The meaning of the symbols of sandalwood seen in a dream.

Habitat: Sub-tropical Himalaya, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.

Action: Leaf—emetic.

Habitat: Found in Cuddaph district of Andhra Pradesh, neighbouring areas of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Action: Heartwood—antibilious, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic, astringent, diaphoretic, febrifuge.

Habitat: Dry regions of Peninsular India from Vindhya mountains southwards, especially in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Action: Cooling, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, antiseptic and bacteriostatic against Gram positive bacteria. Used as a urinary antiseptic in chronic cystitis and sexually transmitted diseases. A paste is applied to temples in headache, during fevers and on burns, local inflammations and skin diseases (to allay pruritus). Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal. Used as urinary antiseptic in dysuria, urethral discharges and diseases of gallbladder.

Alternatives. Creams or ointments of Comfrey, Chickweed, Aloe Vera, Evening Primrose, Plantain, Avocado, Marigold, Cucumber, Vitamin E. Sunflower seed oil. Glycerine and Rosewater.

Aromatherapy. Few drops of one of the following essential oils in a heavy carrier oil (Avocado) to ensure penetration: Chamomile, Jasmine, Orange Blossom, Patchouli, Sandalwood.

Supplementation. Vitamins A, C, D, E. Zinc. 1 teaspoon Cod Liver oil in the morning. ... chapped hands

MOTH REPELLENT. Sew into small linen bags any of the following: Cinnamon, Sandalwood chips, Camphor, Cloves. Add: sprinkle of Cedarwood for greater potency. MOTHER SEIGEL’S SYRUP. See: SHAKERS, The. ... morning sickness

Habitat: Both the Peninsulas and the Andaman Islands.

Action: Fruits—known as Wild Plum or Wild Olive, are used as a substitute for lemon. Fruits and seeds—laxative. Root and leaves— decoction given in jaundice, diarrhoea and during fevers. Root—used for venereal diseases. Bark—astringent, applied to sores. Wood—used as a substitute for sandalwood.

Alternatives. Teas. Agnus Castus, Agrimony, Clivers, Dandelion, Nettles, Red Clover, Wood Betony. Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Agnus Castus, Dandelion, Wood Betony. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes; dose – 1 cup thrice daily.

Decoction. 1 teaspoon Barberry bark to cup cold water; steep 3 hours. Strain. Dose: 1 cup morning and evening. Barberry bark is one of the few agents that yield their properties to cold infusion. Works better without application of heat.

Formula. Equal parts: Echinacea, Blue Flag, Barberry. Dose – Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: One 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: Two 5ml teaspoons. Thrice daily, before meals.

Cider vinegar. Internally and externally – success reported.

Topical. Cooling astringent creams or ointments: Chickweed, Aloe Vera, Witch Hazel, Zinc and Castor oil, Jojoba. Avocado cream, Dilute Tea Tree oil. Thyme Lotion (Blackmore).

Aromatherapy. 2 drops each: Lavender and Tea Tree oils in 2 teaspoons Almond oil: applied with cotton wool. Or Sandalwood oil.

Diet: Avoid chocolate, cow’s milk, sugars and drinks that induce facial flushing. Low fat. Low carbohydrate. Raw fruit and vegetables.

Supplements. Biotin, Vitamins A, C, E. Two halibut liver oil capsules after breakfast. Vitamin B6 for menstrual acne. Betaine hydrochloride, Selenium, Zinc.

Note: Avoid foods and medicines containing iodine or bromine. ... acne rosacea

Lesions may appear on face, neck and chest. Worse in winter, better in summer. Acne vulgaris has blackheads (comedones) that distinguish it from acne rosacea. Studies show low zinc levels. The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia records Poke root singularly effective. Medicines containing iodine and bromine (Kelp) should be avoided. Dr Edward Frankel, Los Angeles, warns against use of Vaseline which, through build-up of bacteria, may cause pustular reaction.

Alternatives. Teas. Agrimony, Alfalfa, Burdock leaves, Chamomile, Dandelion, Figwort, Gotu Kola, Heartsease, Hibiscus, Marigold petals, Mate tea, Nettles, Redbush (rooibos), Rose Hip, Violet, Wood Betony.

Tablets/capsules. Blue Flag, Dandelion, Echinacea, Queen’s Delight, Seaweed and Sarsaparilla, Poke root, Devil’s Claw, Goldenseal.

Formula. Echinacea 2; Blue Flag 1; Poke root half. Dose – Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 30-60 drops. Tinctures: 1-2 teaspoons. Thrice daily before meals. Evening Primrose oil. Success reported.

Maria Treben. Nettle tea.

French traditional. Horse radish vinegar.

Greek traditional. Marigold petal poultice.

Topical. cleanse lesions with distilled extract of Witch Hazel or fresh lemon juice. Follow with Marshmallow and Slippery Elm ointment, dilute Tea Tree oil, Evening Primrose oil, Jojoba or Aloe Vera gel. Thyme Lotion (Blackmore’s).

Aromatherapy. Sandalwood oil. Or Lavender and Tea Tree oils.

Diet. Lacto-vegetarian. Low fat, low carbohydrate. Avoid chocolate, cow’s milk, sugars and drinks that induce facial flushing. Raw fruit and vegetables.

Supplements. Vitamins A, B-complex, B6, C, E. Chromium, Selenium, Zinc. ... acne, vulgaris

A plug of tenacious mucus may be clogged in the bronchial tree and gradually sucked into the smaller bronchi, blocking them. This prevents air from passing through to replace air that has been absorbed and precipitates cough, sputum, spitting of blood. A stethoscope reveals crepitations; chronic cases may be detected by clubbing of the fingers, which sign may be missing in bronchitis and other chest infections. Alternatives. Treatment. Bronchitics are most at risk and should never neglect a cold. Stimulating expectorants followed by postural drainage indicated. To control infection, plenty of Echinacea should be given. Where a localised area becomes septic a surgical lobectomy may be necessary. See: POSTURAL DRAINAGE. Cases of developed bronchiectasis can be maintained relatively well over a period of years by judicious use of herbs: Bayberry bark, Blood root, Elecampane root, Ephedra, Eucalyptus oil, Grindelia, Senega root, Mullein, Pleurisy root, Red Clover. Lobelia. Not Comfrey.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Yarrow, Mullein, Lungwort. 1 heaped teaspoon in each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes; 1 cup morning and evening and when necessary.

Powders. Mix: Lobelia 2; Grindelia quarter; Capsicum quarter. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) morning, evening and when necessary.

Tablets/capsules. Iceland Moss. Lobelia.

Tinctures. Formula. Ephedra 2; Echinacea 1; Elecampane root 1; Capsicum quarter. dose: 2-5ml teaspoons morning and evening and when necessary.

Practitioner. Liquid Extract Senega 1; Ephedra 1; Lungwort 2 (spitting of blood add: Blood root quarter). Dose: 2-5ml morning and evening and when necessary. In advanced cases there may be swollen ankles and kidney breakdown for which Parsley root, Buchu or Juniper may be indicated.

The sucking of a clove (or single drop of oil of Cloves in honey) has given temporary relief. Aromatherapy. Inhalants or chest-rub – Eucalyptus, Cajeput, Hyssop, Rosemary, Sandalwood.

Diet. Wholefoods. Low fat, low salt, high fibre. Avoid all dairy foods.

Supplementation. Vitamin B-complex. Vitamin E for increased oxygenation. Vitamins A, C, D, F. Outlook. Relief possible from regular herbal regime as dispensed by qualified practitioner. Requirements of each individual case may differ. ... bronchiectasis

Causes: smoking, mis-use of the voice in talking or singing (Ginseng).

Symptoms: voice husky or absent (aphonia). Talking causes pain. Self-limiting.

Treatment. Stop talking for 2 days. Care is necessary: neglect or ineffective treatment may rouse infection and invade the windpipe and bronchi resulting in croup.

Differential: croup is alerted by high fever and characteristic cough, requiring hospital treatment. Alternatives. Teas: Red Sage. Garden Sage. Thyme, wild or garden.

Effective combination: equal parts, Sage and Raspberry leaves. Used also as a gargle.

Tablets/capsules. Poke root. Lobelia. Iceland Moss.

Cinnamon. Tincture, essence or oil of: 3-5 drops in teaspoon honey.

Horseradish. 1oz freshly scraped root to steep in cold water for two hours. Add 2 teaspoons runny honey. Dose: 2-3 teaspoons every two hours.

Topical. Equal parts water/cider vinegar cold pack round throat. Renew when dry.

Traditional: “Rub soles of the feet with Garlic and lard well-beaten together, overnight. Hoarseness gone in the morning.” (John Wesley) Friar’s balsam.

Aromatherapy. Steam inhalations. Oils: Bergamot, Eucalyptus, Niaouli, Geranium, Lavender, Sandalwood.

Diet. Three-day fruit fast.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamin A (7500iu). Vitamin C (1 gram thrice daily). Beta carotene 200,000iu. Zinc 25mg. ... laryngitis, acute

Constitutional disturbance: fever, malaise.

Many causes, including: drugs, drinking spirits. Gross mis-use of voice (singing or talking) may produce nodules (warts) on the cords. The smoker has inflammatory changes. Nerve paralysis in the elderly. Carcinoma of the larynx. Voice changes during menstruation are associated with hormonal changes (Agnus Castus). Professional singers, members of choirs benefit from Irish Moss, Iceland Moss, Slippery Elm or Poke root.

Alternatives. Cayenne, Caraway seed, Balm of Gilead, Lungwort, Queen’s Delight, Thyme, Wild Indigo, Marsh Cudweed, Mullein, Marshmallow.

For most infections: Equal parts, Tinctures Goldenseal and Myrrh: 3-5 drops in water 3-4 times daily; use also as a spray or gargle.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Mullein, Marshmallow root, Liquorice. 2 teaspoons to each cup water brought to boil; vessel removed on boiling. Drink freely.

Practitioner. Combine equal parts: Senega, Ipecacuanha and Squills (all BP). 5-10 drops thrice daily in water. Also gargle.

Poke root. Reliable standby. Decoction, tablets/capsules. Tincture: dose, 5-10 drops thrice daily in water or honey.

Topical. Aromatherapy. Steam inhalations. Oils: Bergamot, Eucalyptus, Niaouli, Geranium, Lavender, Sandalwood. Any one.

Diet. Slippery Elm gruel. Salt-free. Avoid fried foods.

Supplements. Daily. Vitamin A (7500iu). Vitamin C (1 gram thrice daily).

To prevent voice damage. The voice should not be strained by talking too much, shouting or singing – especially with a cold. Try not to cough or keep clearing the throat but instead, swallow firmly. Do not whisper – it will strain the voice.

A common cause of laryngitis is growth of a nodule, cyst or polyp on the vocal cords. They are visible on use of an endoscope. There are two vocal cords which, in speech, come together and vibrate like a reed in a musical instrument. In formation of a nodule they cannot meet, air escapes and the voice becomes hoarse. Relaxation technique.

Where the condition lasts for more than 4 weeks an ENT specialist should be consulted. ... laryngitis, chronic

Oils used in Phytotherapy: Almond, English Chamomile, Aniseed, Bergamot, Black Pepper, Buchu, Camphor, Cedarwood, Cloves, Coriander, Cypress, Eucalyptus, Geranium, Juniper, Lavender (French), Lavender (English), Lavender (Spanish), Lemon, Marjoram, Orange (sweet), Patchouli, Peppermint, Pine (Scots), Rosemary, Sage, Sandalwood, Thyme, Spearmint, St John’s Wort, Turpentine, Ylang Ylang.

Most oils are obtained by steam distillation. Being highly concentrated, internal use is by a few drops, diluted. About 30-40 are used medicinally; each having its own specific healing properties. Some are convenient as inhalants; a few drops on a tissue for relief of catarrh, colds, etc. Fragrant burners and electronic diffusers are available for vapour-inhalation. Bring to boil 2 pints water; allow to stand 3-4 minutes; sprinkle on the surface 5-10 drops Eucalyptus oil and with towel over head, inhale steam, 5-10 minutes.

Examples: (a) equal parts dilute oils of Thyme and Hypericum (acute middle ear inflammation) 3-4 drops injected into ear 2-3 times daily. (b) 10 drops oil Marjoram in bath water for cramp. Eucalyptus is a useful antibacterial; Cinnamon (anti-inflammatory), Juniper (urinary antiseptic), Orange blossom (anti- depressant), Lavender (sedative).

Essential oils should never be used neat, except as prescribed by a suitably qualified practitioner. While aromatherapists do not prescribe internally, Dr Paul Belaiche, one of France’s leading experts on essential oils, advises oral medication at a maximum daily dosage of 12 drops according to the oil. He advises drops on the tongue, on activated charcoal, in capsule form using a suitable excipient or vegetable oil, or mixed with a little honey. Anal injection has proved successful, (8-10 drops in 10ml vegetable oil) or suppositories made from 200-300mg (8-10 drops) essential oil to 2 grams of base per suppository. Oils should never be allowed to touch the eyes.

Capsules of Garlic oil may be inserted into the rectum for worms or prostate disorder. OR: 10 drops oil mixed with 10ml vegetable oil and injected with the aid of a pipette. Dilute oil of Thyme is used as a massage-rub for chest infections. Oil of Cloves is not only an antiseptic but an analgesic to assuage moderate dental pain. Volatile oils reflexly stimulate the medulla through the olfactory nerve, thus promoting appetite and flow of saliva. All stimulate production of white blood cells and thereby support the immune system.

Oils not used: Basil, Bitter Almonds, Boldo, Calamus, Horseradish, Mugwort, Mustard, Pennyroyal, Rue, Sassafras, Savin, Tansy, Thuja, Wormseed.

Oils not used in pregnancy: Bay, Buchu, Chamomile, Clary Sage, Cinnamon, Clove, Fennel, Hyssop, Juniper, Marjoram, Myrrh, Peppermint, Rose, Rosemary, Sage, Thyme. All other oils – half the normal amount.

Tea: 2-3 drops, selected oil, on teabag makes 3 cups tea.

Inhalant: 10 drops on tissue, or same amount in hot water to inhale steam.

Bath water: add: 10-15 drops.

Compress: 10-15 drops in half a cup (75ml) milk or water. Soak suitable material and apply.

Massage: 6 drops in two teaspoons ‘carrier’ vegetable oil (Almond, Peanut, Olive, etc).

Fragrant oils replace hospital smell.

Essential oil suppliers: Butterbur and Sage, 101 Highgrove Street, Reading RG1 5EJ. Also: Shirley Price Aromatherapy, Wesley House, Stockwell Road, Hinckley, Leics LE10 1RD. ... essential oils

Causes: lowered resistance, menstrual disorders, constitutional weakness, shock, Vitamin C deficiency, food allergies.

Alternatives. Teas: Singly, or in equal parts combination: Red Clover. Gotu Kola, Plantain.

Decoctions: Echinacea, Burdock root, Yellow Dock root, Poke root.

Tablets/capsules. Echinacea. Poke root. Slippery Elm.

Tinctures. Formula. Equal parts: Echinacea, Red Clover, Gotu Kola. Dose: 1-2 teaspoons thrice daily in water or honey.

Topical. Aloe Vera gel or fresh pulp. Houseleek juice. Chickweed ointment. Jojoba oil. Comfrey (moist). Witch Hazel (dry).

