Structure Each suprarenal gland has an enveloping layer of ?brous tissue. Within this, the gland shows two distinct parts: an outer, ?rm, deep-yellow cortical (see CORTEX) layer, and a central, soft, dark-brown medullary (see MEDULLA) portion. The cortical part consists of columns of cells running from the surface inwards, whilst in the medullary portion the cells are arranged irregularly and separated from one another by large capillary blood vessels.
Functions Removal of the suprarenal glands in animals is speedily followed by great muscular prostration and death within a few days. In human beings, disease of the suprarenal glands usually causes ADDISON’S DISEASE, in which the chief symptoms are increasing weakness and bronzing of the skin. The medulla of the glands produces a substance – ADRENALINE – the effects of which closely resemble those brought about by activity of the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: dilated pupils, hair standing on end, quickening and strengthening of the heartbeat, immobilisation of the gut, increased output of sugar from the liver into the bloodstream. Several hormones (called CORTICOSTEROIDS) are produced in the cortex of the gland and play a vital role in the metabolism of the body. Some (such as aldosterone) control the electrolyte balance of the body and help to maintain the blood pressure and blood volume. Others are concerned in carbohydrate metabolism, whilst others again are concerned with sex physiology. HYDROCORTISONE is the most important hormone of the adrenal cortex, controlling as it does the body’s use of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. It also helps to suppress in?ammatory reactions and has an in?uence on the immune system.... adrenal glands
The pituitary gland is the most important ductless, or endocrine, gland in the body. (See
ENDOCRINE GLANDS.) It exerts overall control of the endocrine system through the media of a series of hormones which it produces. The adenohypophysis produces trophic hormones (that is, they work by stimulating or inhibiting other endocrine glands) and have therefore been given names ending with ‘trophic’ or ‘trophin’. The thyrotrophic hormone, or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), exerts a powerful in?uence over the activity of the THYROID GLAND. The ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH) stimulates the cortex of the adrenal glands. GROWTH HORMONE, also known as somatotrophin (SMH), controls the growth of the body. There are also two gonadotrophic hormones which play a vital part in the control of the gonads: these are the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and the luteinising hormone (LH) which is also known as the interstitial-cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) – see GONADOTROPHINS. The lactogenic hormone, also known as prolactin, mammotrophin and luteotrophin, induces lactation.
The neurohypophysis produces two hormones. One is oxytocin, which is widely used because of its stimulating e?ect on contraction of the UTERUS. The other is VASOPRESSIN, or the antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which acts on the renal tubules and the collecting tubules (see KIDNEYS) to increase the amount of water that they normally absorb.... pituitary gland
Function The chief function of the thyroid gland is to produce a hormone (see HORMONES) rich in iodine – THYROXINE, which controls the rate of body METABOLISM. Thus, if it is de?cient in infants they fail to grow and suffer LEARNING DISABILITY, a condition formerly known as CRETINISM. If the de?ciency develops in adult life, the individual becomes obese, lethargic, and develops a coarse skin, a condition known as hypothyroidism (see under THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF). Overactivity of the thyroid, or hyperthyroidism, results in loss of weight, rapid heart action, anxiety, overactivity and increased appetite. (See THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF – Thyrotoxicosis.)
The production of the thyroid hormone is controlled by a hormone of the PITUITARY GLAND – the thyrotrophic hormone.... thyroid gland
Disorders are (1) hypoparathyroidism and (2) hyperparathyroidism. See entries. ... parathyroid glands
Adrenal glands These two glands, also known as suprarenal glands, lie immediately above the kidneys. The central or medullary portion of the glands forms the secretions known as ADRENALINE (or epinephrine) and NORADRENALINE. Adrenaline acts upon structures innervated by sympathetic nerves. Brie?y, the blood vessels of the skin and of the abdominal viscera (except the intestines) are constricted, and at the same time the arteries of the muscles and the coronary arteries are dilated; systolic blood pressure rises; blood sugar increases; the metabolic rate rises; muscle fatigue is diminished. The super?cial or cortical part of the glands produces steroid-based substances such as aldosterone, cortisone, hydrocortisone, and deoxycortone acetate, for the maintenance of life. It is the absence of these substances, due to atrophy or destruction of the suprarenal cortex, that is responsible for the condition known as ADDISON’S DISEASE. (See CORTICOSTEROIDS.)
