithontriptic, rejuvenating and general tonic. Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic (Husain et al, 1992; Warrier et al, 1994).... indian bdellium

Benth.

Synonym: P. pubescens Benth.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Hills of South-western India, ascending to 1,200 m.

Folk: Phaangalaa (Maharashtra).

Action: Aerial parts—antifungal, antibacterial.

Acetone extract of the aerial parts exhibits larvicidal activity against the larva of malaria vector, Anopheles ste- phensi and Culex quinquefasciatus.... pogostemon parviflorus

n. (pl. pubes) a bone forming the lower and anterior part of each side of the *hip bone (see also pelvis). The two pubes meet at the front of the pelvis at the pubic symphysis. See also pubes.... pubis

Ricinus communis

Euphorbiaceae

San: Erandah, Pancangulah;

Hin: Erandi, Erand;

Ben: Bherenda;

Mal: Avanakku;

Tam: Amanakku, Kootaimuttu, Amanakkam Ceti;

Kan: Haralu, Manda, Oudla;

Tel: Erandamu, Amudamu

Importance: Castor is a perennial evergreen shrub. The Sanskrit name erandah describes the property of the drug to dispel diseases. It is considered as a reputed remedy for all kinds of rheumatic affections. They are useful in gastropathy such as gulma, amadosa, constipation, inflammations, fever, ascitis, strangury, bronchitis, cough, leprosy, skin diseases, vitiated conditions of vata, colic, coxalgia and lumbago. The leaves are useful in burns, nyctalopia, strangury and for bathing and fermentation and vitiated conditions of vata, especially in rheumatoid arthritis, urodynia and arthralgia. Flowers are useful in urodynia and arthralgia and glandular tumours. Seeds are useful in dyspepsia and for preparing a poultice to treat arthralgia. The oil from seeds is a very effective purgative for all ailments caused by vata and kapha. It is also recommended for scrotocele, ascites, intermittent fever, gulma, colonitis, lumbago, coxalgia and coxitis (Warrier et al, 1996). Oil is also used for soap making. Fresh leaves are used by nursing mothers in the Canary Island as an external application to increase the flow of milk. Castor oil is an excellent solvent of pure alkaloids and as such solutions of atropine, cocaine, etc. is used in ophthalmic surgery. It is also dropped into the eye to remove the after-irritation caused by the removal of foreign bodies.

Distribution: It is a native of N. E. tropical Africa. It is found throughout India, cultivated and found wild upto 2400m.

Botany: Ricinus communis Linn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It is a monoecious evergreen shrub growing upto 4m. Leaves are alternate, palmatifid, 6-10 lobed, each 1- nerved with many lateral nerves and peltate. Lobes are lanceolate, thinly pubescent below, margin serrate and apex acuminate. Paniculate racemes are terminal with male flowers below, female ones above. Perianth is cupular, splitting into 3-5 lobes, laceolate, valvate, margin inrolled and acuminate. Filaments of stamen are connate and repeatedly branched with divergent anther cells. Sepals are 5, sub-equal, lanceolate, valvate and acute. Ovary is globose, echinate, 3-locular with 3 ovules and pendulous. Styles are 3, stout, papillose, stigmatiferous. Capsules are 3-lobed and prickly with oblong seeds having smooth testa and marbled, shiny and carunculate. R. bronze King and R. africanus are two good garden varieties which are known as Italian and East Indian Castors, respectively (Mathew, 1983, Grieve and Leyel, 1992).

Agrotechnology: Castor is cultivated both in the plains and the hills. As it has deep root system it is hardy and capable of resisting drought. It does not withstand waterlogging and frost. It requires hard dry climate for proper development of fruits and seeds. It requires a well- drained soil, preferably sandy loam or loamy sand. High soil fertility is of less importance as compared to the good physical condition of the soil. It cannot tolerate alkalinity. It is generally grown in red loamy soils, black soils and alluvial soils. The plant is seed propagated. The seed rate required is 5-12 kg/ha (pure crop) and 3 kg/ha (mixed crop). Seeds are to be sown on a hot bed early in March. When the plants come up individual plant is to be planted in a separate pot filled with light soil and plunged into a fresh hot bed. The young plants are to be kept in glass houses till early June where they are hardened and kept out. The suitable season of growing is kharif season. The crop is usually sown in April and planting is done in early July. The land is to be ploughed 2-3 times with the onset of rains and is repeated after rain. The spacing recommended is 60X90cm in case of pure crop but it is seldom cultivated pure. It is usually grown mixed with crops such as jowar, arhar, chilly, groundnut, cowpea, cotton, etc. 10-15t FYM/ha and 50kg N, 50kg P2O5 and 20kg K2O/ha will be sufficient. Addition of neem cake is beneficial as it increases oil content. There should be sufficient moisture in the field at the time of sowing. A month after planting, weeding and earthing up is to be done. The plant is attacked by hairy caterpillar, castor semi - looper, castor seed caterpillar, etc. which can be managed by integrated pest management measures. The leaf blight disease occurring in castor can be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture 2-3 times at 15 days interval. Harvesting of ripe fruits can be done from the end of November till the end of February. The fruit branches are picked when they are still green to avoid splitting and scattering of the seeds. The pods are to be heaped up in the sun to dry. Then the seeds are to be beaten with stick and winnowed. Roots, leaves, flowers, seeds and oil constitute the economic parts. The average yield is 500-600kg/ha (Thakur, 1990).

Properties and activity: The beancoat yielded lupeol and 30-norlupan-3 -ol-20-one. Roots, stems and leaves contain several amino acids. Flowers gave apigenin, chlorogenin, rutin, coumarin and hyperoside. Castor oil is constituted by several fatty acids (Husain et al, 1992). Seed coat contained 1. 50-1. 62% lipids and higher amounts of phosphatides and non-saponifiable matter than seed kernel. Fresh leaves protected against liver injury induced by carbon tetra chloride in rats while cold aqueous extract provided partial protection (Rastogi et al, 1991). Root and stem is antiprotozoal and anticancerous. Root, stem and seed are diuretic. The roots are sweet, acrid, astringent, thermogenic, carminative, purgative, galactagogue, sudorific, expectorant and depurative. Leaves are diuretic, anthelmintic and galactagogue. Seeds are acrid, thermogenic, digestive, cathartic and aphrodisiac. Oil is bitter, acrid, sweet, antipyretic, thermogenic and viscous (Warrier et al, 1996). Castor oil forms a clean, light- coloured soap, which dries and hardens well and is free from smell. The oil varies much in activity. The East Indian is the more active, but the Italian has the least taste. Castor oil is an excellent solvent of pure alkaloids. The oil furnishes sebacic acid and caprylic acid. It is the most valuable laxative in medicines. It acts in about 5 hours, affecting the entire length of the bowel, but not increasing the flow of bile, except in very large doses. The mode of its action is unknown. The oil will purge when rubbed into the skin (Grieve and Leyel, 1992).... castor

Acacia catechu

Mimosaceae

San:Khadirah;

Hin:Khair, Khaira;

Ben: Kuth;

Mal: Karingali;

Tam: Karunkali;

Tel: Sandra, Khandiramu;

Kan: Kaggali

Importance: Catechu is a medium deciduous tree commonly used as a blood purifier and for leoprosy and leucoderma. Catechu or Cutch tree bark is useful in melancholia, conjunctivitis and haemoptysis. It is useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, catarrh, cough, pruritus, leprosy, leucoderma, skin diseases, helminthiasis, anorexia, diarrhoea, dysentery, foul ulcers and wounds, haemoptysis, haematemesis, haemorrhages, intermittent fever, inflammations, odontopathy, anaemia, diabetes, splenomegaly and pharyngodyna. The gummy extract of the wood (kath) is useful in laryngopathy, flatulence, anorexia, ulcers, wounds, helminthiasis, leucoderma, leoprosy, skin diseases, urorrhea, colporrhagia, erysipelas and odontopathy. For leprosy, root, leaf, flower, bark and fruits are made into a decoction which is given orally as well as for external dressing. In Unani system it is used in “Marham Kharish Jadid” for skin diseases. “Khadirarisht” is an oral medicine, while “Marham” is for external application.

Distribution:It is widely distributed in tropical countries. In India, it is observed from the Indus eastwards to Assam and throughout Peninsular India.