Aromatherapy. 3-5 drops of any one of the following oils in a heavy carrier oil (Avocado) to ensure penetration: Chamomile, Jasmine, Orange Blossom, Patchouli, Sandalwood.

Diet. See: DIET – SKIN DISORDERS.

Supplements. Vitamin A, B-complex, C (3-6g daily). Vitamin E (400iu morning and evening). Calcium, Biochemic silicea, Zinc. ... lips

In the initial attack in the male bacteria produces inflammation, with pus, which spreads to the prostate gland and other organs. In women there may be a painful abscess at the opening of the vagina, with characteristic yellowish discharge. It is particularly destructive to the lining of the womb, Fallopian tubes and ovaries, producing sterility or miscarriage. A notifiable disease.

Symptoms occur from two to eight days with scalding pain on passing water; urgency, frequency, and irritation of the urethra. A profuse discharge sets in and the urine contains visible yellowish threads of pus as the bladder is affected. Inflammation is followed by fibrosis producing urethral stricture; narrowing of the canal makes the passing of water difficult in men and swelling of the prostate gland may result in acute retention of water. Glands in the groin may enlarge, suppurate. Abscess formation in various parts of the body. Infection of the eyes and pharynx possible through transferred infection.

If severe, valves of the heart may be affected (endocarditis). The chronic form is accompanied by rheumatic pains in the joints, especially knee, ankle and wrist. Untreated patients may remain anonymous carriers months before detection.

Alternatives. It was observed that on South Sea Islands where Kava Kava (piper methysticum) is a popular native remedy, gonorrhoea was rare. It was claimed that, used by the native doctors, it was capable of curing the disease in visiting sailors. Once given in combination with Black Cohosh and Marshmallow root.

Tincture Thuja. 5-10 drops thrice daily.

Sandalwood oil. 5-10 drops thrice daily.

Formula. Hydrangea 10; Black Cohosh 5; Gelsemium 1. If headache follows, reduce dose. Dose: 20 drops in water 2-hourly. If discharge does not lessen within 3 days give external douche: 10 drops Goldenseal in an ounce of Witch Hazel distilled extract, or rosewater to bladder and urethra. If a thin discharge prevails on the fifth day, add to each dose 5 drops Liquid Extract or 10 drops tincture Kava Kava. (Dr G.A. West, Ellingwood’s Physiomedicalist)

“I used Echinacea for gonorrhoea, both internally and by injection” writes Dr A.G. Smith, Washington, claiming success in recent and chronic cases.

Early Australian settlers used: Tea Tree oil internally (drop doses) and as a douche: 3-5 drops in half a pint boiled milk allowed to cool.

Powders. Formula. Kava Kava 2; Hydrangea 1; Cinnamon half. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one- third teaspoon) thrice daily.

Elderflower tea. If fever is present give abundant Elderflower tea. OR: 5-15 drops tincture Aconite BP. 2-3 times daily.

Diseases due to suppressed gonorrhoea (arthritis, etc): Liquid Extract Thuja, 5 drops thrice daily.

Eye infections from gonorrhoea, Great Celandine. (Priest)

For genital lesions, Tincture Myrrh and Goldenseal lotion: (20 drops each) to 1oz Evening Primrose oil. Thoroughly mix by shaking before external use.

Diet: Avoid alcohol, condiments and hot spicy foods, curries, etc which worsen the irritation.

Exercise: Avoid all violent exercise.

To be treated by STD specialist only. ... gonorrhoea

FAMILY: Malvaceae

SYNONYMS: Hibiscus abelmoschus, musk seed, Egyptian alcee, target-leaved hibiscus, muskmallow.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub about 1.5 metres high, bearing large single yellow flowers with a purple centre. The capsules, in the form of five-cornered pyramids, contain the greyish-brown kidney-shaped seeds which have a musky odour.

DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to India; widely cultivated in tropical countries including Indonesia, Africa, Egypt, China, Madagascar, and the West Indies. Distillation of the oil is generally carried out in Europe and America.

OTHER SPECIES: A variety, H. esculentus, is grown largely in Istanbul as a demulcent. Another variety is also found in Martinique, the seeds of which have a more delicate scent.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Generally used as a stimulant and to ease indigestion, cramp and nervous dyspepsia. In Chinese medicine it is used to treat headache; in Egypt the seeds are used to sweeten the breath and are made into an emulsion with milk to be used for itch. The Arabs use the seeds to mix with coffee. Widely used as a domestic spice in the East.

ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, nervine, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the seeds. Liquid ambrette seed oil should be allowed to age for several months before it is used. A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-red liquid with a rich, sweet floral-musky odour, very tenacious. It blends well with rose, neroli, sandalwood, clary sage, cypress, patchouli, oriental and ‘sophisticated’ bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ambrettolide, ambrettolic acid, palmitic acid and farnesol.

SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates the oil to be non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation muscles and joints: Cramp, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Employed by the cosmetic and perfumery industries in oriental-type scents and for the adulteration of musk; also used as a musk substitute. Used for flavouring alcoholic and soft drinks as well as some foodstuffs, especially confectionery.

AMYRIS... ambrette seed

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: A. balsamifera, Pinus balsamea, balsam fir, balsam tree, American silver fir, balm of Gilead fir, Canada turpentine (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, graceful evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with a tapering trunk and numerous branches giving the tree an overall shape of a perfect cone. It forms blisters of oleoresin (the so-called ‘balsam’) on the trunk and branches, produced from special vesicles beneath the bark. The tree does not produce a ‘true’ balsam, since it does not contain benzoic or cinnamic acid in its esters; it is really an oleoresin, being a mixture of resin and essential oil.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, particularly Quebec, Nova Scotia and Maine.

OTHER SPECIES: The hemlock spruce (Tsuga canadensis) also yields an exudation sold under the name of ‘Canada balsam’. There are also many other species of fir which produce oils from their needles – see entry on silver fir and Botanical Classification section. NB: Not to be confused with the genuine balsam of Gilead (Commiphora opabalsamum), of ancient repute.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oleoresin is used extensively by the American Indians for ritual purposes and as an external treatment for burns, sores, cuts and to relieve heart and chest pains. It is also used internally for coughs.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic (genito-urinary, pulmonary), antitussive, astringent, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, purgative, regulatory, sedative (nerve), tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: 1. The oleoresin is collected by punturing vesicles in the bark. 2. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin, known as Canada balsam or Canada turpentine. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the leaf or needles, known as fir needle oil.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oleoresin is a thick pale yellow or green honeylike mass which dries to crystal clear varnish, with a fresh sweet balsamic, almost fruity odour. 2. A colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, soft-balsamic, pinelike scent. It blends well with pine, cedarwood, cypress, sandalwood, juniper, benzoin and other balsams.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Consists almost entirely of monoterpenes, pinene, phellandrene, esters and alcohols.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. ‘In large doses it is purgative and may cause nausea.’4

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Burns, cuts, haemorrhoids, wounds.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs, sore throat.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, genito-urinary infections.

Nervous System: Depression, nervous tension, stress-related conditions – described as ‘appeasing, sedative, elevating, grounding, opening’.5

OTHER USES: The oil from the oleoresin is used in certain ointments and creams as an antiseptic and treatment for haemorrhoids. Used in dentistry as an ingredient in root canal sealers. Also used as a fixative or fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfurmes. There is some low-level use in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The oleoresin is used as a medium in microscopy and as a cement in glassware.... balsam, canadian

FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS: Toluifera balsamum, Balsamum tolutanum, B. americanum, Myrospermum toluiferum, Thomas balsam, resin Tolu, opobalsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, graceful tropical tree, similar in appearance to the Peru balsam tree. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained by making V-shaped incisions into the bark and sap wood, often after the trunk has been beaten and scorched. It is a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America, mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba; also cultivated in the West Indies.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many types of South American balsam-yielding trees, such as the Peru balsam – see entry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The balsam works primarily on the respiratory mucous membranes, and is good for chronic catarrh and non-inflammatory chest complaints, laryngitis and croup. It is still used as a flavour and mild expectorant in cough syrups and lozenges. As an ingredient in compound benzoin tincture and similar formulations, it is helpful in the treatment of cracked nipples, lips, cuts, bedsores, etc.

ACTIONS: Antitussive, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION: The crude balsam is collected from the trees. It appears first in liquid form, then hardens and solidifies into an orange-brown brittle mass. An ‘essential oil’ is obtained from the crude by 1. steam distillation, or 2. dry distillation. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced for use primarily as fixatives.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow-brown liquid with a sweet-floral scent and peppery undertone. 2. An amber-coloured liquid with a rich balsamic-floral scent, which slowly solidfies on cooling into a crystalline mass. Tolu balsam blends well with mimosa, ylang ylang, sandalwood, labdanum, neroli, patchouli, cedarwood and oriental, spicy and floral bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The balsam contains approx. 80 per cent resin, 20 per cent oil, with cinnamic and benzoic acids, small amounts of terpenes, and traces of eugenol and vanillin.

SAFETY DATA: Available information indicates it to be non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization, see Peru Balsam.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

SKIN CARE: Dry, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, rashes, scabies, sores, wounds.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, croup, laryngitis. ‘It may be used as an inhalant by putting about a teaspoon into a steam bath.’6

OTHER USES: As a fixative and fragrance component in colognes, cosmetics and perfumes (especially the dry distilled type). Some use in pharmaceutical preparations, e.g. cough syrups. Low levels used in many major food products, especially baked goods.... balsam, tolu

FAMILY: Styracaceae

SYNONYMS: Gum benzoin, gum benjamin, styrax benzoin.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large tropical tree up to 20 metres high with pale green citrus-like leaves, whitish underneath, bearing hard-shelled flattish fruit about the size of a nutmeg. The benzoin is a pathological product, formed when the trunk is cut; the tree exudes a balsamic resin which hardens upon exposure, to air and sunlight.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia; the two main regions of production are Sumatra, Java and Malaysia for ‘Sumatra’ benzoin, and Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, China and Thailand for ‘Siam’ benzoin.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many different varieties within the Styrax family which produce benzoin, but these are generally classified under either Sumatra benzoin (S. paralleloneurus) or Siam benzoin (S. tonkinensis) – see also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It has been used for thousands of years in the east as a medicine and incense; the fumigations were believed to drive away evil spirits. It was used by the Chinese herbalists for its heating and drying qualities, as a good urinary antiseptic and as an aid to digestion.

In the west, it is best known in the form of compound tincture of benzoin or Friars Balsam, used for respiratory complaints. Externally it is used for cuts and irritable skin conditions; internally it is used as a carminative for indigestion, etc. It also acts as a preservative of fats.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cordial, deodorant, diuretic, expectorant, sedative, styptic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: The crude benzoin is collected from the trees directly. Benzoin resinoid, or ‘resin absolute’, is prepared from the crude using solvents, for example benzene and alcohol, which are then removed. Commercial benzoin is usually sold dissolved in ethyl glycol or a similar solvent. A ‘true’ absolute is also produced in small quantities.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Sumatra crude benzoin occurs as greyish-brown brittle lumps with reddish streaks, with a styrax-like odour. There are several different qualities available; the so-called ‘almond’ grade is considered superior. 2. Siam benzoin comes in pebble or tear-shaped orange-brown pieces, with a sweet-balsamic vanilla-like scent, this type having a more refined odour than the Sumatra type.

Benzoin resinoid is produced from both the Siam and Sumatra types, or a mix of the two. It is an orange-brown viscous mass with an intensely rich sweet-balsamic odour. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, jasmine, copaiba balsam, frankincense, myrrh, cypress, juniper, lemon, coriander and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Sumatra Benzoin: mainly coniferyl cinnamate and sumaresinolic acid, with benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, and traces of styrene, vanillin and benzaldehyde. 2. Siam benzoin: mainly coniferyl benzoate (65–75 per cent), with benzoic acid, vanillin, siaresinolic acid and cinnamyl benzoate.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Compound benzoin tincture is ‘regarded as moderately toxic, due probably to occasional contact dermatitis developed in some individuals … which contains, in addition to benzoin, aloe, storax, Tolu balsam and others.’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Cuts, chapped skin, inflamed and irritated conditions.

Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, gout, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, chills, colic, coughs, laryngitis.

Immune System: ’Flu.

Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints. It warms and tones the heart and circulation, both physically and metaphorically: ‘This essence creates a kind of euphoria; it interposes a padded zone between us and events.’.

OTHER USES: Compound benzoin tincture is used in pharmaceuticals and in dentistry to treat gum inflammation. The resinoid and absolute are used extensively as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially Siam benzoin. Both types are used in most food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... benzoin

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYM: Brown boronia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A bushy evergreen shrub, up to 2 metres high, which bears an abundance of fragrant, nodding flowers with an unusual colouring – the petals are brown on the outside, yellow on the inside. Often grown as an ornamental shrub in gardens.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Western Australia; grows wild all over west and south west Australia.

OTHER SPECIES: There are over fifteen species of boronia found in Western Australia; B. megastigma is one of the most common and the only one used for its perfume; other types smell of sarsaparilla, lemons or roses! Boronia is botanically related to the citrus tree.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: ‘A botanist in the Victorian era suggested this species would be suitable for graveyard planting because of its dark flowers!’.

ACTIONS: Aromatic.

EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute by the enfleurage method or petroleum-ether extraction, from the flowers. An essential oil is also produced in small quantities by steam distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS: The concrete is a dark green butterlike mass with a beautiful warm, woody-sweet fragrance; the absolute is a green viscous liquid with a fresh, fruity-spicy scent and a rich, tenacious, floral undertone. It blends well with clary sage, sandalwood, bergamot, violet, immortelle, costus, mimosa and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Notably ionone; also eugenol, triacontane, phenols, ethyl alcohol and ethyl formate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Prohibitively expensive and therefore often adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Perfume

OTHER USES: The absolute is used in high-class perfumery work, especially florals. Used in specialized flavour work, especially rich fruit products.... boronia

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS: Red cedar, eastern red cedar, southern red cedar, Bedford cedarwood (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A coniferous, slow-growing, evergreen tree up to 33 metres high with a narrow, dense and pyramidal crown, a reddish heartwood and brown cones. The tree can attain a majestic stature with a trunk diameter of over 1.5 metres.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, especially mountainous regions east of the Rocky Mountains.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many cultivars of the red cedar; its European relative is the shrubby red cedar (J. sabina) also known as savin – see entry. It is also closely related to the East African cedarwood (J. procera).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The North American Indians used it for respiratory infections, especially those involving an excess of catarrh. Decoctions of leaves, bark, twigs and fruit were used to treat a variety of ailments: menstrual delay, rheumatism, arthritis, skin rashes, venereal warts, gonorrhoea, pyelitis and kidney infections.

It is an excellent insect and vermin repellent (mosquitoes, moths, woodworm, rats, etc.) and was once used with citronella as a commercial insecticide.

ACTIONS: Abortifacient, antiseborrhoeic, antiseptic (pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, astringent, balsamic, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, insecticide, sedative (nervous), stimulant (circulatory).