Ovaries and testicles The ovary (see OVARIES) secretes at least two hormones – known, respectively, as oestradiol (follicular hormone) and progesterone (corpus luteum hormone). Oestradiol develops (under the stimulus of the anterior pituitary lobe – see PITUITARY GLAND below, and under separate entry) each time an ovum in the ovary becomes mature, and causes extensive proliferation of the ENDOMETRIUM lining the UTERUS, a stage ending with shedding of the ovum about 14 days before the onset of MENSTRUATION. The corpus luteum, which then forms, secretes both progesterone and oestradiol. Progesterone brings about great activity of the glands in the endometrium. The uterus is now ready to receive the ovum if it is fertilised. If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, the hormones cease acting, and menstruation takes place.
The hormone secreted by the testicles (see TESTICLE) is known as TESTOSTERONE. It is responsible for the growth of the male secondary sex characteristics.
Pancreas This gland is situated in the upper part of the abdomen and, in addition to the digestive enzymes, it produces INSULIN within specialised cells (islets of Langerhans). This controls carbohydrate metabolism; faulty or absent insulin production causes DIABETES MELLITUS.
Parathyroid glands These are four minute glands lying at the side of, or behind, the thyroid (see below). They have a certain e?ect in controlling the absorption of calcium salts by the bones and other tissues. When their secretion is defective, TETANY occurs.
Pituitary gland This gland is attached to the base of the brain and rests in a hollow on the base of the skull. It is the most important of all endocrine glands and consists of two embryologically and functionally distinct lobes.
The function of the anterior lobe depends on the secretion by the HYPOTHALAMUS of certain ‘neuro-hormones’ which control the secretion of the pituitary trophic hormones. The hypothalamic centres involved in the control of speci?c pituitary hormones appear to be anatomically separate. Through the pituitary trophic hormones the activity of the thyroid, adrenal cortex and the sex glands is controlled. The anterior pituitary and the target glands are linked through a feedback control cycle. The liberation of trophic hormones is inhibited by a rising concentration of the circulating hormone of the target gland, and stimulated by a fall in its concentration. Six trophic (polypeptide) hormones are formed by the anterior pituitary. Growth hormone (GH) and prolactin are simple proteins formed in the acidophil cells. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) are glycoproteins formed in the basophil cells. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), although a polypeptide, is derived from basophil cells.
The posterior pituitary lobe, or neurohypophysis, is closely connected with the hypothalamus by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tracts. It is concerned with the production or storage of OXYTOCIN and vasopressin (the antidiuretic hormone).
PITUITARY HORMONES Growth hormone, gonadotrophic hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone and thyrotrophic hormones can be assayed in blood or urine by radio-immunoassay techniques. Growth hormone extracted from human pituitary glands obtained at autopsy was available for clinical use until 1985, when it was withdrawn as it is believed to carry the virus responsible for CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (COD). However, growth hormone produced by DNA recombinant techniques is now available as somatropin. Synthetic growth hormone is used to treat de?ciency of the natural hormone in children and adults, TURNER’S SYNDROME and chronic renal insu?ciency in children.
Human pituitary gonadotrophins are readily obtained from post-menopausal urine. Commercial extracts from this source are available and are e?ective for treatment of infertility due to gonadotrophin insu?ciency.
The adrenocorticotrophic hormone is extracted from animal pituitary glands and has been available therapeutically for many years. It is used as a test of adrenal function, and, under certain circumstances, in conditions for which corticosteroid therapy is indicated (see CORTICOSTEROIDS). The pharmacologically active polypeptide of ACTH has been synthesised and is called tetracosactrin. Thyrotrophic hormone is also available but it has no therapeutic application.
HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING HORMONES which affect the release of each of the six anterior pituitary hormones have been identi?ed. Their blood levels are only one-thousandth of those of the pituitary trophic hormones. The release of thyrotrophin, adrenocorticotrophin, growth hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone is stimulated, while release of prolactin is inhibited. The structure of the releasing hormones for TSH, FSH-LH, GH and, most recently, ACTH is known and they have all been synthesised. Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) is used as a diagnostic test of thyroid function but it has no therapeutic application. FSH-LH-releasing hormone provides a useful diagnostic test of gonadotrophin reserve in patients with pituitary disease, and is now used in the treatment of infertility and AMENORRHOEA in patients with functional hypothalamic disturbance. As this is the most common variety of secondary amenorrhoea, the potential use is great. Most cases of congenital de?ciency of GH, FSH, LH and ACTH are due to defects in the hypothalamic production of releasing hormone and are not a primary pituitary defect, so that the therapeutic implication of this synthesised group of releasing hormones is considerable.
GALACTORRHOEA is frequently due to a microadenoma (see ADENOMA) of the pituitary. DOPAMINE is the prolactin-release inhibiting hormone. Its duration of action is short so its therapeutic value is limited. However, BROMOCRIPTINE is a dopamine agonist with a more prolonged action and is e?ective treatment for galactorrhoea.
Thyroid gland The functions of the thyroid gland are controlled by the pituitary gland (see above) and the hypothalamus, situated in the brain. The thyroid, situated in the front of the neck below the LARYNX, helps to regulate the body’s METABOLISM. It comprises two lobes each side of the TRACHEA joined by an isthmus. Two types of secretory cells in the gland – follicular cells (the majority) and parafollicular cells – secrete, respectively, the iodine-containing hormones THYROXINE (T4) and TRI-IODOTHYRONINE (T3), and the hormone CALCITONIN. T3 and T4 help control metabolism and calcitonin, in conjunction with parathyroid hormone (see above), regulates the body’s calcium balance. De?ciencies in thyroid function produce HYPOTHYROIDISM and, in children, retarded development. Excess thyroid activity causes thyrotoxicosis. (See THYROID GLAND, DISEASES OF.)... endocrine glands
Symptoms. Swelling of glands of armpit, neck and groin.
Alternatives. Tea: combine equal parts: Clivers, Red Clover, Gotu Kola. 2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 15 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup thrice daily.
Decoction. Formula. Equal parts, Yellow Dock, Plantain, Clivers, Liquorice root, 1oz to 1 pint water gently simmered 20 minutes. Half a cup thrice daily.
Powders. Formula. Bayberry 1; Echinacea 2; Poke root half; a trace of Cayenne. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Tinctures. Combine equal parts: Poke root and Echinacea. One 5ml teaspoon in water thrice daily.
Poke root. A leading remedy for the condition.
Agnus Castus. Swollen glands in young girls.
Dr Finlay Ellingwood: Liquid Extracts: equal parts, Blue Flag root and Poke root. 30-60 drops in water thrice daily.
Diet. See: DIET – GENERAL. See: LYMPHATICS. ... glands – swollen
Habitat: Native of China and Japan. Found in the hills of northern India up to an altitude of 2,400 m.
English: Tree of Heaven, Ailanto.Ayurvedic: Aralu (related sp.).Action: Bark—astringent, anti- spasmodic, parasiticidal, narcotic, cardiac depressant (exercises powerful depressing influence on nervous system similar to that of tobacco).
Leaves produce dermatitis; their accumulation in well-water produces chronic gastritis.Many quassinoids and ailanthone derivatives are vermifuge and amoe- bicidal. Constituents of the bark and stem, particularly ailanthone, have an- timalarial activity in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum and in mice against P. berghei. (Alkaloids do not appear to have these properties.) Some quassinoids are antineoplastic, and are reported to have antileukaemic properties.The rootbark is used in traditional Chinese medicine for dysentery and leucorrhoea. In Africa, rootbark is used in epilepsy.... ailanthus glandulosaA genetic disorder may impair the thyroid’s ability to secrete hormones and goitre may result. Thyroid infection is uncommon and leads to thyroiditis. Viral infection can cause extreme pain and temporary hyperthyroidism. Hormonal changes during puberty or pregnancy may cause a degree of goitre temporarily. Hyperthyroidism due to excessive production of by the pituitary gland is rare but can occur as a result of a pituitary tumour.