Botany: The genus Acacia belonging to the family Mimosaceae consists of a number of species. The important ones are listed as below:

A. catechu Willd. A. caesia Willd. A. arabica Willd. A. concinna DC.

A. farnesiana Willd.

A. ferruginea DC.

A. instia W. & A. syn. A. caesia Willd.

A. jacquemontii Benth. A. leucophloea Willd. A. modesta Wall.

A. pinnata (Linn.) Willd.

A. pycnantha Benth.

A. senegal Willd.

A. suma Buch-Ham. syn. A. suma Kurz.

A. catechu is a moderate sized deciduous tree, 9-12m in height with dark greyish or brown rough bark and hooked short spines. Leaves are bipinnately compound, leaflets 30-50 pairs, main rachis pubescent with a large conspicuous gland near the middle of the rachis. Flowers are pale yellow, sessile in peduncled axiallary spikes. Fruits are flat brown pods, shiny and with a triangular beak at the apex and narrowed at the base. Seeds are 3-10 per pod.

The gummy extract of the wood is commercially known as ‘ Kath’ or ‘Cutch’. The cutch available in the market is brittle, of different shapes and dark brown in colour. On breaking, it is found to be shiny and form crystal like pieces (Warrier et al, 1993).

Agrotechnology: Catechu is suited to hilly areas and rocky places. The plant is propagated by seeds.

Seeds are soaked in water for 6 hours and sown in seedbeds. Seeds germinate within a month. At four-leaf stage, seedlings are planted in polybags. Two months old seedlings from the polybags are used for transplanting. Pits of size 50cm cube are taken at a distance of 4-5m between plants and filled with topsoil, sand and dried cowdung in 1:1:1 ratio. Seedlings are planted in these pits. Application of organic manure every year during the rainy season is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be carried out. Pruning of branches and tender shoots developing from the base of the plant can be done from second year onwards. Tree is to be grown as single stemmed one. Flowering and fruiting commences from fourth year onwards. At the end of tenth year, the tree can be cut and heartwood collected (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and Activity: Heartwood contains kaempferol, dihydro kaempferol, taxifolin, iso rhamnetin(+)- afzelchin, a dimeric procyanidin, quercetin, (-)epi-catechin, (-)catechin, fisetin, quercetagetin and (+)-cyanidanol. The main constituent of heartwood is catechin and catechu tannic acid. Catechin is a mixture of at least four isomers and L(-)epicatechin has been isolated and characterised (Rao et al,1948; Husain et al,1992).

The bark is anthelmintic, antipyretic, antiinflammatory and antileprotic. The flowers are antigonorrhoeic. The cutch from wood is anthelmintic, tonic and aphrodisiac. Bark and cutch are antidiarrhoeal, astringent and stomachic. Cyanidanol is hepatoprotective. The wood is hypoglycaemic, antiinflammatory and hypotensive. The stem is spasmolytic and antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).... catechu

(Linn.) Wall.

Synonym: H. pubescens (Buch.- Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Habitat: The tropical Himalayas, going up to an altitude of 1,100 m. Also found throughout many forests of India, in Travancore, Assam and Uttar Pradesh.

English: Easter tree, Ivory tree, Tellicherry Bark.

Ayurvedic: Kutaja, Girimallikaa, Kaalinga, Kalingaka, Indravrik- sha, Shakra, Vatsa, Vatsaka, Shakraahvya. Indrayava, Indrabija, Vatsabija (seed). Kurchi (bark).

Unani: Inderjo talkh, Teewaaj-e- Khataai.

Siddha/Tamil: Kudasappaalai-pattai, -vidai (bark, seed).

Action: Root and bark—used in amoebic dysentery. Bark—astringent, anthelmintic, amoebicidal, diuretic. Used in colic, dyspepsia, piles, diseases of the skin and spleen. Seed—antibilious. Used for promoting conception, also for toning up vaginal tissues after delivery.

The bark contains the alkaloids, regholarrhenine-A, -B, -C, -D, -E and -F; pubescine, norholadiene, pubes- cimine, kurchinin, kurchinine, kur- chinidine, holarrifine, holadiene, kurchilidine, kurchamide, kurcholes- sine, kurchessine, conessine, cones- simine and isoconessimine, and the steroidal compounds kurchinicin and holadyson.

The alkaloid conessine is used as a therapeutic drug for the treatment of dysentery and helminthic disorders. Conessine and conimine inhibited the growth of Shigella sonnei, S. flexneri and Salmonella enteritidis strains in vitro. In chronic amoebiasis, Bi-iodide compound of total alkaloids, given orally, compare favourably with emetine Bi-iodide.

The plant possesses potent immuno- stimulant property.

The Kurchi seeds are sold as a substitute for Strophanthus sp. seeds in Indian market. (Seeds of Strophanthus sp. contain a toxic glucoside, strophan- thin, and are poisonous.)

Dosage: Stem bark—20-30 g for decoction. (API Vol. I); seed—3- 6 g powder; 20-30 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)... holarrhena antidysenterica

Cinchona spp.

Rubiaceae

San: Cinchona, Kunayanah

Hin: Kunain Mal: Cinchona, Quoina

Tam: Cinchona

Importance: Cinchona, known as Quinine, Peruvian or Crown bark tree is famous for the antimalarial drug ‘quinine’ obtained from the bark of the plant. The term cinchona is believed to be derived from the countess of cinchon who was cured of malaria by treating with the bark of the plant in 1638. Cinchona bark has been valued as a febrifuge by the Indians of south and central America for a long time. Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from the plant; the most important among them being quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine. These alkaloids exist mainly as salts of quinic, quinovic and cinchotannic acids. The cultivated bark contains 7-10% total alkaloids of which about 70% is quinine. Similarly 60% of the total alkaloids of root bark is quinine. Quinine is isolated from the total alkaloids of the bark as quinine sulphate. Commercial preparations contain cinchonidine and dihydroquinine. They are useful for the treatment of malarial fever, pneumonia, influenza, cold, whooping couphs, septicaemia, typhoid, amoebic dysentery, pin worms, lumbago, sciatica, intercostal neuralgia, bronchial neuritis and internal hemorrhoids. They are also used as anesthetic and contraceptive. Besides, they are used in insecticide compositions for the preservation of fur, feathers, wool, felts and textiles. Over doses of these alkaloids may lead to deafness, blindness, weakness, paralysis and finally collapse, either comatose or deleterious. Quinidine sulphate is cardiac depressant and is used for curing arterial fibrillation.

Distribution: Cinchona is native to tropical South America. It is grown in Bolivia, Peru, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Columbia, Indonesia, Tanzania, Kenya, Zaire and Sri Lanka. It was introduced in 1808 in Guatemala,1860 in India, 1918 in Uganda, 1927 in Philippines and in 1942 in Costa Rica. Roy Markham introduced the plant to India. The first plantation was raised in Nilgiris and later on in Darjeeling of West Bengal. The value of the tree was learnt by Jessuit priests who introduced the bark to Europe. It first appeared in London pharmacopoeia in 1677 (Husain, 1993).

Botany: The quinine plant belongs to the family Rubiaceae and genus Cinchona which comprises over 40 species. Among these a dozen are medicinally important. The commonly cultivated species are C. calisaya Wedd., C. ledgeriana Moens, C. officinalis Linn., C. succirubra Pav. ex Kl., C. lancifolia and C. pubescens. Cinchona species have the chromosome number 2n=68. C. officinalis Linn. is most common in India. It is an evergreen tree reaching a height of 10-15m. Leaves are opposite, elliptical, ovate- lanceolate, entire and glabrous. Flowers are reddish-brown in short cymbiform, compound cymes, terminal and axillary; calyx tubular, 5-toothed, obconical, subtomentose, sub-campanulate, acute, triangular, dentate, hairy; corolla tube 5 lobed, densely silky with white depressed hairs, slightly pentagonal; stamens 5; style round, stigma submersed. Fruit is capsule ovoid-oblong; seeds elliptic, winged margin octraceous, crinulate-dentate (Biswas and Chopra, 1982).