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the timber waste, sawdust, shavings, etc. (At one time a superior oil was distilled from the red heartwood, from trees over twenty five years old.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or orange oily liquid with a mild, sweet-balsamic, ‘pencil wood’ scent. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, juniper, cypress, vetiver, patchouli and benzoin.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly cedrene (up to 80 per cent), cedrol (3–14 per cent), and cedrenol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Externally the oil is relatively non-toxic; can cause acute local irritation and possible sensitization in some individuals. Use in dilution only with care, in moderation. ‘The oil is a powerful abortifacient … use of the oil has been fatal.’. Avoid during pregnancy. Generally safer to use Atlas cedarwood.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, dandruff, eczema, greasy hair, insect repellent, oily skin, psoriasis.

Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea.

Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related disorders.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in room sprays and household insect repellents. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes. Used as the starting material for the isolation of cedrene.... cedarwood, virginian

FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS: Coriander seed, Chinese parsley.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic annual herb about 1 metre high with bright green delicate leaves, umbels of lacelike white flowers, followed by a mass of green (turning brown) round seeds.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia; naturalized in North America. Cultivated throughout the world, the oil is mainly produced in the USSR, Yugoslavia and Romania.

OTHER SPECIES: Various chemotypes of the same species are found according to geographical location.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb with a long history of use the seeds were found in the ancient Egyptian tomb of Rameses 11. The seeds and leaves are widely used as a garnish and domestic spice, especially in curries. It has been used therapeutically, mainly in the form of an infusion for children’s diarrhoea, digestive upsets, griping pains, anorexia and flatulence.

In Chinese medicine the whole herb is used for dysentery, piles, measles, nausea, toothache and for painful hernia.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, depurative, digestive, carminative, cytotoxic, fungicidal, larvicidal, lipolytic, revitalizing, stimulant (cardiac, circulatory, nervous system), stomachic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the crushed ripe seeds. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the fresh and dried leaves, which contains a high proportion of decylaldehyde.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, woody-spicy, slightly musky fragrance. It blends well with clary sage, bergamot, jasmine, olibanum, neroli, petitgrain, citronella, sandalwood, cypress, pine, ginger, cinnamon and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly linalol (55–75 per cent), decylaldehyde, borneol, geraniol, carvone, anethole, among others; constituents; vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non irritant, non-sensitizing. Stupefying in large doses – use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation, Muscles And Joints:

Accumulation of fluids or toxins, arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, stiffness.

Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea, piles, spasm.

Immune System: Colds, ’flu, infections (general), measles.

Nervous System: Debility, migraine, neuralgia, nervous exhaustion.

OTHER USES: Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceutical preparations, especially digestive remedies. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. Employed by the food industry especially in meat products and to flavour liqueurs such as Chartreuse and Benedictine; also used for flavouring tobacco.... coriander

FAMILY: Magnoliaceae

SYNONYMS: M. aurantiaca, Magnolia champaca, joy perfume tree, champak, champac, champa, golden champaca.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Champaca is a large, sub-tropical tree up to 6 metres high with a smooth grey bark and long, oval-shaped, glossy evergreen leaves. The flowers have 10–20 yellow, orange or cream-coloured narrow petals and an extremely heady fragrance. They bloom both in spring and autumn – on a warm, humid night, the scent can be enjoyed several hundred feet away! Champaca fruit are brown, containing bright red seeds.

DISTRIBUTION: Michelia champaca is native to India, where it occurs in humid, tropical evergreen forests. It is also found throughout Indo-China, Malaysia, Sumatra, Java and south-western China, as well as occurring naturally in the eastern Himalayan region. It is often grown as a boulevard tree in the tropics and in India is frequently planted in Hindu temple grounds and ornamental gardens. Champaca, especially its white-flowered hybrid, is now commonly cultivated in warm climates worldwide, for example, in California.

OTHER SPECIES: The genus Michelia contains about 40 species with a distribution including India, Malaysia, Indonesia, southern Japan, Taiwan and China. The leaves and flowers of the Michelia species resemble Magnolia, but the blossoms of Michelia generally form clusters among the leaves, rather than singly at the branch ends like Magnolia. There are several related species of M. champaca, such as the red champaca and the white champaca, grown specifically for their scented flowers, which are also used to produce essential oils. M. x alba, a white-flowered hybrid of M. champaca and M. montana, is prized throughout Asia for its fragrant, pure-white flowers, which are commonly floated in water bowls as Buddhist temple offerings and used a household decoration.

NB: Occasionally champaca is confused with champaca wood oil or guaiacwood oil (Bulnesia sarmienti), also known as palo santo (meaning ‘holy wood’), which is derived from an entirely different species native to South America.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Champaca is regarded as one of the most sacred trees of India and tropical Asia and has been revered by the people of India for thousands of years. M. champaca is sacred to Hindus and Buddhists alike and the flower is especially sacred to the Hindi god Vishnu, the god of love, and his consort Lakshmi. In India, the flowers are also used for adornment and their alluring scent is employed as a natural aphrodisiac, and as a fragrant decoration for bridal beds and for garlands.

All parts of the tree are considered medicinal and are utilized in various traditional remedies. In India, the scented oil infused from the champaca blossom is used for relief of vertigo and headaches. As a herbal remedy, the flowers have been used to treat urinary tract infections and as an emollient, febrifuge and to soothe anxiety. It is also considered a valuable aid for the treatment of all skin types, particularly mature, dry or sensitive skin. The derivation of the word ‘shampoo’ is the Hindi word champo, meaning ‘to massage’, which comes from champa, the Sanskrit name for champaca. This is because the oil from the tree was traditionally used to make fragrant hair and massage oils!

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, antiseptic, antiviral, astringent, emollient, euphoric, emollient, febrifuge, stimulant and tonic.

EXTRACTION: The absolute is produced by solvent extraction from the fresh flowers. (An oil is also produced by steam distillation of the petals). The absolute requires thousands of fresh flowers to produce a tiny amount: thus its high cost.

CHARACTERISTICS: An intense, fresh, green-floral scent with an underlying warmth and subtle leafy notes. It blends well with jasmine, lemon, coriander, tuberose, grapefruit, bergamot, rose, ylang ylang, neroli, sandalwood and other floral scents

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Champaca absolute contains mainly linalool, benzyl acetate, beeta lonone, phenyl ethyl alcohol, gamma-selinene, benzyl benzoate, phenylethyl benzoate and eugenol.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:

Skin Care: Dry, mature skin and sensitive skin, wrinkles and general skin care.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fear, grief, insomnia, nervous debility, tension headaches, mood swings, stress.

OTHER USES: Champaca flowers are used (in part) to make the world’s most expensive perfume, Jean Patou’s famous scent, ‘Joy’, the second best selling perfume in the world after Chanel No. 5. The tree is also a source of timber and fuel and for the production of a yellow dye. The tree’s wood is used for making boats, drums, and religious engravings. In India, however, where the tree is revered, it is rarely cut down. ... champaca

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYMS: Italian cypress, Mediterranean cypress.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall evergreen tree with slender branches and a statuesque conical shape. It bears small flowers and round, brownish-grey cones or nuts.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the eastern Mediterranean; now grows wild in France, Italy, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, North Africa, England and, to a lesser degree, the Balkan countries. Cultivation and distillation usually take place in France, also Spain and Morocco.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many other species of cypress found throughout the world which are used to produce an essential oil, such as C. lusitanica found in Kenya. With regard to oil quality, however, C. sempervirens is considered superior.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was highly valued as a medicine and as an incense by ancient civilizations and it is still used as a purification incense by the Tibetans. It benefits the urinary system and is considered useful where there is excessive loss of fluid, such as heavy perspiration or menstrual loss and diarrhoea: ‘The cones are … very drying and binding, good to stop fluxes of all kinds.’.

The Chinese consider the nuts very nutritious, beneficial for the liver and respiratory system and to check profuse perspiration.

ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, deodorant, diuretic, hepatic, styptic, sudorific, tonic, vasoconstrictive.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs. An oil from the cones is available occasionally. (A concrete and absolute are also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow to greenish-olive mobile liquid with a smoky, sweet-balsamic tenacious odour. It blends well with cedarwood, pine, lavender, mandarin, clary sage, lemon, cardamon, Moroccan chamomile, ambrette seed, labdanum, juniper, benzoin, bergamot, orange, marjoram and sandalwood.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, camphene, sylvestrene, cymene, sabinol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Haemorrhoids, oily and overhydrated skin, excessive perspiration, insect repellent, pyorrhoea (bleeding of the gums), varicose veins, wounds.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, muscular cramp, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, spasmodic coughing.

Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, menopausal problems, menorrhagia.

Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Employed in some pharmaceutical products; used as a fragrance component in colognes, after-shaves and perfumes.... cypress

FAMILY: Zygophyllaceae

SYNONYMS: Champaca wood (oil), ‘palo santo’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, wild tropical tree up to 4 metres high, with a decorative hard wood.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America, especially Paraguay and Argentina. Some oil is distilled in Europe and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: Distinct from guaiac gum and guaiac resin, known as guaiacum, obtained from related trees Guaiacum officinale and G. sanctum. However, they are somewhat similar products and share common properties.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The wood is much used for ornamental carving. It was formerly used for treating rheumatism and gout; guaiacum is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis. Valnet includes guaiacum in his ‘elixirs’ for gout, venereal disease and in mouthwashes.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic, diaphoretic, diuretic, laxative.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the broken wood and sawdust.

CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow, amber or greenish, soft or semi-solid mass with a pleasant, tearose type fragrance and sometimes an unpleasant smoky undertone. It blends well with geranium, neroli, oakmoss, rose, costus, sandalwood, amyris, spice and woody-floral bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Guaiol (42–72 per cent), bulnesol, bulnesene, guaiene, patchoulene, guaioxide, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulationl muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis.

OTHER USES: The fluid extract and tincture are used in pharmacology, mainly as a diagnostic reagent in blood tests. Used as a fixative and fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes.... guaiacwood

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: Helenium grandiflorum, Aster officinalis, A. helenium, inula, scabwort, alant, horseheal, yellow starwort, elf dock, wild sunflower, velvet dock, ‘essence d’aunée’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A handsome perennial herb up to 1.5 metres high, with a stout stem covered in soft hairs. It has oval pointed leaves which are velvety underneath, large, yellow, daisy-like flowers and large, fleshy rhizome roots.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and Asia, naturalized in North America. Cultivated in Europe (Belgium, France, Germany) and Asia (China, India). The oil is mainly produced from imported roots in southern France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties of Inula; the European and Asian species are slightly different having a harsher scent. Other varieties include golden samphire (I. crithmoides) and sweet inula (I. graveolens or I. odora), which share similar properties.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient medical repute, which used to be candied and sold as a sweetmeat. It is used as an important spice, incense and medicine in the east. It is used in both western and eastern herbalism, mainly in the form of a tea for respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis and whooping cough, disorders of the digestion, intestines and gall bladder and for skin disorders.

Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for irritating cough or bronchitis. Elecampane root is the richest source of inulin.

ACTIONS: Alterative, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, astringent, bactericidal, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hyperglycaemic, hypotensive, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried roots and rhizomes. (An absolute and concrete are also produced in small quantities.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A semi-solid or viscous dark yellow or brownish liquid with a dry, soft, woody, honey-like odour, often containing crystals. It blends well with cananga, cinnamon, labdanum, lavender, mimosa, frankincense, orris, tuberose, violet, cedarwood, patchouli, sandalwood, cypress, bergamot and oriental fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, including alantolactone (or helenin), isolactone, dihydroisalantolactone, dihydralantolactone, alantic acid and azulene.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; however it is a severe dermal sensitizer. In clinical tests it caused ‘extremely severe allergic reactions’ in twenty-three out of twenty-five volunteers. On the basis of these results it is recommended that the oil ‘should not be used on the skin at all’..

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

NB In Phytoguide I, sweet inula (I. odora or I. graveolens), a deep green oil, is described as ‘queen of mucolytic essential oils’, having properties as diverse as: ‘anti-inflammatory, hyperthermic, sedative, cardia-regulative, diuretic and depurative’.. It is described as being an excellent oil for the cardiopulmonary zone including asthma, chronic bronchitis and unproductive coughs. This variety of Inula seems to avoid the sensitization problems of elecampane, at least when it is used as an inhalation or by aerosol treatment.

OTHER USES: Alantolactone is used as an anthelmintic in Europe (it is also an excellent bactericide). The oil and absolute are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient in alcoholic beverages, soft drinks and foodstuffs, especially desserts.... elecampane

FAMILY: Cistaceae

SYNONYMS: Cistus (oil), gum cistus, ciste, cyste (absolute), labdanum gum, ambreine, European rock rose.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small sticky shrub up to 3 metres high with lance-shaped leaves which are white and furry on the underside, and fragrant white flowers. Labdanum gum, a dark brown solid mass, is a natural oleoresin which is obtained by boiling the plant material in water.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean mountainous regions and the Middle East. Now found throughout the Mediterranean region, especially southern France, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Morocco, Cyprus and Yugoslavia. The oil is mainly produced in Spain.

OTHER SPECIES: Labdanum gum is also obtained from other Cistus species, notably C. incanus, and other subspecies: see Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the early aromatic substances of the ancient world. The gum was used formerly for catarrh, diarrhoea, dysentery and to promote menstruation; externally it was used in plasters. The oil from the closely related plant frostwort (Helianthemum canadense), also known as cistus, also has many medicinal qualities and is said to be useful for scrofulous skin conditions, ulcers and tumours, including cancer.

ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, astringent, balsamic, emmenagogue, expectorant, tonic.

EXTRACTION: 1. A resinoid or resin concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the crude gum. 2. An essential oil by steam distillation from the crude gum, the absolute, or from the leaves and twigs of the plant directly.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Absolute – a semi solid green or amber mass with a rich, sweet, herbaceous-balsamic odour. 2. Oil – a dark yellow or amber viscous liquid with a warm, sweet, dry-herbaceous musky scent. It blends well with oakmoss, clary sage, pine, juniper, calamus, opopanax, lavender, lavandin, bergamot, cypress, vetiver, sandalwood, patchouli, olibanum, chamomile maroc and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: It contains over 170 pinenes, including camphene, sabinene, myrcene, phellandrene, limonene, cymene, cineol, borneol, nerol, geraniol, fenchone, etc. Exact constituents vary according to source.

SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Mature skin, wrinkles.

Respiratory system: Coughs, bronchitis, rhinitis, etc.

Immune system: Colds.

OTHER USES: Used as a fixative and fragrance component in lotions, powders, soaps, detergents, colognes and perfumes, especially oriental perfumes and aftershaves. Employed in most major food categories, particularly meat products, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... labdanum

FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS: F. officinale, F. capillaceum, Anethum foeniculum, fenkel.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Biennial or perennial herb up to 2 metres high, with feathery leaves and golden yellow flowers. There are two main varieties of fennel: bitter or common Fennel, slightly taller with less divided leaves occurring in a cultivated or wild form and sweet fennel (also known as Roman, garden or French fennel) which is always cultivated.

DISTRIBUTION: Bitter fennel is native to the Mediterranean region, found growing wild in France, Spain, Portugal and North Africa (they produce the ‘weed’oil). It is cultivated extensively worldwide, the main oil producers being Hungary, Bulgaria, Germany, France, Italy and India.

Sweet fennel is thought to have originated on the island of Malta, having been introduced by monks or crusaders thousands of years ago. It is now grown principally in France, Italy and Greece.

