Skin tests Health Dictionary

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Skin Tests: From 1 Different Sources

Procedures for determining the body’s reaction to various substances by injecting a small quantity of the substance under the skin or by applying it to the skin (usually on patches).

Patch tests are used in the diagnosis of contact allergic dermatitis.

They can also be used to test immunity to certain infectious diseases (such as in the tuberculin test).

Health Source: BMA Medical Dictionary
Author: The British Medical Association

Pregnancy Tests

There are several tests for pregnancy (see PREGNANCY AND LABOUR) in its early stages, and these can be done on blood or urine; some of the urine tests may be carried out at home. Most tests are based on the detection of HUMAN CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIN (HCG) in the woman’s urine. They are nearly 100 per cent accurate and may show positive as early as 30 days after the ?rst day of the last normal period.

The haemagglutination inhibition test This, and the subsequent tests to be mentioned, are known as immunological tests. They are based upon the e?ect of the urine from a pregnant woman upon the interaction of red blood cells, which have been sensitised to human gonadotrophin, and anti-gonadotrophin serum. They have the great practical advantage of being performed in a test-tube or even on a slide. Because of their ease and speed of performance, a result can be obtained in two hours.

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) This is the basis of many of the pregnancy-testing kits obtainable from pharmacies. It is a highly sensitive antibody test and can detect very low concentrations of human chorionic gonadotrophin. Positive results show up as early as ten days after fertilisation – namely, four days before the ?rst missed period.

Ultrasound The fetal sac can be detected by ULTRASOUND from ?ve weeks, and a fetal echo at around six or seven weeks (see also PRENATAL SCREENING OR DIAGNOSIS).... pregnancy tests

Pulmonary Function Tests

Tests to assess how the LUNGS are functioning. They range from simple spirometry (measuring breathing capacity) to sophisticated physiological assessments.

Static lung volumes and capacities can be measured: these include vital capacity – the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly and completely after a maximum deep breath; forced vital capacity is a similar manoeuvre using maximal forceful exhalation and can be measured along with expiratory ?ow rates using simple spirometry; total lung capacity is the total volume of air in the chest after a deep breath in; functional residual capacity is the volume of air in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration, with all respiratory muscles relaxed.

Dynamic lung volumes and ?ow rates re?ect the state of the airways. The forced expiratory volume (FEV) is the amount of air forcefully exhaled during the ?rst second after a full breath – it normally accounts for over 75 per cent of the vital capacity. Maximal voluntary ventilation is calculated by asking the patient to breathe as deeply and quickly as possible for 12 seconds; this test can be used to check the internal consistency of other tests and the extent of co-operation by the patient, important when assessing possible neuromuscular weakness affecting respiration. There are several other more sophisticated tests which may not be necessary when assessing most patients. Measurement of arterial blood gases is also an important part of any assessment of lung function.... pulmonary function tests

Vision Tests

Most vision tests examine a person’s sharpness of VISION (visual acuity) and often of the ?eld of vision (see VISION, FIELD OF). Refraction tests assess whether a person has an error that can be corrected with glasses such as ASTIGMATISM, HYPERMETROPIA or MYOPIA. Visual acuity is tested using a Snellen chart when the patient tries to read letters of di?ering standard sizes from 6 metres away. The optician will prescribe lenses to correct any defects detected by vision tests.... vision tests

Skin

The membrane which envelops the outer surface of the body, meeting at the body’s various ori?ces, with the mucous membrane lining the internal cavities.

Structure

CORIUM The foundation layer. It overlies the subcutaneous fat and varies in thickness from 0·5–3.0 mm. Many nerves run through the corium: these have key roles in the sensations of touch, pain and temperature (see NEURON(E)). Blood vessels nourish the skin and are primarily responsible for regulating the body temperature. Hairs are bedded in the corium, piercing the epidermis (see below) to cover the skin in varying amounts in di?erent parts of the body. The sweat glands are also in the corium and their ducts lead to the surface. The ?brous tissue of the corium comprises interlocking white ?brous elastic bundles. The corium contains many folds, especially over joints and on the palms of hands and soles of feet with the epidermis following the contours. These are permanent throughout life and provide unique ?ngerprinting identi?cation. HAIR Each one has a root and shaft, and its varying tone originates from pigment scattered throughout it. Bundles of smooth muscle (arrectores pilorum) are attached to the root and on contraction cause the hair to stand vertical. GLANDS These occur in great numbers in the skin. SEBACEOUS GLANDS secrete a fatty substance and sweat glands a clear watery ?uid (see PERSPIRATION). The former are made up of a bunch of small sacs producing fatty material that reaches the surface via the hair follicle. Around three million sweat or sudoriparous glands occur all over the body surface; sited below the sebaceous glands they are unconnected to the hairs. EPIDERMIS This forms the outer layer of skin and is the cellular layer covering the body surface: it has no blood vessels and its thickness varies from 1 mm on the palms and soles to 0·1 mm on the face. Its outer, impervious, horny layer comprises several thicknesses of ?at cells (pierced only by hairs and sweat-gland openings) that are constantly rubbed o? as small white scales; they are replaced by growing cells from below. The next, clear layer forms a type of membrane below which the granular stratum cells are changing from their origins as keratinocytes in the germinative zone, where ?ne sensory nerves also terminate. The basal layer of the germinative zone contains melanocytes which produce the pigment MELANIN, the cause of skin tanning.

Nail A modi?cation of skin, being analagous to the horny layer, but its cells are harder and more adherent. Under the horny nail is the nail bed, comprising the well-vascularised corium (see above) and the germinative zone. Growth occurs at the nail root at a rate of around 0·5 mm a week – a rate that increases in later years of life.