Agrotechnology: The plant widely grows in tropical regions having an average minimum temperature of 14 C. Mountain slopes in the humid tropical areas with well distributed annual rainfall of 1500-1950mm are ideal for its cultivation. Well drained virgin and fertile forest soils with pH 4.5-6.5 are best suited for its growth. It does not tolerate waterlogging. Cinchona is propagated through seeds and vegetative means. Most of the commercial plantations are raised by seeds. Vegetative techniques such as grafting, budding and softwood cuttings are employed in countries like India, Sri Lanka, Java and Guatemala. Cinchona succirubra is commonly used as root stock in the case of grafting and budding. Hormonal treatment induces better rooting. Seedlings are first raised in nursery under shade. Raised seedbeds of convenient size are prepared, well decomposed compost or manure is applied , seeds are broadcasted uniformly at 2g/m2, covered with a thin layer of sand and irrigated. Seeds germinate in 10-20 days. Seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags after 3 months. These can be transplanted into the field after 1 year at 1-2m spacing. Trees are thinned after third year for extracting bark , leaving 50% of the trees at the end of the fifth year. The crop is damaged by a number of fungal diseases like damping of caused by Rhizoctoria solani, tip blight by Phytophthora parasatica, collar rot by Sclerotiun rolfsii, root rot by Phytophthora cinnamomi, Armillaria mellea and Pythium vexans. Field sanitation, seed treatment with organo mercurial fungicide, burning of infected plant parts and spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture are recommended for the control of the diseases (Crandall, 1954). Harvesting can be done in one or two phases. In one case, the complete tree is uprooted, after 8-10 years when the alkaloid yield is maximum. In another case, the tree is cut about 30cm from the ground for bark after 6-7 years so that fresh sprouts come up from the stem to yield a second crop which is harvested with the under ground roots after 6-7 years. Both the stem and root are cut into convenient pieces, bark is separated, dried in shade, graded, packed and traded. Bark yield is 9000-16000kg/ha (Husain, 1993).

Properties and activity: Over 35 alkaloids have been isolated from Cinchona bark, the most important among them are quinine, quinidine, cinchonine, cinchonidine, cinchophyllamine and idocinchophyllamine. There is considerable variation in alkaloid content ranging from 4% to 20%. However, 6-8% yield is obtained from commercial plantations. The non alkaloidal constituents present in the bark are bitter glycosides, -quinovin, cinchofulvic, cinchotannic and quinic acids, a bitter essential oil possessing the odour of the bark and a red coloring matter. The seed contains 6.13% fixed oil. Quinine and its derivatives are bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, febrifuge, oxytocic, anodyne, anti-bacterial, anthelmintic, digestive, depurative, constipating, anti pyretic, cardiotonic, antiinflammatory, expectorant and calcifacient (Warrier et al, 1994; Bhakuni and Jain, 1995).... cinchona

Indigofera tinctoria

Papilionaceae

San:Nilini, Ranjani, Nilika, Neelam, Aklika, Asita, Bhadra; Ben, Guj:Nil;

Hin:Gouli;

Mal: Neelamari;

Tam: Averi;

Tel: Aviri, Nili;

Kan: Nili; Mar: Nali; Ori: Neli

Importance: Common indigo or Indian indigo is a branching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Nili is a reputed drug produced from this plant which is used in ayurveda for the promotion of hair growth and it forms a major ingredient of preparations like nilibhringadi oil. This is the original source of natural indigo. Due to antitoxic property it is also a good remedy for poisons. According to Bhavaprakasa, nili is purgative in action, bitter, hot, cures giddiness, abdominal enlargement, vatarakta, gout and intestinal obstruction. The decoction or powder of the plant is used in whooping cough, bronchitis, palpitation of the heart, enlargement of the liver and spleen, dropsy, diseases of lungs and kidney, epilepsy and nervous disorders. A poultice of the leaves is recommended in skin diseases, piles, ulcer and haemorrhoids. A wine glass full juice of the leaves is administered in the morning with or without milk for three days to those who have been bitten by mad dogs. Root decoction is given in calculous diseases and used as an antidote to arsenic poisoning. The seed of the plant is powered and steeped in arrack or rum, yield a tincture, which is used to distroy lice. Indigo, the dye extracted from the leaves, is a soothing balm for burns and scalds, insect stings and animal bites. The synonyms visaghni and sodhani indicate the antitoxic and laxative properties of the drug nili, respectively (Aiyer and Kolammal, 1960).

Distribution: This plant is distributed in South and South East Asia, tropical Africa and is introduced in tropical America. In India, it is found almost throughout and cultivated in many parts.

Botany: Indigofera tinctoria Linn. syn. I. summatrana Gaertn, Pigmentum indicum belongs to Papilionaceae family. This is a branching shrub which grows upto 2m high. Stems and branches are green; branchlets silvery pubescent. Leaves are alternate, stipulate, imparipinnate and got 7-13 leaflets which are elliptic-oblong, membraneous,1.7x0.9cm, shortly mucronate, pale green or bluish. Flowers are small, rose-coloured in axillary racemes. Calyx 5-cleft, gamosepalous; corolla papilionaceous; stamens diadelphous; ovary sessile with a short incurved style ending in a capitate stigma. Pods are linear, cylindrical, 2-5cm long, deflexed having 8-12 seeds.

Agrotechnology: The Indian indigo requires good sunlight and grows well in hilly areas. This is usually propagated by seeds. Seeds are very small and the seed rate is 3kg/ha. Seeds require pretreatment for good germination as the seed coat is hard. Seeds are mixed with sand and ground gently to break the seed coat. An alternate method for enhancing germination is dipping the seeds in boiling water for a second. After pretreatment seeds are broadcasted. Broadcast the seeds preferably mixed with sand 2 or 3 times its volume to ensure uniform coverage. The seedbeds should be covered with straw and irrigated. Seeds germinate within 15 days. Seedlings are ready for transplanting after one month. For the land preparation, the soil is brought to fine tilth by ploughing 2 or 3 time s. Cattle manure should be applied at the rate of 10t/ha as basal dressing and incorporated into soil along with last ploughing. The best time for sowing is September-October. Weeding has to be done two times; 3 weeks after sowing and 6 weeks after sowing. Plants start flowering 2-3 months after sowing. Harvesting is done by cutting the plants at this time, at a height of about 10cm from ground level. Irrigate plants after harvest. Subsequent harvests can be made at 1.5-2 months interval. Four to five cuttings can be taken in an year depending on the growth. A few plants per plot are left without cutting to set seeds. Ripe pods are to be harvested in the early morning to prevent loss of seeds by shattering during harvest.

Properties and activity: A blue dyestuff is obtained from the indigofera which does not exist ready formed, but is produced during fermentation from another agent existing in the plant, known as indocan. Indocan is yellow amorphous of a nauseous bitter taste with an acid reaction, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether. An artificial product indigotine is manufactured chemically and used as a substitute. Indirubin is another component of the plant.

The plant is deobstruent, alterative, antitoxic, antiasthmatic and antiepileptic. Aerial part is hypoglycaemic, CNS depressant and antitoxic. The leaves, flowers and tender shoots are considered to be cooling, demulcent and alterative. Leaf is antiinflammatory. Root and stem is laxative, expectorant, antitumourous, febrifuge, anticephalalgic, antidote for snake bite, anthelmintic and promotes growth of hair. Root is divertic. Indirubin is antineoplastic and has toxicity. Nili is antitoxic, purgative and laxative. Indigo is said to produce nausea and vomiting.... common indigo

Gmelina arborea

Verbenaceae

San: Gumbhari;

Hin:Gamari, Jugani-chukar;

Mal: Kumizhu, Kumpil;

Guj: Shewan; Pun:Gumbar; Mar: Shivanasal;

Kan: Kummuda;

Tam: Uni, Gumadi;

Tel: Gummadi;

Importance: Coomb teak, Candahar tree or Kashmeeri tree is a moderate sized, unarmed, deciduous tree which is a vital ingredient of the ”dasamula” (group of ten roots). The whole plant is medicinally very important. It promotes digestive power, improves memory, overcomes giddiness and is also used as an antidote for snake bite and scorpion sting. Roots are useful in hallucination, fever, dyspepsia, hyperdipsia, haemorrhoids, stomachalgia, heart diseases, nervous disorders, piles and burning sensation. Bark is used in fever and dyspepsia. Leaf paste is good for cephalagia and leaf juice is a good wash for foul ulcers and is also used in the treatment of gonorrhoea and cough. Flowers are recommended for leprosy, skin and blood diseases. The fruits are used for promoting the growth of hair and in anaemia, leprosy, ulcers, constipation, strangury, leucorrhoea, colpitis and lung disease.