OTHER SPECIES: Bitter fennel (F. vulgare var. amara) and sweet fennel (F. vulgare var. dulce) are both closely related to the Florence fennel (F. azoricum), a smaller plant with a large cylindrical fleshy root which can be eaten as a vegetable. There are also many other cultivated varieties such as the German or Saxon fennel, the Russian, Indian and Japanese fennel, all of which produce slightly different oils.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient medical repute, believed to convey longevity, courage and strength. It was also used to ward off evil spirits, strengthen the eyesight and to neutralize poisons. In eastern and western herbalism it is considered good for obstructions of the liver, spleen and gall bladder and for digestive complaints such as colic, indigestion, nausea and flatulence (an ingredient of children’s ‘gripe water’).

It has traditionally been used for obesity, which may be due to a type of oestrogenic action, which also increases the milk of nursing mothers. Still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, used locally for conjunctivitis, blepharitis and pharyngitis.

ACTIONS: Aperitif, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue, laxative, orexigenic, stimulant (circulatory), splenic, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation. 1. Sweet fennel oil is obtained from crushed seeds, and 2. bitter fennel oil from crushed seeds or the whole herb (the wild ‘weed’).

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a very sweet, anise-like, slightly earthy-peppery scent. It blends well with geranium, lavender, rose and sandalwood. 2. The seed oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sharp, warm camphoraceous odour; the ‘weed’ oil is pale orange-brown with a sharp, peppery-camphoraceous odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Anethole (50–60 per cent), limonene, phellandrene, pinene, anisic acid, anisic aldehyde, camphene, limonene, among others. In addition, bitter fennel oil contains 18–22 per cent fenchone, whereas the sweet fennel oil contains little or none.

SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, relatively non-toxic, narcotic in large doses; bitter fennel may cause sensitization in some individuals. Sweet fennel oil is preferred in aromatherapy and perfumery work, since it does not contain the harsh ‘fenchone’ note, and because it is non-sensitizing. Bitter fennel oil should not be used on the skin at all, although it is considered superior medicinally. Neither oil should be used by epileptics or during pregnancy. Use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Bitter fennel – none.

Sweet fennel:

Skin Care: Bruises, dull, oily, mature complexions, pyorrhoea.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, obesity, oedema, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis.

Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence, hiccough, nausea.

Genito-Urinary System: Amenorrhoea, insufficient milk (in nursing mothers), menopausal problems.

OTHER USES: In pharmaceutical products it is known as ‘codex’ fennel oil, used in cough drops, lozenges, etc; also used in carminative and laxative preparations. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in all major food categories, in soft drinks and especially in alcoholic drinks such as brandy and liqueurs. Fennel oil (mainly sweet) is used in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. It also provides a good masking agent for industrial products, room sprays, insecticides, etc.... fennel

FAMILY: Burseraceae

SYNONYMS: B. delpechiana, Mexican linaloe, ‘copallimon’.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, bushy tropical shrub or tree, with a smooth bark and bearing fleshy fruit. The wood is only used for distillation purposes when the tree is twenty or thirty years old. The oil is partially a pathological product since its production is stimulated by lacerating the trunk – which apparently must be wounded on the night of the full moon for the tree to produce any oil!

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Central and South America, especially Mexico. It is cultivated in the Far East particularly in India (Mysore). The wood oil is mainly produced in Mexico, the seed (and husk) oil in India.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several species which are all known simply as linaloe: see Botanical Classification section. West Indian elemi (B. simaruba) is a close relative, as are myrrh and frankincense.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The seed oil is known in India as ‘Indian lavender oil’ and used chiefly as a local perfume ingredient and in soaps by the cosmetics industry of Mysore state. It is not much found outside India. In Mexico the wood oil is used in a similar fashion to rosewood, which contains similar constituents.

ACTIONS: Anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, bactericidal, deodorant, gentle tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the 1. Wood, and 2. Seed and husk. (An essential oil is also occasionally produced from the leaves and twigs.)

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow liquid with a sweet-woody, floral scent, similar to rosewood. It blends well with rose, sandalwood, cedarwood, rosewood, frankincense, floral and woody fragrances. 2. A colourless liquid with a terpene-like odour, harsher than the wood oil.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Mainly linalol, some linalyl acetate. 2. Mainly linalyl acetate, some linalol.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, cuts, dermatitis, wounds, etc., all skin types.

Nervous system: Nervous tension and stressrelated conditions.

OTHER USES: The wood oil is used in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. It is also used for the production of natural linalol, although this is increasingly being replaced by synthetic linalol.... linaloe

FAMILY: Fabaceae

SYNONYMS: Greek hay, methi, alholva, bird’s foot, chandrika, fenigreek, Greek clover.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual plant reaching a height of slightly more than half a metre with trifoliate, bright green leaves. It blossoms during the summer season and produces beautiful small white flowers. The leaves’ fragrance slightly resembles lovage and the brownish-yellow seeds are a distinctive cuboid shape.

DISTRIBUTION: An aromatic herb native to southern Europe and Asia and one of the oldest cultivated medicinal plants. It is widely grown today in the Mediterranean countries, Argentina, India, North Africa and the United States. Major commercial fenugreek-producing countries are Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Nepal, Bangladesh, Argentina, Egypt, France, Spain, Turkey and Morocco, although the largest producer is India. When harvested as micro-greens, fenugreek is known as ‘samudra methi’ in Mumbai.

OTHER SPECIES: The cultivated fenugreek is thought to have derived from a wild species, native to India.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Fenugreek is an ancient spice, although currently not much used in the West. While the seeds and leaves have primarily been used as a culinary spice, it was also employed in classical times as livestock feed, hence its common name, ‘Greek hay’. It was used by the ancient Egyptians to combat fever and in the embalming process. It has a long history of use as a medicinal plant in India and throughout Europe: it is still used in Ayurvedic medicine, where it is known as ‘methi’. Fenugreek seeds have been found to contain diosgenin, which is a compound that has properties similar to oestrogen. For this reason, fenugreek has a long history of use as a breast enlarger and to promote the growth of new breast cells. Due to its oestrogen-like properties, fenugreek has been found to help increase sexual libido and lessen the effect of the hot flushes and mood fluctuations that are common symptoms of the menopause and PMS. The plant can also be employed to promote lactation, induce labour and as an aphrodisiac.

In Indian and Chinese medicine, it is traditionally used to treat arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, improve digestion, maintain a healthy metabolism, increase male potency, cure skin problems (wounds, rashes and boils), sore throat and heartburn. Recent studies have shown that fenugreek helps lower blood glucose and cholesterol levels, and may be an effective treatment for both type 1 and 2 diabetes; it is also being studied for its cardiovascular benefits. Topically, the gelatinous texture of fenugreek seed is used for soothing eczema or other skin complaints; it is also applied as a warm poultice to relieve muscle aches and gout. Fenugreek is also nutritious as it is a valuable source of vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamins A, C and D as well as iron and calcium. Fenugreek seeds are rich in protein and carbohydrates and the pressed oil is strangely similar in chemical composition to cod liver oil. It also contains choline and lecithin, both substances needed by the liver for cholesterol metabolism. Fenugreek cleanses, stimulates and helps remove waste products from the body: it stimulates the lymphatic system and aids the kidneys and liver in detoxifying the entire system. The oil contains powerful antioxidants that help slow the ageing process.

ACTIONS: Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, demulcent, expectorant, laxative, nervine, stomachic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds. A fixed oil is also pressed from the seeds.

CHARACTERISTICS: Pale yellow to light brown liquid with a bitter, spicy scent. It blends well with sandalwood, clove, cinnamon, cardamon and other spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The essential oil is rich in phytic acid, saponins and trigonelline.

SAFETY DATA: The oil may cause skin irritation: dilute well before use. Avoid use during pregnancy, since it has the potential to induce labour.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Boils, burns, boils, eczema, hair care (dandruff and hair loss), scars, wrinkles.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Aching limbs, arthritis, cramp, gout, high blood pressure, muscle spasm.

Digestive System: Indigestion, heartburn.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, colds, congestion, fever, sinusitis.

Genito-Urinary System: Menstrual cramps, PMS, hot flushes and mood fluctuations.

Immune System: Helps fight infections.

Nervous System: Anxiety, insomnia, hypertension, stress, soothes the heart.

OTHER USES: Fenugreek has three culinary uses: as a herb (dried or fresh leaves), as a spice (seeds), and as a vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, and microgreens). It is a popular ingredient in the preparation of Indian pickles, vegetable dishes, daals and spice mixes. Fresh fenugreek leaves are used in some Indian curries, while the sprouted seeds and microgreens are used in salads. The leaves are also used in Persian and Ethiopian cuisine, to produce a yellow dye and as a forage plant. The oil is commonly used in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industry.... fenugreek

FAMILY: Apocynaceae

SYNONYMS: P. acuminate, P. acutifolia, common frangipani, temple tree, pagoda tree, graveyard tree, temple flower, may flower, frangipane, plumeria, melia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Plumeria is a genus of 7–8 species native to tropical and subtropical Americas consisting mainly of deciduous shrubs and trees. P. rubra (and variation P. acutifolia) is the commonest frangipani species and has the most fragrant flowers. P. rubra is a small tree up to 5 metres tall with a ‘candelabrum’ shape, having a single trunk and branches that spread to form an open canopy. The deciduous pointed leaves, dark green on top and a lighter shade underneath, cluster at the tips of branches. The greyish-green, scaly bark produces a milky, sticky sap that is poisonous, much like oleander. The frangipani flowers which appear in clusters, each with five waxy petals, are most fragrant at night in order to lure moths to pollinate them. The species P. rubra comes in many colours: white, cream, yellow, orange, pink and red, usually with a contrasting centre.

DISTRIBUTION: P. rubra is native to tropical Central America, Venezuela, Brazil and Mexico, although it is now widely cultivated throughout the world in tropical and sub-tropical regions. In Hawaii it grows so abundantly that many people think that it is indigenous to the island. The frangipani tree is also very popular on the island of Bali, where it is planted in almost every village temple and, as in Hawaii, plays an important part in the local culture. Many countries have given a traditional name to this decorative aromatic species, such as ‘pagoda tree’ in India, ‘temple flower’ in Sri Lanka and ‘melia’ in Hawaii. In Indonesia, where the flower is associated with Balinese culture, it is known as ‘kamboja’. Now it has become naturalized throughout southern and southeastern Asia and can also commonly be found growing in the southern Mediterranean, for example in the Canary Islands.

OTHER SPECIES: P. rubra is the source of many Plumeria hybrid cultivars. In the past, the different flower colours of this plant were associated with distinct species but are now regarded as different forms of the same species. However, the white-flowered form of P. rubra is sometimes misidentified as P. alba, a rarely cultivated species endemic to the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico. Other popular species in the genus include P. obtusa or the evergreen frangipani (with leaves more rounded than those of P. rubra) and the white- or cream-flowered P. stenophylla which blooms heavily over a long period.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The genus Plumeria is attributed to Charles Plumier, a seventeenth-century French botanist who described several tropical species. The common name, ‘frangipani’, comes from the Italian nobleman, Marquis Frangipani, who created a perfume used to scent gloves in the sixteenth century. Frangipani is known as the ‘tree of life’, according to ancient Indian belief, and is associated with temples in both Hindu and Buddhist cultures. In India, the frangipani is considered to be a symbol of immortality because of its ability to produce leaves and flowers even after it has been lifted out of the soil. It is regarded as a sacred tree in Laos and every Buddhist temple in the country has frangipani planted in their courtyards. In Cambodia, the flowers are used in ritual offerings to the deities and Balinese Hindus use the flowers in their temple offerings daily. In several Pacific islands, such as Tahiti, Fiji, Samoa and Hawaii, Plumeria species are used for making leis, their traditional flower garlands. In modern Polynesian culture, the flowers are also worn by women to indicate their relationship status.

Frangipani has also been celebrated for centuries for its healing capacity in many diverse cultures. In Sri Lanka, Plumeria flowers are eaten as fritters, while the heart of the wood is taken as a vermifuge or as a laxative. In Ayurveda, the Plumeria species are widely used as a purgative, as a remedy for diarrhoea, to treat itch, asthma, coughs, bronchitis, blood disorders and fever. In the Guianas, P. rubra is used for the treatment of skin eruptions, abscesses, dysentery, herpes, coughs and as a purgative. In Caribbean cultures, the leaves are used as a healing wrap for bruises and ulcers while the latex is used as a liniment for rheumatism. In Vietnam, the bark mashed in alcohol, is used to combat skin inflammation, indigestion and high blood pressure. Frangipani flower tea is also generally believed to have a beneficial effect, being good for digestion.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-tumoral, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, nervine.

EXTRACTION: Frangipani absolute is obtained by alcoholic or solvent extraction from the concrete prepared from P. rubra (acutifolia). The absolute has a thick, treacle consistency at room temperature.

CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute has a heavy, sweet, floral-green aroma, with a soft-spicy background and hints of apricot. It blends with sandalwood, rose, patchouli, tuberose, clove bud, jasmine, neroli, bergamot, ginger, ylang ylang and most citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The oil of .P obtusa is rich in benzyl salicylate (45.4 per cent) and benzyl benzoate (17.2 per cent) Oil obtained from P.acuminata is rich in palmitic acid (36.2 per cent), linoleic acid (16.8 per cent), lauric acid (10.4 per cent) and myristic acid (10.3 per cent). ‘The pink flowered P. rubra oil was similar to P. acuminata oil in that it was also devoid of benzyl salicylate and benzyl benzoate and rich in alkanoic acids but linoleic acid was absent in the oil of the former. However, the orange-flowered P. rubra oil contained both the non-terpene esters (benzyl salicylate, benzyl benzoate and 2-phenylethyl benzoate) and alkanoic acids in significant amounts.’.

SAFETY DATA: Generally considered to be a safe oil, but best avoided in pregnancy and for children. May cause skin irritation in concentration.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Inflamed and sensitive skin, mature skin, wrinkles and general skin care.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, fear, insomnia, nervous debility and tension, mood swings, stress.

OTHER USES: Frangipani absolute is mainly used in the high-class perfumery due to its unique aroma and long-lasting qualities. It is also used in candle and soap making along with some phyto-cosmetic applications and various beauty and skin care products for defying the ageing process.... frangipani

FAMILY: Burseraceae

SYNONYMS: Olibanum, gum thus.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A handsome small tree or shrub with abundant pinnate leaves and white or pale pink flowers. It yields a natural oleo gum resin which is collected by making incisions into the bark: at first, a milky-white liquid appears which then solidifies into tear-shaped amber to orange-brown lumps between the size of a pea and walnut.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Red Sea region; grows wild throughout north east Africa. The gum is mainly produced in Somalia, Ethiopia, China and south Arabia, then distilled in Europe and, to a lesser extent, India.

OTHER SPECIES: Other Boswellia species also yield olibanum gum, such as the Indian variety B. serrata. Constituents vary according to type and locality. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used since antiquity as an incense in India, China and in the west by the Catholic Church. In ancient Egypt it was used in rejuvenating face masks, cosmetics and perfumes. It has been used medicinally in the east and west for a wide range of conditions including syphilis, rheumatism, respiratory and urinary tract infections, skin diseases, as well as digestive and nervous complaints.

ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, cytophylactic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, sedative, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from selected oleo gum resin (approx. 3–10 per cent oil to 60–70 per cent resin). An absolute is also produced, for use mainly as a fixative.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a fresh, terpeney top note and a warm, rich, sweet-balsamic undertone. It blends well with sandalwood, pine, vetiver, geranium, lavender, mimosa, neroli, orange, bergamot, camphor, basil, pepper, cinnamon and other spices. It modifies the sweetness of citrus blends in an intriguing way.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons, notably pinene, dipentene, limonene, thujene, phellandrene, cymene, myrcene, terpinene; also octyl acetate, octanol, incensole, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Blemishes, dry and mature complexions, scars, wounds, wrinkles.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia.

Immune System: Colds, ’flu.

Nervous System: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions – ‘Frankincense has, among its physical properties, the ability to slow down and deepen the breath … which is very conducive to prayer and meditation.’.

OTHER USES: The gum and oil are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental, spice and men’s fragrances. Employed in some pharmaceuticals such as liniments and throat pastilles. Extensively used in the manufacture of incense. The oil is used in minute amounts in some foods (such as meat products), alcoholic and soft drinks.... frankincense

FAMILY: Amaryllidaceae

SYNONYMS: Pinkster lily, pheasant’s eye, poet’s narcissus.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A familiar garden flower up to 50 cms high, with long sword-shaped leaves with very fragrant white flowers having a short yellow trumpet and crisped red edge.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Middle East or the eastern Mediterranean region; naturalized in southern France. It is cultivated extensively for its flowers. Only Holland and the Grasse region of France produce the concrete and absolute.

OTHER SPECIES: There are two main types produced in France: the cultivated or des plaines variety and the wild or des montagnes type. Narcissus is also closely related to the jonquil (N. jonquilla) and campernella (N. odorus), which are also occasionally used to produce an absolute, as well as to the daffodil (N. pseudo-narcissus).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name derives from the Greek narkao – to be numb – due to its narcotic properties. The Roman perfumers used ‘narcissum’, a solid unguent made from narcissus flowers, in the preparation of their elaborate fragrances. In France the flowers were used at one time for their antispasmodic properties, said to be useful in hysteria and epilepsy.

In India the oil is applied to the body before prayer in temples, along with rose, sandalwood and jasmine. The Arabians recommend the oil as a cure for baldness, and as an aphrodisiac.

ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, emetic, narcotic, sedative.

EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a dark orange, olive or green viscous liquid with a sweet, green-herbaceous odour and heavy floral undertone. It blends well with clove bud, jasmine, neroli, ylang ylang, rose, mimosa, sandalwood, oriental and floral fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Quercetin, possibly narcissine (the alkaloid that causes nausea).

SAFETY DATA: All members of the Amaryllidaceae family, especially the bulbs, have a profound effect on the nervous system, causing paralysis and even in some cases death. ‘The bulbs of N. poeticus are more dangerous than those of the daffodil, being powerfully emetic and irritant. The scent of the flowers is deleterious, if they are present in any quantity in a closed room, producing in some persons headache and even vomiting.’.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Perfume.

OTHER USES: The absolute and concrete are used almost exclusively in high-class perfumes of the narcotic/floral type.... narcissus

FAMILY: Geraniaceae

SYNONYMS: Rose geranium, pelargonium.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial hairy shrub up to 1 metre high with pointed leaves, serrated at the edges and small pink flowers. The whole plant is aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to South Africa; widely cultivated in Russia, Egypt, Congo, Japan, Central America and Europe (Spain, Italy and France). With regard to essential oil production, there are three main regions: Reunion (Bourbon), Egypt and Russia (also China).

OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 varieties of cultivated geranium and pelargonium, many of which are grown for ornamental purposes. There are several oil-producing species such as P. odorantissimum and P. radens, but P. graveolens is the main one commercially cultivated for its oil. Geranium Bourbon (P. Roseum) has a superior fragrance to other species, having a rich rosy-fruity scent due to the higher levels of linalook and iso-methone content. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The British plant herb robert (Geranium robertianum) and the American cranesbill (G. maculatum) are the most widely used types in herbal medicine today, having been used since antiquity. They have many properties in common with the rose geranium, being used for conditions such as dysentery, haemorrhoids, inflammations, metrorrhagia and menorrhagia (excessive blood loss during menstruation). The root and herb of cranesbill is specifically indicated in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for diarrhoea and peptic ulcer.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antihaemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent, cicatrisant, deodorant, diuretic, fungicidal, haemostatic, stimulant (adrenal cortex), styptic, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves, stalks and flowers. An absolute and concrete are also produced in Morocco.

CHARACTERISTICS: The Bourbon oil is a greenish-olive liquid with a green, rosy-sweet, minty scent. The Bourbon oil is generally preferred in perfumery work; it blends well with lavender, patchouli, clove, rose, sandalwood, jasmine, juniper, neroli, bergamot and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Citronellol, geraniol, linalol, isomenthone, menthane, phellandrene, sabinene, limonene, among others. Constituents vary according to type and source.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing; possible contact dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals, especially with the Bourbon type.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, bruises, broken capillaries, burns, congested skin, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, haemorrhoids, lice, oily complexion, mature skin, mosquito repellent, ringworm, ulcers, wounds.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Cellulitis, engorgement of breasts, oedema, poor circulation.

Respiratory System: Sore throat, tonsillitis.

Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Adrenocortical glands and menopausal problems, PMT.

Nervous System: Nervous tension, neuralgia and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component in all kinds of cosmetic products: soaps, creams, perfumes, etc. Extensively employed as a flavouring agent in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... geranium

FAMILY: Burseraceae

SYNONYMS: C. erythraea var. glabrascens, bisabol myrrh, sweet myrrh.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall tropical tree, similar to myrrh (to which it is closely related), which contains a natural oleogum resin in tubular vessels between the bark and wood of the trunk. The natives make incisions in the trunk of the tree to increase the yield. The crude gum dries to form dark reddish-brown tear-shaped lumps with a sweet-woody, rootlike odour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to East Africa (Somalia) and eastern Ethiopia (Harrar Province) where it grows wild. The essential oil production is generally carried out in the USA and Europe from the crude oleogum resin.

OTHER SPECIES: The original or ‘true’ opopanax used in perfumery was derived from a large plant Opopanax chironium or Pastinaca opopanax, a plant similar to the parsnip of the Umbelliferae family and native to the Levant region, Sudan and Arabia. The oleogum resin was obtained by cutting into the stem at the base, which then produces reddish-yellow tears of a strong rootlike, parsnip or celery-type smell. This type of opopanax is now unavailable, and has been replaced by a similar type of oil known as ‘bisabol myrrh’.

Not to be confused with cassie (Acacia farnesiana), which is also known as ‘opopanax’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Opopanax derived from O. chironium is described as having antispasmodic, expectorant, emmenagogue and antiseptic properties, which used to be employed in asthma, hysteria and visceral afflictions. In the Far East the bisabol myrrh is used extensively as an ingredient in incense.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, expectorant.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleogum resin. 2. A resinoid by solvent extraction from the crude oleogum resin.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. An orange, yellow or olive liquid with a sweet-balsamic, spicy, warm, animal-like odour (it does not contain a medicinal note like myrrh). It resinifies on exposure to air. 2. A solid dark mass with a warm, powdery, sweet-balsamic, rooty odour. It blends well with clary sage, coriander, labdanum, bergamot, myrrh, frankincense, vetiver, sandalwood, patchouli, mimosa, fir needle and neroli.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude contains resins, gums (50–80 per cent) and essential oils (10–20 per cent), notably the sesquiterpene ‘bisabolene’ and sesquiterpene alcohols.

SAFETY DATA: Frequently adulterated – it is more expensive than the ‘hirabol myrrh’. The commercial resinoid is also usually mixed with a solvent such as myristate, because it is otherwise unpourable at room temperatures.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Possibly similar uses to myrrh.

OTHER USES: Used as a fixative and fragrance component in high-class perfumery. Used in liqueurs to lend body and add winelike notes.... opopanax

FAMILY: Zingiberaceae

SYNONYMS: Common ginger, Jamaica ginger.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect perennial herb up to 1 metre high with a thick, spreading, tuberous rhizome root, which is very pungent. Each year it sends up a green reedlike stalk with narrow spear-shaped leaves and white or yellow flowers on a spike direct from the root.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Asia, extensively cultivated all over the tropics in Nigeria, the West Indies, India, China, Jamaica and Japan. Most oil is distilled in the UK, China and India.

OTHER SPECIES: Several varieties according to location which are all used to produce oils with slight variations in their constitiuents; for example the African oil is generally darker. Another member of the same family, galangal (Alpinia officinarum), is also known as ginger root or Chinese ginger.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ginger has been used as a domestic spice and as a remedy for thousands of years, especially in the East. Fresh ginger is used in China for many complaints including rheumatism, bacterial dysentery, toothache, malaria, and for cold and moist conditions such as excess mucus and diarrhoea.

It is best known as a digestive aid, especially in the West: in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is specifically indicated for flatulent intestinal colic. Preserved and crystallized ginger is a popular sweet, in the East and West.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the unpeeled, dried, ground root. (An absolute and oleoresin are also produced for use in perfumery.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, amber or greenish liquid with a warm, slightly green, fresh, woody-spicy scent. It blends well with sandalwood, vetiver, patchouli, frankincense, rosewood, cedarwood, coriander, rose, lime, neroli, orange and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Gingerin, gingenol, gingerone, zingiberine, linalol, camphene, phellandrene, citral, cineol, borneol, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), slightly phototoxic; may cause sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, strains etc.

Respiratory System: Catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.

Digestive System: Diarrhoea, colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion, loss of appitite, nausea, travel sickness.

Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, fever, infectious disease.

Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion.

OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in digestive, carminative and laxative preparations; used as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental and men’s fragrances; extensively employed in all major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... ginger

FAMILY: Graminaceae

SYNONYMS: Andropogon martinii, A. martinii var. motia, East Indian geranium, Turkish geranium, Indian rosha, motia.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A wild-growing herbaceous plant with long slender stems and terminal flowering tops; the grassy leaves are very fragrant.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to India and Pakistan; now grown in Africa, Indonesia, Brazil and the Comoro Islands.

OTHER SPECIES: Of the same family as lemongrass and citronella; also closely related to gingergrass which is a different chemotype known as C. martinii var. sofia. Gingergrass is considered an inferior oil but in some parts of India the two types of grass are distilled together.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: ‘The oil term “Indian” or “Turkish” geranium oil, which formerly was applied to palmarosa oil, dates back to the time when the oil was shipped from Bombay to ports of the Red Sea and transported partly by land, to Constantinople and Bulgaria, where the oil was often used for the adulteration of rose oil.’.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, bactericidal, cicatrisant, digestive, febrifuge, hydrating, stimulant (digestive, circulatory), tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam or water distillation of the fresh or dried grass.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive liquid with a sweet, floral, rosy, geranium-like scent. It blends well with cananga, geranium, oakmoss, rosewood, amyris, sandalwood, guaiacwood, cedarwood and floral oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly geraniol; also farnesol, geranyl acetate, methyl heptenone, citronellol, citral, dipentene and limonene, among others. Several chemotypes depending upon source – the cultivated varieties are considered of superior quality.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dermatitis and minor skin infections, scars, sores, wrinkles; valuable for all types of treatment for the face, hands, feet, neck and lips (moisturizes the skin, stimulates cellular regeneration, regulates sebum production).

Digestive system: Anorexia, digestive atonia, intestinal infections – ‘This is an essence which acts on the pathogenic intestinal flora, in particular on the coli bacillus, the Eberth bacillus and the bacillus of dysentery ... this essence favours the transmutation of the pathogenic agent into normal cells of intestinal mucous membranes. Thus it arrests the degeneracy of the cells for the latter, swiftly impels groups of normal cells towards an inferior form in their hierarchy. The essence does not appear to contain any acid.’.

Nervous system: Nervous exhaustion, stressrelated conditions.

OTHER USES: Used extensively as a fragrance component in cosmetics, perfumes and especially soaps due to excellent tenacity. Limited use as a flavouring agent, e.g. tobacco. Used for the isolation of natural geraniol.... palmarosa

FAMILY: Lauraceae

SYNOYNMS Ho oil, ho-wood il, shiu oil, ho-leaf oil.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, tropical evergreen tree, quite dense with small white flowers and black berries, which grows up to 30 metres in height. This is the same tree that produces camphor comes from the wood of the tree.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to China, Japan, Taiwan and south-east Asia. It is now cultivated in many tropical and sub-tropical countries including India, Australia, Madagascar and parts of the USA where it has naturalized.

OTHER SPECIES: Cinnamomum camphora is a large genus with many subspecies which yield a volatile oil on distillation, including ho oil (wood and leaf), camphor, apopin, sassafras and ravintsara. All these essential oils, although derived from the same principal botanical species, differ in their chemical profile enormously depending on their country of origin as well as the part of the plant used to extract the oil. There are thus many different subvarieties of the camphor tree found throughout Asia, for example the Yu-sho in China and the Sho-guy variety found in Taiwan. Ho (wood and leaf) oil is derived both from the Hon-sho and Ho-sho varieties growing mainly in Japan and Taiwan. This variety has linalool as its major constituent.

Rosewood (Aniba rosaedora), a native tree of the Amazon, also yields an oil very rich in linalool. However, rosewood became endangered due to over-harvesting and although plantations have since been planted, it will take time for the trees to mature. Rosewood oil and ho wood oil are very similar in nature, and since ho wood is more renewable, it is increasingly used as a replacement for the former. However, ho leaf oil, distilled from the leaves of C. camphora, is gradually beginning to replace ho wood oil in aromatherapy usage, because its scent is smoother, containing hardly any camphor-like notes.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ho wood has traditionally been used for making the handles of Japanese swords and knives because it is soft and will not scratch the blades. It is also used nowadays for ornamental parts of houses, carpentry and cabinet making, as it is of a very similar beauty to rosewood. Ho wood oil became very popular in Taiwan during the 1900s as a linalool-rich product, locally referred to as shiu oil. C. camphora was also heavily exploited as a source of camphor in Japan and Taiwan until World War II.

The high ‘linalool’ content makes Ho oil a potent immune system stimulant (good for infections such as cold or ’flu) as well as a powerful relaxant or sedative … soothing yet uplifting in effect. Recent studies also suggest that the oil may play a role as a cellular stimulant and tissue regenerator, being beneficial for complaints associated with the skin.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-fungal, anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, immune support, sedative, tonic. It is also believed to be a mild aphrodisiac.

EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves (ho leaf oil) and wood (ho wood oil)

CHARACTERISTICS: Ho wood oil is a pale yellow liquid with a soft, warm, floral, spicy-woody scent with a slightly camphor-like undertone. The leaf oil has a sweet-fresh, green-floral and woody scent. It blends well with basil, bergamot, cedarwood, chamomile, lavender, lime, geranium, juniper, neroli, petitgrain, myrtle, sandalwood, ylang ylang and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ho (wood and leaf) oil contains up to 99 per cent linalool, with traces of limonene, myrcene, gamma-terpinene and other components. Ho wood oil generally contains higher levels of cineol. Japanese ho oil ‘A’ quality has a linalool content of 94 per cent or more; a ‘B’ grade has 85–90 per cent linalool.

