Sea Snakes: From 1 Different Sources
Marine, air breathing reptiles with a potent neurotoxic and myotoxic venom responsible for many deaths world-wide - although there are no documented deaths in Australia. They are usually found close to shore, or on coral reefs. They are easily distinguished from land snakes by their wide, flattened tail which is used for swimming, and from eels by their lack of gills. Fortunately, despite having a potent venom, when they bite they inject venom in only some 20% of cases.
Alstonia venenataApocynaceaeSan: Visaghni, Anadana;Mal: Analivegam;Tam: Sinnappalai;Kan: AddasarpaImportance: Alstonia is a large shrub with straight bole and growing upto about 6m height. The roots are useful in skin diseases, erysipelas, leprosy, cobra bite and other venomous bites, epilepsy, fatigue, fever and otalgia. The fruits are useful in syphilis, insanity and epilepsy. The plant is believed to repel snakes.Distribution: The plant is distributed throughout India in deciduous forests in areas up to 1800m elevation.Botany: Alstonia venenata R.Br., belonging to the family Apocynaceae, is a large shrub to small tree up to 6m in height with greyish brown bark and bright yellow hard and woody root. Leaves are simple, arranged in whorls of 3-6, membranous, lanceolate, margins wavy, finely acuminate, main nerves numerous, close, parallel and united by inter marginal nerve. Flowers are white, arranged in terminal sub umbellate cymes or in racemes. Fruits are fusiform with stalked and beaked follicles, tapering at both ends. Seeds are many flattened with a tuft of hair at each end (Warrier et al, 1993). Other important species belonging to the genus Alstonia are the following.1. A. scholaris R. Br.This tree is common throughout India. The bark is valuable in debility and after effects of fever, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery and catarrhal fever. The milky juice is applied to ulcers and rheumatic pains, mixed with oil and dropped into ear to relieve earache. Ditanin is the active principle of the bark, possessing powerful febrifuge properties. The bark is astringent, tonic and febrifuge (Nadkarni, 1998).2. A. spectabilis R. Br.It is a large evergreen tree seen in tropical forests of Andamans. The bark contains alkaloids such as alstonamine, ditamine, echitamine and echitenine (Chopra et al,1980)Agrotechnology: The plant is propagated mainly by seeds. Seeds are to be sown on seedbeds and germinated ones are to be transferred to polybags. About three months old seedlings are used for transplanting. If seeds are not available, thin stem cuttings can be planted in polybags and rooted cuttings used. Pits of size 60cm cube are to be taken at 3m spacing, filled with dried cowdung, sand and topsoil and made into a mound. To this mounds seedlings from polybags are to be transplanted. Irrigation is essential during early stages of growth. Application of organic manure every year is beneficial. Regular weeding is to be done. The plant is not attacked by any serious pests or diseases. Flowers are formed in the first year itself. It can be used for medicinal purposes after seven years of growth. Fruits and roots are the economical parts (Prasad et al,1997).Properties and activity: The plant is a rich source of indole alkaloids. Alkaloids are present in various parts. Stem bark and root contain venenatine, alstovenine, 3-dehydroalstovenine and reserpine. Stem bark contains venoxidine (venenatine Nb -oxide), anhydroalstonatine, kopsinine, venalstonine, venalstonidine(venalstonine-6,7-epoxide), echitovenine and veneserpine. Fruits contain echitovenidine, (+)minovincinine, echitoserpidine, echitoserpine, echitoveniline, 11-methoxy echitovonidine, 11-methoxy (-) minovinicinine, echitoserpiline, (-)vincadifformine, 11-methoxy(-)vincadifformine and venoterpine. Leaves contain echitovenaldine, echitoveniline, alstolenine, deacetylakuammiline, polynuridine, dihydropolynuridine and raucaffrininoline. The yellow tint in bark is because of the presence of 3-alstovenine. A number of indole alkaloids have been further isolated from the plant. In addition to alkaloids fruits contain -amyrin acetate and lupeol ester of -hydroxy acid (Husain et al,1992).The root is bitter, astringent, thermogenic, depurative, antitoxic, febrifuge and anodyne. The alkaloid alstovenine in lower doses exhibited monoamine oxidase inhibitor activity, while in higher doses it showed marked central stimulant effect. Veninatine exhibited reserpine like activity. Alcoholic extract of the fruits showed initial activation effect on acetylcholine esterase, followed alternately by inhibition and activation of the enzyme.... alstonia
Antibody mixtures produced by an animal after exposure to small doses of an injected venom that may be harmful to man. As the doses are small, the injection is not lethal and antibodies are formed. This resultant antibodymixture is then collected from the animal’s blood, purified, concentrated, and thus becomes an antivenom. It can then be injected into humans to counteract symptoms (or death) produced by the venom of the animal potentially lethal to humans. An antivenom is specific for the venom against which it is prepared, and does not neutralise other antivenoms. A rare exception to this is Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus) antivenom which can be used to effectivelycounteract the venom of the sea snakes if specific sea snake antivenom is not available.... antivenom
A chemical substance that harms nervous tissue, causing symptoms of numbness or weakness of the body part supplied by the damaged NERVE. The venom of some snakes contains neurotoxic substances, and bacteria may produce neurotoxins: examples are those that cause DIPHTHERIA and TETANUS. Arsenic and lead are examples of inorganic neurotoxins.... neurotoxin
A group of snakes with a wide geographical distribution. Belong to the family Elapidae. Also known as vipers.... adder
Snakes belonging to the Family Elapidae. They have fixed front fangs and are widespread throughout Africa and Asia. Possess a potent neurotoxin.... cobra
Family of snakes which includes poisonous snakes with fixed front fangs such as the cobras, the mambas and the Australian Tiger snakes.... elapidae
A genus of tick-borne apicomplexan protozoa infecting a range of animal species including lizards and snakes but not humans.... hepatozoon
The Family name of sea snakes (but not the kraits).... hydrophiidae
Sea kraits (Genus Laticauda) are similar to, and can be regarded as sea snakes, although they are more heavily-built and their nostrils are not situated on the upper surface of the snout. Laticauda colubrina (the banded sea snake) and Laticauda laticaudata (the black-banded sea snake) are the most common in Australia.... kraits
Repel snakes, Lust, Psychic Powers ... lemongrass
Highly venomous African elapid snakes. Include the green mamba and the black mamba.... mamba
(Greek) In mythology, a Gorgon with snakes for hair Medoosa, Medusah, Medoosah, Medousa, Medousah... medusa
Animal bites are best treated as puncture wounds and simply washed and dressed. In some cases ANTIBIOTICS may be given to minimise the risk of infection, together with TETANUS toxoid if appropriate. Should RABIES be a possibility, then further treatment must be considered. Bites and stings of venomous reptiles, amphibians, scorpions, snakes, spiders, insects and ?sh may result in clinical effects characteristic of that particular poisoning. In some cases speci?c ANTIVENOM may be administered to reduce morbidity and mortality.