Wood is one of the best and most reliable timber of India. It is used for making furniture, planks, carriages, printing boxes, musical instruments, shafts, axles, picture frames, jute bobbins, calipers, ship buildings, artificial limbs and stethoscopes.

In south India the bark of the tree is used by arrack manufacturers to regulate the fermentation of toddy. The plant is also grown in garden or avenues (Dey, 1988; Sivarajan and Indira, 1994).

Distribution: The plant is found wild throughout India from the foot of Himalayas to Kerala and Anadamans, in moist, semideciduous and open forests upto an altitude of 1500 m. It is also distributed in Sri Lanka and Philippines.

Botany: Gmelina arborea Roxb. Syn. Premna arborea Roth. belongs to Family Verbenaceae. It is an unarmed deciduous tree growing up to 20m height with whitish grey corky lenticellate bark, exfloliating in thin flakes. Branchlets and young parts are clothed with fine white mealy pubescence. Leaves are simple, opposite, broadly ovate, cordate, glandular, glabrous above when mature and fulvous-tomentose beneath. Flowers brownish yellow in terminal panicle. Calyx campanulate, pubescent outside and with 5 lobes. Corolla showy brownish yellow with short tube and oblique limbs. Stamens 4, didynamous and included. Ovary is 4 chambered with one ovule each; style slender ending in a bifid stigma. Fruits are fleshy ovoid drupes, orange yellow when ripe. Seeds 1 or 2, hard and oblong.

Agrotechnology: Coomb teak is a sun loving plant. It does not tolerate drought. But it grows in light frost. Rainfall higher than 2000mm and loose soil are ideal. The best method of propagation is by seeds but rarely propagated vegitatevely by stem cuttings also. Seed formation occurs in May-June. Seeds are dried well before use. They are soaked in water for 12 hours before sowing. Seed rate is 3kg/ha. Seeds are sown in nursery beds shortly before rains. Seeds germinate within one month. Seedlings are transplanted in the first rainy season when they are 7-10cm tall. Pits of size 50cm cube are made at a spacing of 3-4m and filled with sand, dried cowdung and surface soil, over which the seedlings are transplanted. 20kg organic manure is given once a year. Irrigation and weeding should be done on a regular basis. The common disease reported is sooty mould caused by Corticium salmonicolor which can be controlled by applying a suitable fungicide. The tree grows fast and may be ready for harvesting after 4 or 5 years. This plant is coppiced and traded. The roots are also used for medicinal purposes. The tree may stand up to 25 years.

Properties and activity: Roots and heart wood of Coomb teak are reported to contain gmelinol, hentriacontanol, n-octacosanol and -sitosterol. The roots contain sesquiterpenoid and apiosylskimmin, a coumarin characterised as umbelliferone-7-apiosyl glucoside and gmelofuran. The heart wood gives ceryl alcohol, cluytyl ferulate, lignans, arboreol, gmelonone, 6”-bromo isoarboreol, lignan hemiacetal and gummidiol. Leaves yield luteolin, apigenin, quercetin, hentriacontanol, -sitosterol, quercetogenin and other flavons. Fruits contain butyric acid, tartaric acid, and saccharine substances (Asolkar et al, 1992; Dey, 1988).

The roots are acrid, bitter, tonic, stomachic, laxative, galactogogue, demulcent, antibilious, febrifuge and anthelmintic. Bark is bitter, hypoglycaemic, antiviral, anticephalalgic and tonic. The leaves are demulcent, antigonorrhoeic and bechic. Flowers are sweet, refrigerant, astringent and acrid. Fruits are acrid, refrigerant, diuretic, astringent, aphrodisiac, trichogenous, alterant and tonic (Warrier et al; 1995).... coomb teak

Costus speciosus

Zingiberaceae

San: Pushkara, Kashmeera, Kemuka;

Hin: Kebu, Keyu, Kust;

Ben: Keu, Kura

Mal: Channakkizhangu, Channakoova;

Tam: Kostam; Mar: Penva;

Tel: Kashmeeramu

Importance: Costus is one of the plants which contains diosgenin in its rhizome. It is widely used as starting material in the commercial production of steroidal hormones. The rhizomes are useful in vitiated conditions of kapha and pitta, burning sensation, flatulence, constipation, helminthiases, leprosy, skin diseases, fever, hiccough, asthma, bronchitis, inflammation and aneamia. It is used to make sexual hormones and contraceptives (Warrier et al,1994).

Distribution: The plant is widely distributed in Asia and other tropical countries like India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and China. In India, it occurs mostly in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Tripura and Kerala.

Botany: Costus speciosus (Koenig.) Sm. belonging to the family Zingiberaceae consists of two varieties viz., var. nepalensis Rose., found only in Nepal and Arunachal Pradesh and var. argycophyllus Wall., having a wide distribution in India.

The plant is a succulent herb with long leafy spirally twisted stems, 2-3m in height and horizontal rhizomes. Leaves are simple, spirally arranged, oblanceolate or oblong, glabrous above, silky pubescent beneath with broad leaf sheaths. Flowers are white, large, fragrant, arranged in dense terminal spikes. Bracts are bright red. The single stamen present is perfect, lip large with incurved margins. Fruits are globose or ovoid capsules with obovoid or sub- globose seeds (Warrier et al,1994).

Agrotechnology: Costus can be raised under a wide range of agroclimatic conditions. It prefers sandy loam soil for good growth. Propagation is by rhizomes. The best season for planting is April- May. The seed rate recommended is 2-2.4t/ha. The spacing adopted is 50x50cm. After an initial ploughing FYM or poultry manure should be applied at the rate of 30t/ha and the field is to be ploughed again irrigated and prepared to obtain a fine seed bed. Furrows are opened and the rhizome pieces are placed horizontally at a depth of 8-10cm and covered with soil. Care is taken to place the eye buds facing upwards. After 70-75 days about 90-95% sprouting is obtained. Desiccation of the young sprouts have been observed in the hot summer months, necessitating liberal water supply during the period. As September-November is the period of maximum tuberization at least two irrigations should be given at that time. One during the sprouting period of the crop followed by two more keeps the crop fairly free of weeds. Application of 37t/ha of poultry manure and fertilizers, 60kg P2O5 and 40kg K2O /ha as a basal doze, along with 80kg N/ha applied in 3 equal split dozes will take care. Crop is harvested at the end of seven months. Harvesting includes 2 operations, cutting the aerial shoots and digging out the rhizomes. Cost of production of diosgenin ranges from Rs. 271-300/kg (Atal, et al,1982).

Properties and activity: Tubers and roots contain diosgenin, 5 -stigmast-9(11)-en-3 ol, sitosterol- -D- glucoside, dioscin, prosapogenins A and B of dioscin, gracillin and quinones. Various saponins, many new aliphatic esters and acids are reported from its rhizomes, seeds and roots. Seeds, in addition, contain - tocopherol. Saponins from seeds are hypotensive and spasmolytic. Rhizomes possess antifertility, anticholinestrase, antiinflammatory, stimulant, depurative and anthelmintic activities (Hussain et al, 1992).... costus

(Burm. f.) Andr.

Synonym: J. pubescens Willd. J. hirsutum Willd. J. bracteatum Roxb.

Family: Oleaceae.

Habitat: Sub-Himalayan tract and in moist forests of Western Ghats.

English: Downy Jasmine.

Ayurvedic: Kunda, Kasturi Mogaraa.

Siddha/Tamil: Magarandam, Malli.

Folk: Kasturi Mogaraa.

Action: Diuretic, emetic. Boiled bark—applied on burns.

Ethanolic extract of fresh leaves and flowers contain the secoiridoid lactones, jasmolactone A, B, C and D; and secoiridoid glycosides. Jas- molactone B and D and the secoiri- doid glycosides (multifloroside and 10-hydroxyoleuropein) exhibited va- sodilatory and cardiotropic activities.... jasminum multiflorum

Desmodium gangeticum

Fabaceae

San: Anshumati, Salaparni;

Hin,

Ben: Salpani;

Mal: Orila;

Tam:Pulladi;

Tel: Gitanaram

Kan: Murelehonne; Mar: Darh;

Guj: Salwan; Ori: Salaparni Pun: Shalpurhi

Importance: Desmodium is a small shrub which is the chief of the ten ingredients in the Dasamula kwatha of Hindu medicine. Roots are useful in vitiated conditions of vata, anorexia, dyspepsia, haemorrhoids, dysentery, strangury, fever, gout, inflammations, cough, asthma, bronchitis, cardiopathy and debility. The unani preparation “Arq dashmul” contains these roots. It is considered a curative for leucorrhoea and for pains due to cold (Warrier et al, 1995).