SAFETY DATA: It is non-toxic and non-irritant but with possible sensitization in some individuals.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin Care: Acne, cuts, dermatitis, stretch marks, scars, wounds & general skin care: dry, oily, mature and sensitive skin.

Circulation Muscles And Joints: Aches and pains caused by inflammation.

Respiratory System: Chills, coughs and colds, ’flu.

Immune System: Low libido and frigidity: boosts vitality.

Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, insomnia, nervous tension, stress.

OTHER USES: The use of C. camphora as a source of ho leaf and wood oil has expanded in recent years and it is now an important source of natural linalool (which is still preferred over the synthetic form) for some fragrance applications in the perfumery industry. Indeed, ho leaf and wood oil has largely displaced the use of rosewood as a source of natural linalool. It is also an effective insect repellent.... ho wood

FAMILY: Oleaceae

SYNONYMS: Jasmin, jessamine, common jasmine, poet’s jessamine.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or vine up to 10 metres high with delicate, bright green leaves and star-shaped very fragrant white flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to China, northern India and west Asia; cultivated in the Mediterranean region, China and India (depending on the exact species). The concrete is produced in Italy, France, Morocco, Egypt, China, Japan, Algeria and Turkey; the absolute is mainly produced in France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of jasmine used for medicine and perfumery work. Apart from the common jasmine, the most widespead varieties are the royal or Italian jasmine (J. grandiflorum) which is grown in the Mediterranean region, and its Eastern counterpart J. officinale var. grandiflorum or J. auriculatum. See the Botanical Classification section for a more comprehensive list.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In China the flowers of J. officinale var. grandiflorum are used to treat hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and dysentery; the flowers of J. sambac are used for conjunctivitis, dysentery, skin ulcers and tumours. The root is used to treat headaches, insomnia, pain due to dislocated joints and rheumatism.

In the West, the common jasmine was said to ‘warm the womb ... and facilitate the birth; it is useful for cough, difficulty of breathing, etc. It disperses crude humours, and is good for cold and catarrhous constitutions, but not for the hot.’ It was also used for hard, contracted limbs and problems with the nervous and reproductive systems.

ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cicatrisant, expectorant, galactagogue, parturient, sedative, tonic (uterine).

EXTRACTION: A concrete is produced by solvent extraction; the absolute is obtained from the concrete by separation with alcohol. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the absolute.

CHARACTERISTICS: The absolute is a dark orange-brown, viscous liquid with an intensely rich, warm, floral scent and a tealike undertone. It blends well with rose, sandalwood, clary sage, and all citrus oils. It has the ability to round off any rough notes and blend with virtually everything.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: There are over 100 constituents in the oil including benzyl acetate, linalol, phenylacetic acid, benzyl alcohol, farnesol, methyl anthranilate, cis jasmone, methyl jasmonate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, generally non-sensitizing. (An allergic reaction has been known to occur in some individuals.)

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Dry, greasy, irritated, sensitive skin.

Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular spasm, sprains.

Respiratory system: Catarrh, coughs, hoarseness, laryngitis.

Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, frigidity, labour pains, uterine disorders.

Nervous system: Depression, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions. ‘It ... produces a feeling of optimism, confidence and euphoria. It is most useful in cases where there is apathy, indifference or listlessness.’.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially high-class floral and oriental fragrances. The oil and absolute are employed in a wide range of food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The dried flowers of J. sambac are used in jasmine tea.... jasmine

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: P. patchouly, patchouly, puchaput.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial bushy herb up to 1 metre high with a sturdy, hairy stem, large, fragrant, furry leaves and white flowers tinged with purple.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially Indonesia and the Philippines. It is extensively cultivated for its oil in its native regions as well as India, China, Malaysia and South America. The oil is also distilled in Europe and America from the dried leaves.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the Java patchouli (P. heyneanus), also known as false patchouli, which is also occasionally used to produce an essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil is used in the East generally to scent linen and clothes, and is believed to help prevent the spread of disease (prophylactic). In China, Japan and Malaysia the herb is used to treat colds, headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and halitosis. In Japan and Malaysia it is used as an antidote to poisonous snakebites.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, antitoxic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, deodorant, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, nervine, prophylactic, stimulant (nervous), stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried leaves (usually subjected to fermentation previously). A resinoid is also produced, mainly as a fixative.

CHARACTERISTICS: An amber or dark orange viscous liquid with a sweet, rich, herbaceous earthy odour – it improves with age. It blends well with labdanum, vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, oakmoss, geranium, clove, lavender, rose, neroli, bergamot, cassia, myrrh, opopanax, clary sage and oriental-type bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Patchouli alcohol (40 per cent approx.), pogostol, bulnesol, nor patchoulenol, bulnese, patchoulene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, athlete’s foot, cracked and chapped skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema (weeping), fungal infections, hair care, impetigo, insect repellent, sores, oily hair and skin, open pores, wounds, wrinkles.

Nervous system: Frigidity, nervous exhaustion and stress-related complaints.

OTHER USES: Extensively used in cosmetic preparations, and as a fixative in soaps and perfumes, especially oriental types. Extensively used in the food industry, in alcoholic and soft drinks. It makes a good masking agent for unpleasant tastes and smells.... patchouli

FAMILY: Cupressaceae

SYNONYM: Common juniper.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or tree up to 6 metres high, with bluish green narrow stiff needles. It has small flowers and little round berries, which are green in the first year, turning black in the second and third.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere: Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada, northern Europe and northern Asia. The oil is mainly produced in Italy, France, Yugoslavia, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Germany and Canada.

OTHER SPECIES: In Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruit and twigs of J. smerka, less rich and sweet than that of common juniper. There are various other species of juniper such as J. oxycedrus which produces cade oil, J. virginiana which produces the so-called Virginian cedarwood oil, and J. sabina which produces savin oil. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The needles and berries have a long traditional history of use. It is used medicinally for urinary infections such as cystitis and urethritis; for respiratory problems such as bronchitis, colic and coughs; as well as gastro-intestinal infections and worms. It helps expel the build-up of uric acid in the joints, and is employed in gout, rheumatism and arthritis. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for rheumatic pain and cystitis.

ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the berries (sometimes fermented first as a by-product of juniper – brandy manufacture – the oil is considered an inferior product), and 2. the needles and wood. A resinoid, concrete and absolute are also produced on a small scale.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh, woody-balsamic odour. It blends well with vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, mastic, oakmoss, galbanum, elemi, cypress, clary sage, pine, lavender, lavandin, labdanum, fir needle, rosemary, benzoin, balsam tolu, geranium and citrus oils. 2. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet-balsamic, fresh, turpentine-like odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes: pinene, myrcene, sabinene with limonene, cymene, terpinene, thujene and camphene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-sensitizing, may be slightly irritating, generally non-toxic. However, it stimulates the uterine muscle (an abortifacient) and must not be used during pregnancy. Neither should it be used by those with kidney disease due to its nephrotoxic effect. The wood oil is usually adulterated with turpentine oil. It is best to use only juniper berry oil, in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, eczema, hair loss, haemorrhoids, oily complexions, as a skin toner, wounds.

Circulation muscles and joints: Accumulation of toxins, arteriosclerosis, cellulitis, gout, obesity, rheumatism.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.

Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Berries and extracts are used in diuretic and laxative preparations; also veterinary preventatives of ticks and fleas. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially spicy fragrances and aftershaves. Extensively used in many food products but especially alcoholic and soft drinks: the berries are used to flavour gin.... juniper

FAMILY: Rosaceae

SYNONYMS: Summer damask rose, Bulgarian rose, Turkish rose (Anatolian rose oil), otto of rose (oil), attar of rose (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Small prickly shrub between 1 metre and 2 metres high, with pink, very fragrant blooms with thirty-six petals, and whitish hairy leaves. It requires a very specific soil and climate.

DISTRIBUTION: Believed to be a native of the Orient, now cultivated mainly in Bulgaria, Turkey and France. Similar types are grown in China, India and Russia; however, India produces only rose water and aytar – a mixture of rose otto and sandalwood.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many different subspecies: the Turkish variety is known simply as R. damascena. ‘Trigintipetala’ is the principal cultivar in commercial cultivation, known as the ‘Kazanlik rose’. Bulgaria also grows the white rose (R. damascena var. alba) or the musk rose (R. muscatta) which is used as a windbreak around the damask rose plantations. See also cabbage rose and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: ‘The damask rose, on account of its fragrance, belongs to the cephalics; but the next valuable virtue that it possesses consists in its cathartic quality ... oil of roses is used by itself to cool hot inflammations or swellings, and to bind and stay fluxes of humours to sores.’.

Rose hips are still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, mainly due to their high vitamin C content (also A and B). For further general properties, see entry for cabbage rose.

ACTIONS: See cabbage rose.

EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil or otto by water or steam distillation from the fresh petals. 2. A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh petals.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow or olive yellow liquid with a very rich, deep, sweet-floral, slightly spicy scent. 2. The absolute is a reddishorange or olive viscous liquid with a rich, sweet, spicy-floral, tenacious odour. It blends well with most oils, and is useful for ‘rounding off’ blends. The Bulgarian type is considered superior in perfumery work, but in therapeutic practice it is more a matter of differing properties between the various types of rose.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly citronellal (34–55 per cent), geraniol and nerol (30–40 per cent), stearopten (16–22 per cent), phenyl ethanol (1.5–3 per cent) and farnesol (0.2–2 per cent), with many other trace constituents.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See cabbage rose.

OTHER USES: See cabbage rose.... rose, damask

FAMILY: Rutaceae

SYNONYMS: C. limonum, cedro oil.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small evergreen tree up to 6 metres high with serrated oval leaves, stiff thorns and very fragrant flowers. The fruit turns from green to yellow on ripening.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Asia, probably east India; it now grows wild in the Mediterranean region especially in Spain and Portugal. It is cultivated extensively worldwide in Italy, Sicily, Cyprus, Guinea, Israel, South and North America (California and Florida).

OTHER SPECIES: There are about forty-seven varieties which are said to have been developed in cultivation, such as the Java lemon (C. javanica). The lemon is also closely related to the lime, cedrat (or citron) and bergamot.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The juice and peel are widely used as a domestic seasoning. It is very nutritious, being high in vitamins A, B and C. In Spain and other European countries, lemon is something of a ‘cure-all’, especially with regard to infectious illness. It was used for fever, such as malaria and typhoid, and employed specifically for scurvy on English ships at sea.

Taken internally, the juice is considered invaluable for acidic disorders, such as arthritis and rheumatism, and of great benefit in dysentery and liver congestion.

ACTIONS: Anti-anaemic, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antisclerotic, antiscorbutic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, haemostatic, hypotensive, insecticidal, rubefacient, stimulates white corpuscles, tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by cold expression from the outer part of the fresh peel. A terpeneless oil is also produced on a large scale (cedro oil).

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale greeny-yellow liquid (turning brown with age), with a light, fresh, citrus scent. It blends well with lavender, neroli, ylang ylang, rose, sandalwood, olibanum, chamomile, benzoin, fennel, geranium, eucalyptus, juniper, oakmoss, lavandin, elemi, labdanum and other citrus oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Limonene (approx. 70 per cent), terpinene, pinenes, sabinene, myrcene, citral, linalol, geraniol, octanol, nonanol, citronellal, bergamotene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic; may cause dermal irritation or sensitization reactions in some individuals – apply in moderation. Phototoxic do not use on skin exposed to direct sunlight.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, anaemia, brittle nails, boils, chilblains, corns, cuts, greasy skin, herpes, insect bites, mouth ulcers, spots, varicose veins, warts.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, high blood pressure, nosebleeds, obesity (congestion), poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Asthma, throat infections, bronchitis, catarrh.

Digestive system: Dyspepsia.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, fever and infections.

OTHER USES: Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, toilet waters and perfumes. Extensively employed by the food industry in most types of product, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... lemon

FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS: T. glandulifera, tagette, taget, marigold, Mexican marigold, wrongly called ‘calendula’ (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly scented annual herb about 30 cms high with bright orange, daisylike flowers and soft green oval leaves.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America and Mexico. Now grows wild in Africa, Europe, Asia and North America. The oil is mainly produced in South Africa, France, Argentina and Egypt, the absolute in Nigeria and France.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several other types of tagetes which share similar characteristics and are used to produce essential oils, notably the French marigold (T. patula) and the African or Aztec marigold (T. erecta) – see also Botanical Classification section.

NB: Not to be confused with the ‘true’ marigold (Calendula officinalis) which has very different properties and constituents, and is used extensively in herbal medicine (and occasionally to make an absolute). See entry on marigold.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In India the locally grown flowering tops of the French marigold are distilled into a receiver which contains a solvent, often sandalwood oil, to produce ‘attar genda’ – a popular Indian perfume material. In China the flowers of the African marigold are used for whooping cough, colds, colic, mumps, sore eyes and mastitis – usually as a decoction.

ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, stomachic.

EXTRACTION: 1. An essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering herb. 2. An absolute (and concrete) by solvent extraction from the fresh flowering herb.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A dark orange or yellow mobile liquid which slowly solidifies on exposure to air and light, with a bitter-green, herby odour. 2. An orange, olive or brown semi-liquid mass with an intense, sweet, greenfruity odour. It blends well with clary sage, lavender, jasmine, bergamot and other citrus oils in very small percentages.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly tagetones, with ocimene, myrcene, linalol, limonene, pinenes, carvone, citral, camphene, valeric acid and salicylaldehyde, among others.

SAFETY DATA: ‘It is quite possible that “tagetone” (the main constituent) is harmful to the human organism.’. Some reported cases of dermatitis with the tagetes species. Use with care, in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Bunions, calluses, corns, fungal infections.

OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical products. The absolute and oil are employed to a limited extent in herbaceous and floral perfumes. Used for flavouring tobacco and in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.... tagetes

FAMILY: Myrtaceae

SYNONYMS: New Zealand tea tree, kahikatoa, red manuka, manex.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The Manuka plant is an elegant, bushy evergreen shrub with deep green small spiky leaves that bears small flowers of white to pink in colour. The blossom is produced from September to February and most profusely in the later months. Its size ranges from a creeping plant to a small tree – trees can reach heights of up to 8 metres, especially when found within dense woodland. The leaves and flowers are strongly aromatic.

DISTRIBUTION: Manuka is the only Leptospermum species native to New Zealand, where it is widely distributed in various climatic and altitudinal zones. The physical characteristics, such as flower and leaf colour, leaf size and shape, branching habit, and foliage density vary considerably among populations. The plant can now be found in Australia where it seems to acclimatize well to varied terrain from marshland to dry mountain slopes. The essential oil is generally harvested from wild plants, as little farming of Manuka is currently undertaken.

OTHER SPECIES: The family Myrtaceae yields many valuable essential oils including eucalyptus, myrtle and tea tree. Another native tree of New Zealand called kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), sometimes called white or tree manuka, although superficially similar to L. scoparium in that both are collectively known as ‘tea trees’, is actually genetically a very distinct species. Kanuka in its typical form can grow into a tree up to 30 metres tall. It is also used to produce an essential oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: For centuries, New Zealand Maori have used manuka to treat a wide range of complaints. Early New Zealand records indicate that the plant’s bark, leaves, sap and seed capsules were used in beverages and medicinal preparations. A decoction of the leaves was drunk for urinary complaints and as a febrifuge. The steam from leaves boiled in water was inhaled for head colds. A decoction was prepared from the leaves and bark and the warm liquid was rubbed on stiff muscles and aching joints. The emollient white gum, called ‘pai manuka’, was given to nursing babies and also used to treat scalds and burns. Chewing the bark is said to have a relaxing effect and enhance sleep. It is said that Captain James Cook used the leaves of the plant as a tea to combat scurvy during long explorations of the southern hemisphere; later, early European settlers of New Zealand adopted Captain Cook’s use of the plant as a tea.