Because iodine is necessary for the production of thyroid hormone, its deficiency may lead to goitre. Severe iodine deficiency in children may cause myxoedema. (See also thyroid cancer.)
thyroid hormones The 3 hormones produced by the thyroid gland are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which regulate metabolism, and calcitonin, which helps to regulate calcium levels in the body.... thyroid gland, disorders of
Habitat: South India and Bengal.
Ayurvedic: Vyaaghrairanda.Siddha/Tamil: Adalai, Eliya- manakku.Folk: Bagharenda, Jangali-erandi.Action: Root and oil from seed— purgative. Oil—antirheumatic, antiparalytic. Used externally on ringworm and chronic ulcers. Root—used for glandular swellings.
Latex—applied to warts and tumours.The plant contain alkannins (iso- hexenylnaphthazarins). The presence of alkannins in this plant (a member of Euphorbiaceae) should be considered as an exception.The root gave jatropholone A, frax- etin and a coumarinolignan.Dosage: Seed—50-100 mg powder. (CCRAS.)... jatropha glanduliferaProstatitis This can be either acute or chronic. Acute prostatitis is caused by a bacterial infection, while chronic prostatitis may follow on from an acute attack, arise insidiously, or be non-bacterial in origin.
Symptoms Typically the patient has pain in the PERINEUM, groins, or supra pubic region, and pain on EJACULATION. He may also have urinary frequency, and urgency.
Treatment Acute and chronic prostatitis are treated with a prolonged course of antibiotics. Patients with chronic prostatitis may also require anti-in?ammatory drugs, and antidepressants.
Prostatic enlargement This is the result of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), causing enlargement of the prostate. The exact cause of this enlargement is unknown, but it affects 50 per cent of men between 40 and 59 years and 95 per cent of men over 70 years.
Symptoms These are urinary hesitancy, poor urinary stream, terminal dribbling, frequency and urgency of urination and the need to pass urine at night (nocturia). The diagnosis is made from the patient’s history; a digital examination of the prostate gland via the rectum to assess enlargement; and analysis of the urinary ?ow rate.
Treatment This can be with tablets, which either shrink the prostate – an anti-androgen drug such as ?nasteride – or relax the urinary sphincter muscle during urination. For more severe symptoms the prostate can be removed surgically, by transurethral resection of prostate (TURP), using either electrocautery or laser energy. A new treatment is the use of microwaves to heat up and shrink the enlarged gland.
Cancer Cancer of the prostate is the fourth most common cause of death from cancer in northern European males: more than 10,000 cases are diagnosed every year in the UK and the incidence is rising by 3 per cent annually.
Little is known about the cause, but the majority of prostate cancers require the male hormones, androgens, to grow.
Symptoms These are similar to those resulting from benign prostatic hypertrophy (see above). Spread of the cancer to bones can cause pain. The use of a blood test measuring the amount of an ANTIGEN, PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN (PSA), can be helpful in making the diagnosis – as can an ULTRASOUND scan of the prostate.
Treatment This could be surgical, with removal of the prostate (either via an abdominal incision, total prostatectomy, or transurethrally), or could be by radiotherapy. In more advanced cancers, treatment with anti-androgen drugs, such as cyprotexone acetate or certain oestrogens, is used to inhibit the growth of the cancer.... prostate gland, diseases of
The thymus gland is a vital part of the immunological system. Stem cells (see STEM CELL) from the BONE MARROW come to the thymus where they develop into immunologically competent cells. There are two distinct populations of lymphocytes. One is dependent on the presence of the thymus (Tlymphocytes); the other is independent of the thymus (B-lymphocytes). Both are concerned with immune responses (see IMMUNITY). The T-lymphocyte is a cell which in the absence of antigenic stimulation (see ANTIGEN) circulates through the blood, lymph nodes and back into the circulation again over a period of more than ten years. It performs a policing role, awaiting recognition of foreign material which it is able to identify as such. It reacts by multiplication and transformation and these are the ingredients of the immune response. B-lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are concerned with the production of the circulating humoral ANTIBODIES.