Distribution: The plant is widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics. It grows wild in the forests of India up to 1500m. It is also cultivated in the plains and in the lower Himalayas.

Botany: Desmodium gangeticum (Linn.) DC. syn. Hedysarum gangeticum Linn., Desmodium gangeticum var. maculatum (Linn.) Baker., belongs to the family Fabaceae (Papilionaceae). It is an erect diffusely branched undershrub, 90-120cm in height with a short woody stem and numerous prostrate branches provided with soft grey hairs. Leaves are unifoliate, ovate- lanceolate, membranceous and mottled with grey patches. Flowers are white, purple or lilac in elongate lax, terminal or axillary racemes. Fruits are moniliform, 6-8 jointed, glabrescent pods, joints of pods separately pubescent with hooked hairs, joint separating when ripe into indehiscent one seeded segments. Seeds are compressed and reniform.

Agrotechnology: Desmodium can grow in a variety of climate and soils. However, it prefers tropical and subtropical climatic conditions. Although it can grow on all types of soils, waterlogged and highly alkaline soils are not suitable. Light sandy loam is preferred for commercial cultivation.

It is propagated through seeds. Seeds can be planted directly in the field or seedlings raised on the nursery beds and transplanted. Transplanting always gives better results in commercial cultivation, as it gives assured crop stand. Planting is done at a spacing of 40x20cm on flat beds or ridges. Organic manures are applied at the time of land preparation and thoroughly mixed with the soil. A little quantity of phosphatic and nitrogenous fertilizers are also applied for better crop growth. The inter-row spaces between plants, both in the field and nursery should be kept free from weeds by frequent weeding and hoeing as the plant suffers from weed competition, especially during early stages of growth. Manual hand weeding is usually done. Irrigation of seedlings just after planting is good for crop establishment. Although it can be cultivated as a rainfed crop under humid tropical conditions, irrigation every month is beneficial during summer. The root is the economic part and harvesting can be commenced after 8-9 months. About 500- 700kg roots can be harvested from a hectare of land per year.

Properties and activity: The root contains gangetin, gangetinin, desmodin, N,N-dimethyl tryptamine, hypaphorine, hordenine, candicine, N-methyl tyramine and -phenyl ethyl amine. The total alkaloid fraction showed hypotensive activity. The root is bitter, antiinflammatory, analgesic, aphrodisiac, constipating, diuretic, cardiotonic, expectorant, astringent, antidiarrhoeal, carminative, antiemetic, febrifuge and anti-catarrhal (Thakur et al, 1989).... desmodium

Cypripedium pubescens. N.O. Orchidaceae.

Synonym: American Valerian, Mocassin flower, Nerveroot, Noah's Ark.

Habitat: United States of America.

Features ? Flower supposed to resemble a lady's shoe in form. Rhizome about quarter- inch diameter, many cupshaped scars on top surface; wavy, thickly-matted roots underneath. Fracture short and white.

Part used ? Rhizome.

Action: Antispasmodic, tonic, nervine.

Combined with other tonics in the relief of neuralgia, and to allay pain

generally. Of use in hysteria and other nervous disorders. Dose, 1 drachm of the powdered rhizome. Like other medicines of a similar nature, it is of little use unless the cause of the nervous excitement is traced and removed.

The remarks of Rafinesque, then Professor of Medical Botany in the University of Transylvania, are interesting in view of the "orthodox" attitude towards remedies of the herbalists ? "I am enabled to introduce, for the first time, this beautiful genus into our materia medica ; all the species are equally remedial. They have long been known to the Indians, who called them moccasin flower, and were used by the empyrics of New England, particularly Samuel Thomson. Their properties, however, have been tested and confirmed by Dr. Hales, of Troy; Dr. Tully, of Albany, etc.

. . . They produce beneficial effects in all nervous diseases and hysterical affections by allaying pain, quieting the nerves and promoting sleep. They are preferable to opium in many cases, having no baneful or narcotic effect."

Professor Rafinesque, however, goes even further than would Thomson and his successors when he announces that "all the species are equally remedial."... ladies' slipper

Gymnema sylvestre

Asclepiadaceae

San: Mesasrngi, Madhunasini;

Hin: Gudmar, Merasimgi;

Ben: Merasingi;

Mal: Chakkarakolli, Madhunasini;

Tam: Sirukurumkay, Sakkaraikkolli;

Kan: Kadhasige;

Tel: Podapatra; Mar: Kavali

Importance: Gymnema, Australian Cowplant, Small Indian Ipecacuanha or Periploca of the woods is a woody climber. It is reported to cure cough, dyspnoea, ulcers, pitta, kapha and pain in the eyes. The plant is useful in inflammations, hepatosplenomegaly, dyspepsia, constipation, jaundice, haemorrhoids, strangury, renal and vesical calculi, helminthiasis, cardiopathy, cough, asthma, bronchitis, intermittent fever, amenorrhoea, conjuctivitis and leucoderma. The fresh leaves when chewed have the remarkable property of paralysing the sense of taste for sweet and bitter substance for some time (Warrier et al, 1995). The drug is described as a destroyer of madhumeha (glycosuria) and other urinary disorders. Root has long been reputed as a remedy for snakebite. Leaves triturated and mixed with castor oil are applied to swollen glands and enlargement of internal viscera as the liver and spleen (Nadkarni, 1954). The drug is used to strengthen the function of heart, cure jaundice, piles, urinary calculi, difficult micturition and intermittent fevers (Sharma,1983). The drug enters into the composition of preparations like Ayaskrti, Varunadi kasaya, Varunadighrtam, Mahakalyanakaghrtam, etc. They suppress the activity of taste of tongue for sweet taste and for this reason it was considered that it destroys sugar, hence the name Madhunashini or Gurmar and has been prescribed as an anti-diabetic. The crude drug as well as its dried aqueous extract is mainly used in bronchial troubles.

Distribution: It is a tropical climber. It mainly grows in Western Ghats, Konkan, Tamil Nadu and some parts of Bihar. The plant is cultivated in plains of India but the drug is mainly important from Afghanistan and Iran.

Botany: Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.)R. Br. syn. Asclepias germinata Roxb. belonging to the family Asclepiadaceae is a large, woody much branched climber with pubescent young parts. Leaves are simple, opposite, elliptic or ovate, more or less pubescent on both sides, base rounded or cordate. Flowers are small, yellow and arranged in umbellate cymes. Fruits are slender and follicles are upto 7.5cm long (Warrier et al, 1995).

Two allied species, G. hirsutum found in Bundelkh and Bihar and Western Ghats and G. montanum growing wild in Eastern Ghats and Konkan are also used for the same purpose and are also called “Gurmar” (Thakur et al, 1989).

Agrotechnology: The plant can be propagated both by seeds and stem cuttings. Seedlings are to be raised in polybags. Pits of size 50cm cube are to be taken, filled with 10kg dried cowdung or FYM and covered with topsoil. On these pits about 3-4 months old seedlings are to be transplanted from polybags. Trailing can be facilitated by erecting poles and tying the plants to the poles. The plant will attain good spread within one year. Regular weeding, irrigation and organic manure application are beneficial. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Leaves can be collected from the first year onwards at an internal of one week. This can be continued for 10-12 years. Fresh or dried leaves can be marketed (Prasad et al, 1997).

Properties and activity: Nonacosane and hentriacontane were isolated from the hexane extract of leaves. An attempt to isolate nitrogenous compounds led to the isolation of amino acids such as leucine, iso-leucine, valine, allanine and - amynobutyric acid. Isolation of trimethyl amine oxide was of particular interest. An alkaloid gynamine which is a trace constituent was isolated and identified (Sinsheimer et al, 1967). Antisweet constituent of the leaves has been found to be a mixture of triterpene saponins. These have been designated as gymnemic acids A,B,C and D which have the gymnemagenin and gymnestrogenins as the aglycones of gymnemic acid A and B and gymnemic acid C and D respectively. These are hexahydroxy triterpenes the latter being partially acylated. The sugar residues are glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid while ferulic and angelic acids have been attached as the carboxylic acid.