Recently, scientists have confirmed that manuka oil is up to 33 times stronger than tea tree essential oil for protecting against specific strains of bacteria; it is also effective against the MRSA (Methicillin-Resistant Staph. Aureus) bacteria, which is resistant to normal antibiotics.

ACTIONS: Analgesic, antibacterial, antibiotic, antifungal, antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, anti-infectious, antimicrobial, antiseptic, astringent, deodorant, digestive, expectorant, immune stimulant, insecticide, sedative, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves, twigs and branches.

CHARACTERISTICS: A mobile liquid with a distinctive fresh, spicy, herbaceous aroma with a honey-like sweetness. It blends well with bay leaf, bergamot, black pepper, cajuput, cedarwood atlas, cinnamon, clove bud, elemi, ginger, juniper, lavender, nutmeg, peppermint, rose, rosemary, sandalwood, thyme, vetiver and ylang ylang.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The main active constituents of manuka oil are isoleptospermone, ?-pinene, ?-pinene, myrcene, ?-cymene, 1,8-cineole, linalol, methylcinnamate, ?-farnesine, isoleptospermone, leptospermone, sesquiterpenes such as cadina-3, 5-diene and ?-amorphene, and triketones. However, within the species of manuka there are at least nine different chemotypes: oil which contains high levels of triketones, found in the East Cape area of North Island in New Zealand appears to possess the greatest antimicrobial potential. Other chemotypes however are thought to reveal greater anti-inflammatory and analgesic tendencies. It is important to be aware of these various chemotypes when selecting an oil for therapeutic purposes.

SAFETY DATA: Generally it is thought to be non-sensitizing, non-toxic, and non-irritant. It can in some individuals, produce mild irritation but has a low irritancy compared to Australian tea tree oil. Avoid use during pregnancy because of spasmolytic activity.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, abscesses, athlete’s foot skin, bed sores, blisters, boils, burns, carbuncles, cold sores, cracked skin, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, fungal infections, insect bites and stings, lice, nail infections, oily skin, pimples, ringworm, sores, sunburn, tinea and ulcers.

Circulation, muscles and joints: Aches and pains, muscular tension, sprains and stiffness in joints, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Coughs, cold, ’flu congestion, as well as asthma and hayfever.

Immune system: Tonic

Nervous system: Nervous debility.

OTHER USES: The essential oil is much used in phyto-cosmetic and pharmaceutical preparations mainly for its potent antimicrobial properties. Commercial development of the essential oil has led to a range of products for the topical treatment of various conditions including joint pain, eczema and psoriasis. The oil is also used in perfumes and soaps. The scented flowers of the shrub attract bees, which are used for making the popular manuka honey.... manuka

FAMILY: Burseraceae

SYNONYMS: Balsamodendron myrrha, gum myrrh, common myrrh, hirabol myrrh, myrrha.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The Commiphora species which yield myrrh are shrubs or small trees up to 10 metres high. They have sturdy knotted branches, trifoliate aromatic leaves and small white flowers. The trunk exudes a natural oleoresin, a pale yellow liquid which hardens into reddish-brown tears, known as myrrh. The native collectors make incisions in the bark of the tree to increase the yield.

DISTRIBUTION: The Commiphora species are native to north east Africa and south west Asia, especially the Red Sea region (Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia).

OTHER SPECIES: There are several C. species which yield myrrh oleoresin: African or Somali myrrh (C. molmol) and Arabian or Yemen myrrh (C. abyssinica). Bisabol myrrh or opopanax (C. erthraea) also belongs to the same family.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Myrrh has been employed since the earliest times in Eastern and Western medicine; its use is mentioned some 3700 years ago. The ancient Egyptians used it for embalming purposes and in their perfumes and cosmetics. In China it is used for arthritis, menstrual problems, sores and haemorrhoids. In the West it is considered to have an ‘opening, heating, drying nature’ (Joseph Miller), good for asthma, coughs, common cold, catarrh, sore throat, weak gums and teeth, ulcers and sores. It has also been used to treat leprosy.

Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for mouth ulcers, gingivitis and pharyngitis.

ACTIONS: Anticatarrhal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, astringent, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, revitalizing, sedative, stimulant (digestive, pulmonary), stomachic, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION: 1. Resinoid (and resin absolute) by solvent extraction of the crude myrrh. 2. Essential oil by steam distillation of the crude myrrh.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The resinoid is a dark reddish-brown viscous mass, with a warm, rich, spicy-balsamic odour. It is not pourable at room temperature so a solvent, such as diethyl phthalate, is sometimes added. 2. The essential oil is a pale yellow to amber oily liquid with a warm, sweet-balsamic, slightly spicy-medicinal odour. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, benzoin, oakmoss, cypress, juniper, mandarin, geranium, patchouli, thyme, mints, lavender, pine and spices.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude contains resins, gum and about 8 per cent essential oil composed mainly of heerabolene, limonene, dipentene, pinene, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, cadinene, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing, possibly toxic in high concentration. Not to be used during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Athlete’s foot, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, mature complexions, ringworm, wounds, wrinkles.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, gum infections, gingivitis, mouth ulcers, sore throat, voice loss.

Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, haemorrhoids, loss of appetite.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, pruritis, thrush.

Immune system: Colds.

OTHER USES: The oil, resinoid and tincture are used in pharmaceutical products, including mouthwashes, gargles and toothpaste; also used in dentistry. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types and heavy florals. Used as flavour ingredients in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... myrrh

FAMILY: Orchidaceae

SYNONYMS: V. fragrans, common vanilla, Mexican vanilla, Bourbon vanilla, Reunion vanilla.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herbaceous climbing vine up to 25 metres high, with green stems and large white flowers which have a deep narrow trumpet. The green capsules or fruits are ready to pick after eight or nine months on the plant, and then have to be ‘cured’. The immature vanilla ‘pod’ or ‘bean’ which is from 14 cms to 22 cms long, has to be fermented and dried to turn it into the fragrant brown vanilla pods of commerce – a process which can take up to six months to complete. During the drying process vanillin can accumulate as white crystals on the surface of the bean.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to Central America and Mexico; cultivated mainly in Madagascar and Mexico; also Tahiti, the Comoro Islands, East Africa and Indonesia, although the pods are often processed in Europe or the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several different species of vanilla, such as the Tahiti vanilla (V. tahitensis) which is a smaller bean, and the ‘vanillons’ type (V. pompona) which produces an inferior quality oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: When vanilla is grown in cultivation the deep trumpet-shaped flowers have to be hand-pollinated; except in Mexico where the native humming birds do most of the work!

ACTIONS: Balsamic.

EXTRACTION: A resinoid (often called an oleoresin) by solvent extraction from the ‘cured’ vanilla beans. (An absolute is occasionally produced by further extraction from the resinoid.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A viscous dark brown liquid with a rich, sweet, balsamic, vanilla-like odour. It blends well with sandalwood, vetiver, opopanax, benzoin, balsams and spice oils.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Vanillin (1.3–2.9 per cent) with over 150 other constituents, many of them traces: hydroxybenzaldehyde, acetic acid, isobutyric acid, caproic acid, eugenol and furfural, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, common sensitizing agent. Widely adulterated.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical products as a flavouring agent. Used as a fragrance ingredient in perfumes, especially oriental types. Widely used to flavour tobacco and as a food flavouring, mainly in ice cream, yoghurt and chocolate.... vanilla

FAMILY: Iridaceae

SYNONYMS: Orris root, iris, flag iris, pale iris, orris butter (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A decorative perennial plant up to 1.5 metres high, with sword-shaped leaves, a creeping fleshy rootstock and delicate, highly scented, pale blue flowers.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the eastern Mediterranean region; also found in northern India and North Africa. Most commercial orris is produced in Italy where it grows wild. The oil is mainly produced in France and Morocco and to lesser extent in Italy and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of iris; cultivation has also produced further types. In Italy the pale iris (I. pallida) is collected indiscriminately with the Florentine orris (I. florentina) which has white flowers tinged with pale blue, and the common or German iris (I. germanica) which has deep purple flowers with a yellow beard. Other species which have been used medicinally include the American blue flag (I. versicolor), and the yellow flag iris (I. pseudacorus).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In ancient Greece and Rome orris root was used extensively in perfumery, and its medicinal qualities were held in high esteem by Dioscorides. The juice of the root was used for cosmetic purposes, and the root bruised in wine was employed for dropsy, bronchitis, coughs, hoarseness, chronic diarrhoea and congested headaches. In Russia the root was used to make a tonic drink with honey and ginger.

Iris is little used medicinally these days, but it still appears in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as being formerly used in upper respiratory catarrh, coughs, and for diarrhoea in infants.

ACTIONS: Dried Root – antidiarrhoeal, demulcent, expectorant. Fresh Root – diuretic, cathartic, emetic.

EXTRACTION: 1. An essential oil (often called a ‘concrete’) by steam distillation from the rhizomes which have been peeled, washed, dried and pulverized. The rhizomes must be stored for a minimum of three years prior to extraction otherwise they have virtually no scent! 2. An absolute produced by alkali washing in ethyl ether solution to remove the myristic acid from the ‘concrete’ oil. 3. A resin or resinoid by alcohol extraction from the peeled rhizomes.

CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil solidifies at room temperature to a cream-coloured mass with a woody, violet-like scent and a soft, floral-fruity undertone. 2. The absolute is a water-white or pale yellow oily liquid with a delicate, sweet, floral-woody odour. 3. The resin is a brown or dark orange viscous mass with a deep, woody sweet, tobacco-like scent – very tenacious.

Orris blends well with cedarwood, sandalwood, vetiver, cypress, mimosa, labdanum, bergamot, clary sage, rose, violet and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Myristic acid, an odourless substance which makes the ‘oil’ solid (85–90 per cent), alpha-irone and oleic acid.

SAFETY DATA: The fresh root causes nausea and vomiting in large doses. The oil and absolute are much adulterated or synthetic – ‘true’ orris absolute is three times the price of jasmine.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. However, the powdered orris, which is a common article, may be used as a dry shampoo, a body powder, a fixative for pot pourris, and to scent linen.

OTHER USES: The powder is used to scent dentifrices, toothpowders, etc. The resin is used in soaps, colognes and perfumes; the absolute and ‘concrete’ oil are reserved for high-class perfumery work. Occasionally used on the Continent for confectionery and fruit flavours.... orris

FAMILY: Poaceae (Gramineae)

SYNONYMS: Andropogon muricatus, vetivert, khus khus.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, tufted, perennial, scented grass, with a straight stem, long narrow leaves and an abundant complex lacework of undergound white rootlets.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to south India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. Also cultivated in Reunion, the Philippines, the Comoro Islands, Japan, West Africa and South America. The oil is mainly produced in Java, Haiti and Reunion; some is distilled in Europe and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES: Botanically related to lemongrass, citronella, litsea cubeba and flouve oil (also from the roots of a tropical grass).

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The rootlets have been used in the East for their fine fragrance since antiquity. They are used by the locals to protect domestic animals from vermin, and the fibres of the grass are woven into aromatic matting. It is grown in India to protect against soil erosion during the tropical rainy season.

In India and Sri Lanka the essence is known as ‘the oil of tranquillity’.

ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, depurative, rubefacient, sedative (nervous system), stimulant (circulatory, production of red corpuscles), tonic, vermifuge.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the roots and rootlets washed, chopped, dried and soaked. (A resinoid is also produced by solvent extraction for perfumery work.)

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brown, olive or amber viscous oil with a deep smoky, earthy woody odour with a sweet persistent undertone. The colour and scent can vary according to the source – Angola produces a very pale oil with a dry-woody odour. It blends well with sandalwood, rose, violet, jasmine, opopanax, patchouli, oakmoss, lavender, clary sage, mimosa, cassie and ylang ylang.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Vetiverol, vitivone, terpenes, e.g. vetivenes, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, cuts, oily skin, wounds.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, stiffness.

Nervous system: Debility, depression, insomnia, nervous tension – ‘Vetiver is deeply relaxing, so valuable in massage and baths for anybody experiencing stress.’.

OTHER USES: Employed as a fixative and fragrance ingredient in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types. The oil is used in food preservatives, especially for asparagus.... vetiver

FAMILY: Oleaceae

SYNONYMS: Sweet osmanthus, sweet olive, tea olive, fragrant olive, silang, holly osmanthus, holly olive, kwai hwa.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or small tree growing up to 12 metres tall, with broad leaves and bearing purple-black fruits containing a single hard-shelled seed. The small flowers, which appear in clusters late in the season, can be white, pale yellow, gold, orange or reddish in colour, with a strong sweet fragrance much like fresh apricots or peaches.

DISTRIBUTION: This plant is native to Asia from the Himalayas through southern China to Taiwan and southern Japan. It is the ‘city flower’ of the cities of Hangzhou, Suzhou and Guilin in China. Today it is cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens in Asia, Europe, North America, and elsewhere in the world, mainly for its deliciously fragrant flowers.

OTHER SPECIES: Osmanthus is a genus of about 30 species belonging to the olive family, which are mainly found growing in warm climates. While the flowers of O. fragrans range in colour from silver-white (O. fragrans Lour. var. latifolius) to gold-orange (O. fragrans Lour. var. thunbergii) to reddish (O. fragrans Lour. var. aurantiacus), the absolute is usually prepared from the gold-orange flowered species. A number of cultivars of this species have also been selected for garden use, with specific names: for example, in Japan, the white and orange-blossoming subspecies are distinguished as silver osmanthus and gold osmanthus respectively.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The exotic flowers from this plant have traditionally been cherished in the East for a range of purposes. Due to the time of its blossoming, sweet osmanthus is closely associated with the Chinese mid-autumn festival when osmanthus-flavoured wine and tea are traditionally served. The flowers are also used to produce a special osmanthus-scented jam, called guì huà jiàng. The tree is known as tea olive because in ancient times the Chinese used it to make a natural ‘de-tox’ herbal tea to flush out excessive nitric oxide from the system; the tisane was also recommended for menstrual irregularities. In some regions of North India, especially in the state of Uttarakhand, the flowers of sweet osmanthus are still used to protect clothes from insects.

Traditional Chinese medical literature describes the usefulness of the flowers of Osmanthus fragrans in the treatment of phlegm reduction, dysentery with blood in the bowel, indigestion and diarrhoea. The Chinese also used the flowers as a natural medicine to improve the complexion of the skin and today the absolute is still employed in cosmetic preparations. However, modern evidence regarding the therapeutic efficacy of the flowers has shown them to be somewhat limited, although studies have indicated they do have anti-oxidant properties, valuable for skincare. Findings also confirmed the ability of the O. fragrans flowers to reduce phlegm and suggest that they may be useful as an anti-allergic agent. Although little used in aromatherapy, since the aroma is relaxing and soothing, helping bring relief from mental stress and depression, it can make a valuable addition to floral-based blends.