The most common clinical disorder associated with abnormality of the thymus is MYASTHENIA GRAVIS. Ten per cent of patients with myasthenia gravis will have a tumour of the thymus, whilst the remainder will have in?ammatory changes in the thymus called thymitis.... thymus gland
Formula. Ginseng 2; Liquorice 1; Sarsaparilla 1; Ginger half; Kelp half. Dose – powders: half a teaspoon; tinctures 1-3 teaspoons; liquid extracts: 1-2 teaspoons; in water or honey thrice daily. ... gland balancer
Symptoms. Bladder irritability; increased frequency during the night. Feeble forked stream of urine. Sometimes blood. Three quarters of such tumours are located in the posterior lobe of the prostate gland – readily accessible to the examining finger through the front wall of the rectum. Rectal examination reveals a hard rugged prostate. Cystoscopy confirms. Bone pains in the low back or pelvis reflect a stage where the tumour has already spread. Anaemia, weight loss, urgency.
All symptoms are worse by alcohol and spicy foods.
Harvard University scientists report: heavy consumption of animal fat, especially the fat in red meat appears to increase the chance that a man will develop advanced prostate cancer.
Of therapeutic value. Comfrey, Echinacea, Horsetail, Poke root, Thuja, Cornsilk, Goldenseal.
Tea. Combination. Comfrey leaves, Horsetail, Cornsilk. Equal parts. 2-3 teaspoons to each cup boiling water. Drink freely.
Formula No. 1. Echinacea 2; Comfrey 1; Poke root half; Thuja half. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. Thrice daily in water or cup of Cornsilk tea.
Formula No. 2. (Alternative) Echinacea 2; Goldenseal 1; Gotu Kola 1; Poke root half. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons in water or cup of Cornsilk tea.
Bee pollen. Of value.
Garlic. Of value.
Diet. See: DIET – CANCER.
There is a very low incidence of prostate cancer in countries where Soya products are widely consumed – Soya contains a female hormone which is a protector factor.
Supplements. Morning and evening.
Vitamin A 7500iu or more. Large doses may be required. Vitamin C 1-2g. Vitamin E 200iu. Calcium 500mg. Selenium 100mcg. Zinc.
Study. Men with prostate cancer may not need to undergo radical prostatectomy (removal of the prostate gland). A 10-year follow-up study of men with early prostate cancer left untreated showed that 10 years later only 8.5 per cent of the 223 patients had died from prostate cancer. The survival rate of 86.8 per cent in the untreated group was nearly identical to a subgroup who met all the conditions for radical prostatectomy. (Journal of American Medical Association, 22/29 April 1992)
Commonly treated with female sex hormone or by orchidectomy.
It would appear that surgical removal of the gland offers little benefit, and possibly a disadvantage to patients wishing to leave well alone, particularly the elderly. Treatment by a general medical practitioner or oncologist. ... cancer – prostate gland
A genetic defect causes congenital adrenal hyperplasia, in which the adrenal cortex is unable to make sufficient hydrocortisone and aldosterone, and androgens are produced in excess. In adrenal failure, there is also deficient production of hormones by the adrenal cortex; if due to disease of the adrenal glands, it is called Addison’s disease. Adrenal tumours are rare and generally lead to excess hormone production.
In many cases, disturbed activity of the adrenal glands is caused, not by disease of the glands themselves, but by an increase or decrease in the blood level of hormones that influence the action of the adrenal glands. For example, hydrocortisone production by the adrenal cortex is controlled by ACTH, which is secreted by the pituitary gland. Pituitary disorders can disrupt production of hydrocortisone.... adrenal gland disorders
(See also lymphatic system.)... lymph gland
The parotid glands lie above the angle of the jaw, below and in front of the ear, on each side of the face.... parotid glands
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