Chewing of leaves reduces sensitivity to sweet substances. Effects of gymnema extracts had been variable. While verifying the effect of G. sylvestre leaves on detoxification of snake venom, it has been reported that a toxic component of venom ATP and gymnemate bind at the same site inhibiting venom ATP-ase. The active principles which have been identified as glycosides (7 gymnemic acids) suggest that the topical and selective anaesthetic effect of the plant might result from the competition of the receptor sites between glycosides and the sweet substances (Warren et al, 1969). The leaves are antidiabetic and insulinotropic. Gymnemic acid is antiviral. The plant is bitter, astringent, acrid, thermogenic, antiinflammatory, anodyne, digestive, liver tonic, emetic, diuretic, stomachic, stimulant, anthelmintic, alexipharmic, laxative, cardiotonic, expectorant, antipyretic and uterine tonic.... gymnema

Hemidesmus indicus

Asclepiadaceae

San: Anantamulah, Sariba;

Hin: Anantamul, Magrabu;

Ben: Anantamul;

Mal: Nannari, Naruninti, Narunanti;

Tam: Nannari, Saribam;

Tel: Sugandipala;

Kan: Namadaballi

Importance: Indian Sarasaparilla or Country Sarasaparilla is a climbing slender plant with twining woody stems and a rust-coloured bark. The roots are useful in vitiated conditions of pitta, burning sensation, leucoderma, leprosy, skin diseases, pruritus, asthma, bronchitis, hyperdipsia, opthalmopathy, hemicrania, epileptic fits, dyspepsia, helminthiasis, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemorrhoids, strangury, leucorrhoea, syphilis, abcess, arthralgia, fever and general debility. The leaves are useful in vomiting, wounds and leucoderma. The stems are bitter, diaphoretic and laxative and are useful in inflammations, cerebropathy, hepatopathy, nephropathy, syphilis, metropathy, leucoderma, odontalgia, cough and asthma. The latex is good for conjunctivitis (Warrier et al, 1995). The important formulations using the drug are Saribadyasava, Pindataila, Vidaryadi lehya, Draksadi kasaya, Jatyadi ghrita, etc. (Sivarajan et al, 1994). The Hemidesmus root powdered and mixed with cow’s milk is given with much benefit in the case of strangury. In the form of syrup, it has demulcent and diuretic proportions. The root, roasted in plantain leaves, then beaten into a mass with cumin and sugar and mixed with ghee is a household remedy in genito-urinary diseases. The hot infusion of the root-bark with milk and sugar is a good alterative tonic especially for children in cases of chronic cough and diarrhoea (Nadkarni, 1998). It has been successfully used in the cure of venereal diseases where American Sarasaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis Linn.) has failed. Native doctors utilize it in nephritic complaints and for sore mouths of children (Grieve and Leyel, 1992).

Distribution: Hemidesmus is distributed throughout India, the Moluccas and Sri Lanka.

Botany: Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. syn. Periploca indica Linn. belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae. It is a perennial, slender, laticiferous, twining or prostrate, wiry shrub with woody rootstock and numerous slender, terete stems having thickened nodes. Leaves are simple, opposite, very variable from elliptic-oblong to linear-lanceolate, variegated with white above and silvery white and pubescent beneath. Flowers are greenish purple crowded in sub-sessile cymes in the opposite leaf-axils. Fruits are slender follicles, cylindrical, 10cm long, tapering to a point at the apex. Seeds are flattened, black, ovate-oblong and coma silvery white. The tuberous root is dark-brown, coma silvery white, tortuous with transversely cracked and longitudinally fissured bark. It has a strong central vasculature and a pleasant smell and taste (Warrier et al, 1995).

The Ayurvedic texts mention two varieties, viz. a krsna or black variety and a sveta or white variety (Aiyer, 1951) which together constitute the pair, Saribadvayam. The drug is known as Sariba. Svetasariba is H. indicus. Two plants, namely, Ichnocarpus fructescens (Apocynaceae) known as pal-valli in vernacular and Cryptolepis buchanani (Asclepidaceae) known as Katupalvalli (Rheeds, 1689) are equated with black variety or Krsnasariba (Chunekar, 1982; Sharma, 1983).

Agrotechnology: Hemidesmus is propagated through root cuttings. The root cuttings of length 3-5cm can be planted in polybags or in the field. They can be planted in flat beds or on ridges. Planting is done usually at a spacing of 50x20cm. Heavy application of organic manure is essential for good growth and root yield. Inorganic fertilizers are not usually applied. Frequent weeding and earthing up are required, as the plant is only slow growing. Provision of standards for twining will further improve the growth and yield of the plant.

Properties and activity: The twigs of the plant give a pregnane ester diglycoside named desinine. Roots give -sitosterol, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzaldehyde, -amyrin, -amyrin and its acetate, hexatriacontane, lupeol octacosonate, lupeol and its acetate. Leaves, stem and root cultures give cholesterol, campesterol, -sitosterol and 16-dehydro-pregnenolone. Leaves and flowers also give flavonoid glycosides rutin, hyperoside and iso-quercitin (Husain et al,1992). “Hemidesmine”- a crystallizible principle is found in the volatile oil extracted from roots. Some suggest that it is only a stearoptene. It also contains some starch, saponin and in the suberous layer, tannic acid (Grieve and Leyel, 1992). The root is alterative, febrifuge, antileucorrhoeic, antisyphilitic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, tonic, galactogenic, antidote for scorpion-sting and snake-bite, antidiarrhoeal, blood purifier, antirheumatic and aperitive. Essential oil from root is anti-bacterial and the plant is antiviral (Husain et al, 1992).... indian sarasaparilla

Glycyrrhiza glabra

Papilionaceae

San: Yashtimadhu Hin: Jathimadh Mal: Irattimadhuram Tam:Athimadhuram

Tel: Yashtimadhukam

Ben: Yashtomadhu Pun:Muleti

Importance: Liquorice or Muleti is a perennial herb or undershrub about 1m high. Its dried peeled or unpeeled underground stems and roots constitute the drug which is an important constituent of all cough and catarrh syrups, throat lozenges and pastilles. This has been used in medicine for more than 4000 years. Hippocrates (400 BC) mentioned its use as a remedy for ulcers and quenching of thirst. Dioscorides, the father of Greek medicine described this drug in detail and considered it useful for maintaining shape of arteries and in burning stomach, trouble of liver and kidney, scabies, healing of wounds and as a remedy for eye diseases. It has been used in Arab system of medicine for more than 600 years from where it has been adopted to modern medicine (Gibson, 1978).

The commercial name of the dried rhizome and root of the plant is liquorice which is used as flavouring agent and the taste coorigent in pharmaceutical and confectionery industries and its products are widely reported to be useful in ulcer therapy. Glycyrrhizin, a triterpene glucoside, is the principal constituent of G. glabra which is 50 times sweeter than sugar.

Distribution: Liquorice is native to Mediterranean region, South Europe and Middle East. It is widely distributed in Spain, Italy, Greece, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, parts of USSR and China. However its cultivation is limited to small areas in USSR, UK, and USA. In India, it grows in Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir. Semi arid areas of Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarath states are suitable for the cultivation of Liquorice. However, its commercial cultivation has not yet been possible and the domestic requirement is largely met through imports.

Botany: Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. belongs to the family Papilionaceae. The word Glycyrrhiza is of Greek origin meaning ‘sweet’ and glabra means ‘smooth’ which refers to smooth fruit of the species. This is a tall perennial, self pollinated herb or undershrub about 1m high with long cylindrical burrowing rootstock and horizontal creeping stolons which reach 1.5-1.8m in length. Leaves are alternate, pinnate with 9-17 leaflets. Leaflets are yellowish-green, 2.5-5cm long, ovate and obtuse. Flowers are pale blue arranged in a raceme and 1.25cm long. Calyx is glandular and pubescent. The pods are glabrous, red to brown having 3-4 seeds. Rhizome is soft, flexible and fibrous with light yellow colour and a characteristic sweet taste.