Many snakes are non-venomous (e.g. pythons, garter snakes, king snakes, boa constrictors) but may still in?ict painful bites and cause local swelling. Most venomous snakes belong to the viper and cobra families and are common in Asia, Africa, Australia and South America. Victims of bites may experience various effects including swelling, PARALYSIS of the bitten area, blood-clotting defects, PALPITATION, respiratory di?culty, CONVULSIONS and other neurotoxic and cardiac effects. Victims should be treated as for SHOCK – that is, kept at rest, kept warm, and given oxygen if required but nothing by mouth. The bite site should be immobilised but a TOURNIQUET must not be used. All victims require prompt transfer to a medical facility. When appropriate and available, antivenoms should be administered as soon as possible.
Similar management is appropriate for bites and stings by spiders, scorpions, sea-snakes, venomous ?sh and other marine animals and insects.
Bites and stings in the UK The adder (Vipera berus) is the only venomous snake native to Britain; it is a timid animal that bites only when provoked. Fatal cases are rare, with only 14 deaths recorded in the UK since 1876, the last of these in 1975. Adder bites may result in marked swelling, weakness, collapse, shock, and in severe cases HYPOTENSION, non-speci?c changes in the electrocardiogram and peripheral leucocytosis. Victims of adder bites should be transferred to hospital even if asymptomatic, with the affected limb being immobilised and the bite site left alone. Local incisions, suction, tourniquets, ice packs or permanganate must not be used. Hospital management may include use of a speci?c antivenom, Zagreb®.
The weever ?sh is found in the coastal waters of the British Isles, Europe, the eastern Atlantic, and the Mediterranean Sea. It possesses venomous spines in its dorsal ?n. Stings and envenomation commonly occur when an individual treads on the ?sh. The victim may experience a localised but increasing pain over two hours. As the venom is heat-labile, immersion of the affected area in water at approximately 40 °C or as hot as can be tolerated for 30 minutes should ease the pain. Cold applications will worsen the discomfort. Simple ANALGESICS and ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS may be given.
Bees, wasps and hornets are insects of the order Hymenoptera and the females possess stinging apparatus at the end of the abdomen. Stings may cause local pain and swelling but rarely cause severe toxicity. Anaphylactic (see ANAPHYLAXIS) reactions can occur in sensitive individuals; these may be fatal. Deaths caused by upper-airway blockage as a result of stings in the mouth or neck regions are reported. In victims of stings, the stinger should be removed as quickly as possible by ?icking, scraping or pulling. The site should be cleaned. Antihistamines and cold applications may bring relief. For anaphylactic reactions ADRENALINE, by intramuscular injection, may be required.... bites and stings
Slough (pronounced ‘slu?’) is dead tissue separated by natural processes from the living body. The term is applied to hard external parts which the lower animals cast o? naturally in the course of growth, like the skin of snakes or the shell of crabs. In humans, however, the process is generally associated with disease, and is then known as GANGRENE. Sloughs may be of very small size, as in the case of the core of a boil, or they may include a whole limb; but in general a slough involves a limited area of skin or of the underlying tissues. The process of separation of a slough is described under gangrene.... slough
Anchusa. Alkanna tinctoria, Tausch. Root. Astringent. Once taken internally as a tea, now externally as an ointment. Antidotes poison in those bitten by venomous snakes, (Dioscorides). Culpeper records its use for St Anthony’s Fire (erysipelas). ... alkanet
(vomeronasal organ) a small blind sac in the wall of the nasal cavity. In humans it never develops properly and has no function, but in lower animals (e.g. snakes) it is one of the major organs of olfaction. [L. L. Jacobson (1783–1843), Danish anatomist]... organ of jacobson
n. a genus of wormlike arthropods occurring mainly in tropical Africa and India. The legless adults are parasites in the lungs of snakes. The eggs, which are ejected with the snake’s bronchial secretions, may be accidentally swallowed by humans. The larva bores through the gut wall and usually migrates to the liver, where it develops into a nymph (see porocephaliasis).... porocephalus
n. the poisonous material produced by snakes, scorpions, spiders, and other animals for injecting into their prey or enemies. Some venoms produce no more than local pain and swelling; others produce more general effects and can prove lethal.... venom
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