ACTIONS: Anti-oxidant, anti-allergic, expectorant, depurative, insecticide, nervine, regulating, sedative.

EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the fresh flowers. Since the yield of absolute from concrete is only about one kilo per 3,000 kilos of flowers, the enfleurage method or the infusion process have also been applied to these flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: A green to brown viscous liquid with a very strong sweet-honey, floral, fruity perfume with notes of peach and apricot. It blends well with lime, orange, sandalwood, rose, benzoin, violet, jasmine, mimosa and ylang ylang.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Main constituents include beta ionone, gamma-decanolid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, linalool oxide, dihydro-beta-Ionone, trans-beta-Ionone and cis-jasmone.

SAFETY DATA: No recorded contraindications for external application: best avoided during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Dry or mature skin and general skin care.

Nervous system: Anxiety, depression, nervous debility and tension, mood swings, stress.

OTHER USES: Osmanthus absolute (although often adulterated) is used in high-class perfumes for its exquisite aroma, which is very pleasing to the senses. It is also used as a cosmetic ingredient.... osmanthus

Anxiety (M,B,V):

Ambrette, Melissa, French basil, bergamot, cananga, frankincense, hyssop, jasmine, juniper, true lavender, mimosa, neroli, hemlock spruce, Levant styrax, lemon verbena, ylang ylang.

Depression (M,B,V):

Allspice, ambrette, Melissa, Canadian balsam, French basil, bergamot, cassie, grapefruit, immortelle, jasmine, true lavender, neroli, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage, sandalwood, hemlock spruce, vetiver, ylang ylang.

Headache (M,C,V):

Chamomile (German & Roman), citronella, cumin, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), grapefruit, hops, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, linden, sweet marjoram, mint (peppermint & spearmint), rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, rosewood, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme, violet.

Insomnia (M,B,V):

Melissa, French basil, calamintha, chamomile (German & Roman), hops, true lavender, linden, mandarin, sweet marjoram, neroli, petitgrain, rose (cabbage & damask), sandalwood, thyme, valerian, lemon verbena, vetiver, violet, yarrow, ylang ylang.

Migraine (C):

Angelica, Melissa, French basil, chamomile (German & Roman), citronella, coriander, true lavender, linden, sweet marjoram, mint (peppermint & spearmint), clary sage, valerian, yarrow.

Nervous exhaustion or fatigue/debility (M,B,V):

Allspice, angelica, asafetida, French basil, borneol, cardamon, cassie, cinnamon leaf, citronella, coriander, costus, cumin, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), ginger, grapefruit, immortelle, hyacinth, hyssop, jasmine, lavandin, spike lavender, lemongrass, mint (peppermint & spearmint), nutmeg, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, Scotch pine, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme, vetiver, violet, ylang ylang.

Neuralgia/sciatica (M,B):

Allspice, West Indian bay, borneol, celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), citronella, coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), geranium, immortelle, hops, spike lavender, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), nutmeg, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, turpentine.

Nervous tension and stress (M,B,V):

Allspice, ambrette, angelica, asafetida, Melissa, Canadian balsam, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, French basil, benzoin, bergamot, borneol, calamintha, cananga, cardamon, cassie, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, costus, cypress, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, geranium, immortelle, hops, hyacinth, hyssop, jasmine, juniper, true lavender, lemongrass, linaloe, linden, mandarin, sweet marjoram, mimosa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), neroli, orange (bitter & sweet), palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, Scotch pine, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, hemlock spruce, thyme, valerian, lemon verbena, vetiver, violet, yarrow, ylang ylang.

Shock (M,B,V):

Melissa, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), neroli.

Vertigo (V,I):

Melissa, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), mint (peppermint & spearmint), violet.

... nervous system

Bergamot, camphor (white), cananga, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, galbanum, geranium, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lemongrass, lime, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, violet, yarrow, ylang ylang.

Allergies (M,S,F,B,I):

Melissa, chamomile (German & Roman), immortelle, true lavender, spikenard.

Athlete’s foot (S):

Clove bud, eucalyptus, lavender (true &spike), lemon, lemongrass, myrrh, patchouli, tea tree.

Baldness & hair care (S,H):

West Indian bay, white birch, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), grapefruit, juniper, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), yarrow, ylang ylang.

Boils, abscesses & blisters (S,C,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, mastic, niaouli, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, turpentine.

Bruises (S,C):

Arnica (cream), borneol, clove bud, fennel, geranium, hyssop, sweet marjoram, lavender, thyme.

Burns (C,N):

Canadian balsam, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, eucalyptus blue gum, geranium, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, niaouli, tea tree, yarrow.

Chapped & cracked skin (S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, benzoin, myrrh, patchouli, sandalwood.

Chilblains (S,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, black pepper.

Cold sores/herpes (S):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lemon, tea tree.

Congested & dull skin (M,S,F,B,I):

Angelica, white birch, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), palmarosa, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, rosewood, ylang ylang.

Cuts/sores (S,C):

Canadian balsam, benzoin, borneol, cabreuva, cade, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), galbanum, geranium, hyssop, immortelle, lavender (spike & true), lavandin, lemon, lime, linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, Scotch pine, Spanish sage, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Dandruff (S,H):

West Indian bay, cade, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), eucalyptus, spike lavender, lemon, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tea tree.

Dermatitis (M,S,C,F,B):

White birch, cade, cananga, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hops, hyssop, juniper, true lavender, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mint (peppermint & spearmint), palmarosa, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Dry & sensitive skin (M,S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, cassie, chamomile (German & Roman), frankincense, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), rosewood, sandalwood, violet.

Eczema (M,S,F,B):

Melissa, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, white birch, cade, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, thyme, violet, yarrow.

Excessive perspiration (S,B):

Citronella, cypress, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, petitgrain, Scotch pine, Spanish sage.

Greasy or oily skin/scalp (M,S,H,F,B):

West Indian bay, bergamot, cajeput, camphor (white), cananga, carrot seed, citronella, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, juniper, lavender, lemon, lemongrass, !itsea cubeba, mandarin, marigold, mimosa, myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sandalwood, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, ylang ylang.

Haemorrhoids/piles (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Copaiba balsam, coriander, cubebs, cypress, geranium, juniper, myrrh, myrtle, parsley, yarrow.

Insect bites (S,N):

French basil, bergamot, cajeput, cananga, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, marigold, melissa, niaouli, tea tree, thyme, ylang ylang.

Insect repellent (S,V):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), Virginian cedarwood, citronella, clove bud, cypress, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), geranium, lavender, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, mastic, melissa, patchouli, rosemary, turpentine.

Irritated & inflamed skin (S,C,F,B):

Angelica, benzoin, camphor (white), Atlas cedarwood, chamomile (German & Roman), elemi, immortelle, hyssop, jasmine, lavandin, true lavender, marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Lice (S,H):

Cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, geranium, lavandin, spike lavender, parsley, Scotch pine, rosemary, thyme, turpentine.

Mouth & gum infections/ulcers (S,C):

Bergamot, cinnamon leaf, cypress, sweet fennel, lemon, mastic, myrrh, orange (bitter & sweet), sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Psoriasis (M,S,F,B):

Angelica, bergamot, white birch, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), true lavender.

Rashes (M,S,C,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), hops, true lavender, marigold, sandalwood, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Ringworm (S,H):

Geranium, spike lavender, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine.

Scabies (S):

Tolu balsam, bergamot, cinnamon leaf, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), Scotch pine, rosemary, Levant styrax, thyme, turpentine.

Scars & stretch marks (M,S):

Cabreuva, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, true lavender, mandarin, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rosewood, sandalwood, spikenard, violet, arrow.

Slack tissue (M,S,B):

Geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lemongrass, lime, mandarin, sweet marjoram, orange blossom, black pepper, petitgrain, rosemary, yarrow.

Spots (S,N):

Bergamot, cade, cajeput, camphor (white), eucalyptus (lemon), immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, litsea cubeba, mandarin, niaouli, tea tree.

Ticks (S,N):

Sweet marjoram.

Toothache & teething pain (S,C,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh.

Varicose veins (S,C):

Cypress, lemon, lime, neroli, yarrow.

Verrucae (S,N):

Tagetes, tea tree.

Warts & corns (S,N):

Cinnamon leaf, lemon, lime, tagetes, tea tree.

Wounds (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, cabreuva, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, cypress, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), frankincense, galbanum, geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, patchouli, rosewood, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Wrinkles & mature skin (M,S,F,B):

Carrot seed, elemi, sweet fennel, frankincense, galbanum, geranium, jasmine, labdanum, true lavender, mandarin, mimosa, myrrh, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, spikenard, ylang ylang.... skin care

Asthma (M,V,I):

Asafetida, Canadian balsam, Peru balsam, benzoin, cajeput, clove bud, costus, cypress, elecampane, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), frankincense, galbanum, immortelle, hops, hyssop, lavender (spike & true), lavandin, lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme.

Bronchitis (M,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, asafetida, Canadian balsam, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, French basil, benzoin, borneol, cajeput, camphor (white), caraway, cascarilla bark, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), clove bud, costus, cubebs, cypress, elecampane, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, frankincense, galbanum, immortelle, hyssop, labdanum, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), melissa, myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, sandalwood, hemlock spruce, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, violet.

Catarrh (M,V,I):

Canadian balsam, Tolu balsam, cajeput, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), cubebs, elecampane, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), frankincense, galbanum, ginger, hyssop, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), sandalwood, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, violet.

Chill (M,B):

Copaiba balsam, benzoin, cabreuva, calamintha, camphor (white), cinnamon leaf, ginger, grapefruit, orange (bitter & sweet), black pepper.

Chronic coughs (M,V,I):

Canadian balsam, costus, cubebs, cypress, elecampane, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, immortelle hops, hyssop, jasmine, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, myrtle, sandalwood, Levant styrax.

Coughs (M,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, French basil, benzoin, borneol, cabreuva, cajeput, mmphor (white), caraway, cascarilla bark, Atlas cedarwood, eucalyptus (blue gum & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, hyssop, labdanum, sweet marjoram, myrrh, niaouli, black pepper, pine (longleaf & Scotch), rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), hemlock spruce, tea tree.

Croup (M,I):

Tolu balsam.

Earache (C):

French basil, chamomile (German & Roman), lavender (spike & true).

Halitosis/offensive breath (S):

Bergamot, cardamon, sweet fennel, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh.

Laryngitis/hoarseness (1):

Tolu balsam, benzoin, caraway, cubebs, lemon eucalyptus, frankincense, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), myrrh, sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, thyme.

Sinusitis (1):

French basil, cajeput, cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, silver fir, ginger, labdanum, peppermint, niaouli, pine (longleaf & Scotch), tea tree.

Sore throat & throat infections (V,I):

Canadian balsam, bergamot, cajeput, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), geranium, ginger, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), myrrh, myrtle, niaouli, pine (longleaf & Scotch), sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, violet.

Tonsillitis (1):

Bergamot, geranium, hyssop, laurel, myrtle, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Whooping cough (M,I):

Asafetida, immortelle, hyssop, true lavender, mastic, niaouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tea tree, turpentine.

Digestive System

Colic (M):

Star anise, aniseed, calamintha, caraway, cardamon, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, coriander, cumin, dill, sweet fennel, ginger, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), neroli, parsley, black pepper, rosemary, clary sage.

Constipation & sluggish digestion (M,B):

Cinnamon leaf, cubebs, sweet fennel, lovage, sweet marjoram, nutmeg, orange (bitter & sweet), palmarosa, black pepper, tarragon, turmeric, yarrow.

Cramp/gastric spasm (M,C):

Allspice, star anise, aniseed, caraway, cardamon, cinnamon leaf, coriander, costus, cumin, galbanum, ginger, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, mint (peppermint & spearmint), neroli, orange (bitter & sweet), black pepper, clary sage, tarragon, lemon verbena, yarrow.

Griping pains (M):

Cardamon, dill, sweet fennel, parsley.

Heartburn (M):

Cardamon, black pepper. Indigestion/flatulence (M):

Allspice, angelica, star anise, aniseed, French basil, calamintha, caraway, cardamon, carrot seed, cascarilla bark, celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, clove bud, coriander, costus, cubebs, cumin, dill, sweet fennel, galbanum, ginger, hops, hyssop, laurel, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, linden, litsea cubeba, lovage, mandarin, sweet marjoram, melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, neroli, nutmeg, orange (bitter & sweet), parsley, black pepper, petitgrain, rosemary, clary sage, tarragon, thyme, valerian, lemon verbena, yarrow.

Liver congestion (M):

Carrot seed, celery seed, immortelle, linden, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, turmeric, lemon verbena.

Loss of appetite (M):

Bergamot, caraway, cardamon, ginger, laurel, myrrh, black pepper.

Nausea/vomiting (M,V):

Allspice, French basil, cardamon, cascarilla bark, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, coriander, sweet fennel, ginger, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), melissa, mint (peppermint & spearmint), nutmeg, black pepper, rose (cabbage & damask), rosewood, sandalwood.... respiratory system

Amenorrhoea/lack of menstruation (M,B):

French basil, carrot seed, celery seed, cinnamon leaf, dill, sweet fennel, hops, hyssop, juniper, laurel, lovage, sweet marjoram, myrrh, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Dysmenorrhoea/cramp, painful or difficult menstruation (M,C,B):

Melissa, French basil, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, frankincense, hops, jasmine, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, sweet marjoram, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Cystitis (C,B,D):

Canadian balsam, copaiba balsam, bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, mastic, niaouli, parsley, Scotch pine, sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Frigidity (M,S,B,V):

Cassie, cinnamon leaf, jasmine, neroli, nutmeg, parsley, patchouli, black pepper, cabbage rose, rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, ylang ylang.

Lack of nursing milk (M):

Celery seed, dill, sweet fennel, hops.

Labour pain & childbirth aid (M,C,B):

Cinnamon leaf, jasmine, true lavender, nutmeg, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage.

Leucorrhoea/white discharge from the vagina (B,D):

Bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), cinnamon leaf, cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, mastic, myrrh, rosemary, clary sage, sandalwood, tea tree, turpentine.

Menopausal problems (M,B,V):

Cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, rose (cabbage & damask).

Menorrhagia/excessive menstruation (M,B):

Chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, rose (cabbage & damask).

Premenstrual tension/PMT (M,B,V):

Carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, true lavender, sweet marjoram, neroli, tarragon.

Pruritis/itching (D):

Bergamot, Atlas cedarwood, juniper, lavender, myrrh, tea tree.

Sexual overactivity (M,B):

Hops, sweet marjoram.

Thrush/candida (B,D):

Bergamot, geranium, myrrh, tea tree.

Urethritis (B,D):

Bergamot, cubebs, mastic, tea tree, turpentine.

Immune System

Chickenpox (C,S,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), true lavender, tea tree.

Colds/’flu (M,B,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, French basil, West Indian bay, bergamot, borneol, cabreuva, cajeput, camphor (white), caraway, cinnamon leaf, citronella, clove bud, coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, frankincense, ginger, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, laurel, lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Fever (C,B):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, immortelle, juniper, lemon, lemongrass, lime, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, yarrow.

Measles (S,B,I,V):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lavender (spike & true), tea tree.... genito-urinary and endocrine systems