Agrotechnology: This plant thrives well in subtropical areas with very warm summers and cool winters with a rainfall not exceeding 500mm. Semi -arid and arid areas in subtropical zones are not suitable for the cultivation of this crop. It does not tolerate high humidity and waterlogged conditions. Well drained light loam soils which are rich in calcium and magnesium with slightly alkaline pH and free from stones are ideal for this crop. There are a number of varieties of this crop among which Spanish, Russian and Persian liquorice are quite common. Commercial varieties are Typica, Regel and Herd. This is propagated by seed, but usually multiplied vegetatively either through crown cuttings or stolon pieces. In the case of crown cuttings, 10-15cm long crown pieces with 2-3 buds are planted vertically at a distance of 0.6-0.7m in rows 1-1.5m apart. However, most of the liquorice is propagated through stolon pieces of the above size planted horizontally, preferably on ridges during spring at the same distance as above. Rapid clonal propagation is also possible by tissue culture technique. Murashige and Skoog’s medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine and indole-3-acetic acid favoured multiple shoot production without any intervening callus phase. These regenerated plantlets can be transferred to earthen pots in the glass house and after a brief hardening phase, these are transplanted in the field with a high rate (90-95%) of survival. This plant normally does not require much fertilizers but in deficient soils, it is better to apply 10-15 tonnes FYM per hectare before planting. The field should be immediately irrigated after planting in spring and after the crop has sprouted, it requires very little irrigation. Space between the rows should be kept free from weeds. Short term vegetables like carrot or cabbage can be planted between the rows for additional income. In order to produce good rhizome, flowering shoots are clipped. No serious disease except leaf spot caused by Cercospora cavarae has been reported in this crop. Roots are ready for harvesting after 3-4 years. The root is dug when the top has dried during autumn (November- December). A trench 60cm deep is dug along the ridges and the entire root is lifted. Broken parts of the root left in the soil, sprout again and give another crop after 2-3 years. Thus liquorice once planted properly can be harvested for 10-15 years.

Postharvest technology: Harvested roots are cut into pieces of 15-20cm long and 1-2cm in diameter. They are washed and dried upto 6-8% moisture in the sun and shade alternately which reduces the weight by 50%. The average yield of dried roots varies from 1-3 tonnes per hectare depending on the variety, soil and climatic conditions.

Properties and activity: Roots gave a number of compounds the most important bieng a glucoside, glycyrrhizin which gave glycyrrhetinic acid on enzyme hydrolysis. Root also contains flavans, flavones, iso-flavanoes and coumarins including a 4-methyl coumarin, liqcoumarin, glabridin, glabrene, 4’-0-methyl and 3’-methoxyglabridin, formononetin, salicylic acid, 0-acetyl salicylic acid which has been isolated first time from nature, hispaglabridins A and B and 4’0- methylglabridin.On hydrolysis it also gave two molecules of d-glucuronic acid, each linked with 1-2 linkage to 3-hydroxyl of the sapogenin (Elgamal et al, 1969) Glycyrrhizin is antidiuretic, antiinflammatory, expectorant, antiulcerous, antihistamine. Glycyrrhizic acid is antiviral. The roots are emetic, tonic, diuretic, demulcent, mild laxative, aphrodisiac, trichogenous, expectorant, emmenagogue, alexipharmic, alterant and intellect promoting.... liquorice

(Buch-Ham.) Roem.

Family: Rutaceae.

Habitat: Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Sikkim, Nepal, Assam, Khasi, Aka and Lushai hills.

Action: Bark of the root, stem and branches—used in the treatment of tubercular cases.

The root contains coumarins, mi- cromelin, phebalosin and yuehchak- ene.

Micromelum pubescens Blume, synonym M. minutum (Forst. f.) Seem. is found in the Andamans. The plant is used in Malaya and Indonesia for phthisis and chest diseases. The root is chewed with betel for coughs.

The leaves contain coumarins, mi- cropubescin and phebalosin.

The bark contains phebalosin. The roots contain micromelumin, phe- balosin, imperatorin, angelical, lime- ttin, scopoletin, minumicrolin and murrangatin.

Family: Lamiaceae; Labiatae.

Habitat: Kumaon, Upper Gangetic plain, Bihar, Orissa, Western Ghats, Nilgiris.

Folk: Pudinaa (var.).

Action: Plant—carminative. Used as a substitute for Mentha piperata Linn.

The plant yields an essential oil (1.6%) which contains mainly pulegone (80%).

Micromeria biflora Benth., equated with Indian Wild Thyme, is found in tropical and temperate Himalayas, and in Western Ghats and hills of South India.

The principal constituent of volatile oil of Camphorata sp. is camphor; of Citrata sp. is citral; of menthata and Pulegata sp. is d-menthone; and pulegone.... micromelum integerrimum

(Linn.) Pich.

Synonym: V pubescens Urv.

Family: Apocynaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe. Found in the Himalayas, West Bengal and Palni Hills.

English: Green Periwinkle, Greater Periwinkle.

Action: Astringent, antihaemor- rhagic, hypotensive. Used to treat menorrhagia and leucorrhoea.

The herb contains indole alkaloids; majdine, isomajdine, majoridine, aku- ammine, akuammigine, carpanaubine, irvine, reserpine, serpentine, sarpagi- ne, tetrahydroalstonine, vincamajine and vincamajoreine; and tannins.

The cytotoxic dimeric alkaloids present in Vinca rosea L., used in the treatment of certain types of cancer, have not been found in Vinca major.... vinca major

Nerve root. American Valerian. Cypripedium pubescens, Willd. German: Frauenschuh. French: Sabot de Ve?nus. Spanish: Zucco. Italian: Calceolo. Dried root and rhizome. Time- honoured North American Indian remedy. Keynote: central nervous system.

Constituents: tannin, resin.

Action: nerve relaxant, autonomic regulator, mild pain-killer, thymoleptic. A fine brain and spinal remedy and should be at the hand of every spinal manipulator. Antidote to caffeine poisoning.

Use s. Nervous excitability, insomnia, irritability, neuralgia, muscle twitching, anxiety states, schizophrenia, pressive headache, nerve tension, epilepsy, pre-menstrual tension, spermatorrhoea, post- influenzal depression, weepiness.

“Yellow Lady’s Slipper was held in big esteem by the Indians as a sedative and an antispasmodic, acting like Valerian in alleviating nervous symptoms . . . said to have proved itself in hysteria and chorea.” (Virgil Vogel)

Combinations. (1) with Oats and Skullcap for anxiety states and (2) with Hops for insomnia with depression BHP (1983).

Preparations: Average dose: 2-4g. Thrice daily.

Tea. Half-1 teaspoon to each cupful water; bring to boil; simmer 2-3 minutes in covered vessel; infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup.

Liquid Extract BHP (1983) 1:1 in 45 per cent alcohol. Dose: 2-4ml.

Powder. Dose, 2-4g. ... lady’s slipper

Betula alba

FAMILY: Betulaceae

SYNONYMS: B. alba var. pubescens, B. odorata, B. pendula, European white birch, silver birch.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Decorative tree, up to 15–20 metres high, with slender branches, silvery-white bark broken into scales, and light green oval leaves. The male catkins are 2–5 cms long, the female up to 15 cms long.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere; found throughout Eastern Europe, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic coast, northern China and Japan.

OTHER SPECIES: Many cultivars exist of this species of birch. The paper birch (B. papyrifera) and B. verrucosa are also used for the production of birch bud oil and/or birch tar. NB Should not be confused with the oil from the sweet birch (B. lenta) which is potentially toxic.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Birch buds were formerly used as a tonic in hair preparations. Birch tar is used in Europe for all types of chronic skin complaints: psoriasis, eczema, etc. In Scandinavia the young birch leaflets and twigs are bound into bundles and used in the sauna to tone the skin and promote the circulation. The sap is also tapped in the spring and drunk as a tonic. Buds, leaves and bark are used for ‘rheumatic and arthritic conditions, especially where kidney functions appear to need support … oedematous states; urinary infections and calculi.’.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, tonic.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaf-buds. 2. Crude birch tar is extracted by slow destructive distillation from the bark; this is subsequently steam distilled to yield a rectified birch tar oil.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pale yellow, viscous oil with a woody-green balsamic scent. It crystallizes at low temperatures. 2. The crude tar is an almost black, thick oily mass. The rectified oil is a brownish-yellow, clear oily liquid with a smoky, tar-like, ‘Russian leather’ odour. It blends well with other woody and balsamic oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Mainly betulenol and other sesquiterpenes. 2. In the tar oil: phenol, cresol, xylenol, guaiacol, creosol, pyrocatechol, pyrobetulin (which gives the ‘leather’ scent).

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Dermatitis, dull or congested skin, eczema, hair care, psoriasis etc.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, cellulitis, muscular pain, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.

OTHER USES: Birch bud oil is used primarily in hair tonics and shampoos, and in some cosmetics for its potential skin-healing effects. The crude tar is used in pharmaceutical preparations, ointments, lotions, etc. for dermatological diseases. It is also used in soap and leather manufacture – rectified birch tar oil provides the heart for many ‘leather’ type perfumes and aftershaves.... birch, white

Strychnos nux-vomica

Loganiaceae

San: Karaskara;

Hin: Kajra, Kuchila;

Mal: Kanjiram; ;

Tam: Itti, Kagodi, Kanjirai Mar:Jharkhatchura;

Kan: Hemmushti, Ittangi;

Tel: Mushti, Mushidi; Ori: Kora, Kachila

Importance: It is a large deciduous tree, with simple leaves and white fragrant flowers.

Strychnos is highly toxic to man and animals producing stiffness of muscles and convulsions, ultimately leading to death. However, in small doses it can also serve as efficacious cure forms of paralysis and other nervous disorders. The seeds are used as a remedy in intermittent fever, dyspepsia, chronic dysentery, paralytic and neuralgic affections, worms, epilepsy, chronic rheumatism, insomnia and colic. It is also useful in impotence, neuralgia of face, heart disease, spermatorrhoea, skin diseases, toxins, wounds, emaciation, cough and cholera. Leaves are applied as poultice in the treatment of chronic wounds and ulcers and the leaf decoction is useful in paralytic complaints. Root and root bark used in fever and dysentery (Nadkarni, 1982; Kurup et al, 1979).

Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout India in deciduous forests up to 1200m. It is also found in Sri Lanka, Siam, Indochina and Malaysia.

Botany: Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. is a large tree belonging to the family Loganiaceae. Leaves are simple, opposite, orbicular to ovate, 6-11.5x6-9.5cm, coriaceous, glabrous, 5 nerved, apex obtuse, acute or apiculate, transverse nerves irregular and inconspicuous. Inflorescence is many flowered terminal cymes, 2.5-5cm across. Bracts (5mm) and bracteoles (1.5mm) small. Flowers are white or greenish white and fragrant. Calyx 5 lobed, pubescent and small (2mm). Corolla salver shaped, tube cylindrical slightly hairy near the base within and greenish white, tube much elongate than the lobes. Tube 7mm and lobes 2.5mm long. Lobes 5 and valvate. Stamens 5, filaments short, 0.1mm long. Anthers 1.5mm subexerted, linear oblong. Ovary 1.5 mm, pubescent, 2 celled, ovules one to many. Style 9mm, stigma capitate. Fruit is a berry, 5-6cm diameter, globose, indehiscent, thick shelled, orange red when ripe with fleshy pulp enclosing the seeds. Seeds 1-many, discoid, compressed, coin like, concave on one side and convex on the other, covered with fine grey silky hairs.

The leaf fall is during December (do not shed all the leaves at a time) and new foliage appears in February. Flowering is during March - April and fruiting during May - December. Fruits take about 8-9 months to mature.

Properties and activity: Strychnine and brucine are the most important and toxic alkaloids present in the plant. They occur not only in the seeds but also in roots, wood, bark, fruit pulp and hard fruit shells. The minor alkaloids present in the plant are vomicine, -colubrine, -colubrine, pseudostrychnine and N-methyl-sec-pseudobrucine (novacine). Loganin a glycoside is also present (Warnat, 1932; Martin et al, 1953; Guggisberg et al, 1966; Bisset and Chaudhary, 1974). Chatterji and Basa (1967) reported vomicine as the major constituent alkaloid along with unidentified alkaloid in leaves and identified another alkaloid kajine (N-methyl pseudostrychnine) from the leaves of very young plants.

Root bark of S. nux-vomica yeilded 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy strychnine, 4 hydroxy strychine, nor-macusine, a new alkaloid 12 , 13 dihydro-12 -hydroxy isostrychnine named protostrychnine (Baser et al, 1979) methoxy strychnine, and mavacurine (Guggisberg et al, 1966). Leaves and root bark also yeilded 11 new alkaloids. 10-hydroxy strychnine, 3-12-dihydroxystrychnine, 12-hydroxy–11- methoxy strychnine, 3-12-dihydroxy- 11-methoxy strychnine,12-hydroxy strychnine-N- oxide 12-hydroxy-11-methoxy strychnine- N-oxide-19,20–dihydro isostrychnine, 16 , 17 dihydro-17 -hydroxy isostrychnine, O- methyl-macusine B, 16-epi-o-methyl–macusine B and normelinone B (Baser and Bisset, 1982).

De and Datta (1988) isolated 5 tertiary indole alkaloids viz. strychnine, brucine, vomicine, icajine and novacine from S.nux-vomica flowers. Bisset et al (1989) isolated and identified two phenolic glycosides salidroside and cuchiloside – a compound consisting of salidroside and an attached xylose unit, from the fruit of S.nux-vomica.

Rodriguez et al (1979) isolated an indole alkaloid from the seeds of S. nux- vomica and identified as a 3-methoxy icajine. A new alkaloid 15-hydroxy strychnine has been isolated from the seeds and the structure of the alkaloid established by spectroscopic data (Galeffi et al, 1979). Cai et al (1990a) isolated 4 new alkaloids isobrucine, isobrucine N-oxide, isostrychnine N-oxide and 2 hydroxy–3-methoxy strychnine from the heat treated seeds of S. nuxvomica and the structure of the alkaloids were determined by 13 CNMR (Cai et al, 1994). Cai et al (1990 b) studied the changes in the alkaloid composition of the seeds during drug processing. Saily et al (1994) determined the mineral elements in Strychnos nux-vomica. Corsaro et al (1995) reported polysaccharides from the seeds of Strychnos species.

Seeger and Neumann (1986) reviewed the physico-chemical characteristics, occurrence, identification, utilisation, poisoning, toxicity, kinetics, differential diagnosis and therapeutic uses of strychnine and brucine. Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Pencillium citrinum showed regular association with Strychnos seeds and effectively deteriorated the alkaloid content of the seeds (Dutta, 1988; Dutta and Roy, 1992). Nicholson (1993) described the history, structure and synthesis of strychnine which occur in the seeds of S. nux-vomica. Rawal and Michoud (1991) developed a general solution for the synthesis of 2- azabicyclo (3.3.1) nonane substructure of Strychnos alkaloids.

Villar et al (1984) and Hayakawa et al (1984) developed HPLC method for the analysis of strychnine and brucine. Graf and Wittliner (1985), Kostennikova (1986) and Gaitonde and Joshi (1986) suggested different methods for the assay of strychnine and brucine. Biala et al, (1996) developed new method for the assay of alkaloids in S. nux- vomica.

The seeds are bitter, acrid, alexeteric, aphrodisiac, appetiser, antiperiodic, anthelmintic, digestive, febrifuge, emmenagogue, purgative, spinal, respiratory and cardiac stimulant and stomachic. The bark is bitter, and tonic and febrifuge (Nadkarni, 1954; Kurup et al, 1979; Warrier et al, 1996).

The quarternery alkaloid from the root bark of the Sri Lankan plant exhibited muscle-relaxant activity (Baser and Bisset, 1982). Antimicrobial activity of indole alkaloid isolated from the Strychnos nux-vomica was studied by Verpoorte et al, 1983. Shukla et al (1985) evaluated the efficacy of Rasnadigugglu compound consisting of S. nux-vomica, on rheumatoid arthritis and found to be effective in reducing inflammatory oedoma and rheumatoid arthritis. It also exhibited analgesic activity. A compound Unani formulation containing S. nux-vomica significantly attenuated withdrawal intensity in morphine dependent rats (Zatar et al, 1991). Shahana et al (1994) studied the effect of Unani drug combination (UDC) having Strychnos nux-vomica on the abstinence syndrome in moderately and severely morphine dependent rats. The UDC strikingly suppressed the abstinence syndrome was seen to possess central depressant and analgesic action.

Melone et al (1992) reported brucine-lethality in mice. Panda and Panda (1993) and Satyanarayanan et al (1994) reported antigastric ulcer activity of nux vomica in Shay rats. Banerjee and Pal (1994) reported the medicinal plants used by the tribals of plain land in India for hair and scalp preparation and S. nux-vomica being used to cure alopecia (baldness) by the tribals. Tripathi and Chaurasia (1996) studied the effect of S. nux-vomica alcohol extract on lipid peroxidation in rat liver.... strychnine tree