Skin functions By its ability to control sweating and open or close dermal blood vessels, the skin plays a crucial role in maintaining a constant body temperature. Its toughness protects the body from mechanical injury. The epidermis is a two-way barrier: it prevents the entry of noxious chemicals and microbes, and prevents the loss of body contents, especially water, electrolytes and proteins. It restricts electrical conductivity and to a limited extent protects against ultraviolet radiation.

The Langerhans’ cells in the epidermis are the outposts of the immune system (see IMMUNITY), just as the sensory nerves in the skin are the outposts of the nervous system. Skin has a social function in its ability to signal emotions such as fear or anger. Lastly it has a role in the synthesis of vitamin D.... skin

Skin Graft

A technique used to repair areas of lost or damaged skin that are too large to heal naturally, that are slow

to heal, or that would leave tethering or unsightly scars. A skin graft is often used in the treatment of burns or sometimes for nonhealing ulcers. A piece of healthy skin is detached from one part of the body and transferred to the affected area. New skin cells grow from the graft and cover the damaged area. In a meshed graft, donor skin is removed and made into a mesh by cutting. The mesh is stretched to fit the recipient site; new skin cells grow to fill the spaces in the mesh. In a pinch graft, multiple small areas of skin are pinched up and removed from the donor site. Placed on the recipient site, they gradually expand to form a new sheet of healthy skin. (See also skin flap.)... skin graft

Arnica Tea: A Skin Aid

Arnica tea is a healing beverage, with a long history in treating a large array of ailments. It is used only externally, because of its toxicity. Arnica Tea description Arnica is a woodland plant from the same family as the sunflower. It normally grows in Central Europe and in the western United States, at high altitudes. It is known as mountain tobacco or smoke herb, because Native American Indians used to smoke this herb. Arnica tea has been used since the 16^th century to calm digestive disorders, reduce fever and for topical treatment when dealing with skin disorders. At present, Arnica tea is recommended to be used only externally, because of its potential toxicity. Its flowers are dried and used to prepare ointments, creams and gels to treat bruises and sprains. Arnica Tea brewing To prepare Arnica tea:

Infuse 1 teaspoon of dried (or powdered) flower into ½ cup of hot water.
Allow the mix to steep for about 10 minutes.

Arnica tea should not be ingested or drunk. Its usage is only external. Arnica Tea benefits Arnica Tea is recognized for its anti-inflammatory and wound-healing properties. This tea has been successfully used to treat:

muscle pains
contusions
sore feet
leg ulcers in diabetics
sprains and bruises
hair loss
acne
scars, eczemas and itching caused by poison ivy

Arnica Tea side effects It has been proved that Arnica tea applied on open wounds or broken skin can increase the blood pressure. Arnica tea should be avoided in case of pregnancy. Also, people with sensitive skin are recommended not to use it. Long periods of Arnica tea usage can lead to eczema, edemas, rash, swelling and dermatitis. Arnica tea is a healing beverage which can heal skin problems and also, lessen pain. It is recommended to people looking for a medicinal remedy for their health issues.... arnica tea: a skin aid

Cutaneous Means Belonging To The Skin.

... cutaneous means belonging to the skin.

Scalded-skin Syndrome

In infants, certain staphylococcal bacteria (see STAPHYLOCOCCUS) can cause an acute toxic illness in which the subject develops sheets of bright ERYTHEMA, accompanied by shedding of layers of outer epidermis. The result is similar to a hot-water scald. The condition responds promptly to appropriate antibiotic therapy. Drug reactions, especially from sulphonamides, may cause a similar syndrome in adults. In drug-induced forms, mucosae are also affected and the disease is often fatal.... scalded-skin syndrome

Greasy Skin

Blue Flag, Goldenseal, Queen’s Delight, Garlic. ... greasy skin

Blood-clotting Tests

Tests to screen for and diagnose bleeding disorders, usually resulting from deficiencies or abnormalities of blood coagulation factors or of platelets (see blood clotting). Tests are also used to monitor treatment with anticoagulant drugs.... blood-clotting tests

Skin-grafting

An operation in which large breaches of SKIN surface due to wounding, burns or ulceration are closed by TRANSPLANTATION of skin from other parts. There are three methods by which this is done. Most frequently the epidermis only is transplanted, using a method introduced by Reverdin and by Thiersch, and known by their names. For this purpose, a broad strip of epidermis is shaved o? the thigh or upper arm, after the part has been carefully sterilised, and is transferred bodily to the raw or ulcerated surface, or is cut into smaller strips and laid upon it. A second method is for small pieces of the skin in its whole thickness to be removed from the arm and thigh, or even from other people, and then implanted and bound upon the raw surface. (This method has the disadvantage that the true skin must contract at the spot from which the graft is taken, leaving an unsightly scar.) When very large areas require to be covered, a third method is commonly used. A large ?ap of skin, amply su?cient to cover the gap, is raised from a neighbouring or distant part of the body, in such a way that it remains attached along one margin, so that blood vessels can still enter and nourish it. It is then turned so as to cover the gap; or, if it be situated on a distant part, the two parts are brought together and ?xed in this position until the ?ap grows ?rmly to its new bed. The old connection of the ?ap is then severed, leaving it growing in its new place.

Researchers are having success in growing human skin in the laboratory for grafting on to people who have been badly burned and have insu?cient intact skin surface to provide an autologous graft (one provided by the recipient of the graft). Other techniques being researched are the use of specially treated shark skin and the production of arti?cial skin.... skin-grafting

Callus, Skin

An area of thickened skin, usually on the hands or feet, caused by regular or prolonged pressure or friction.

A corn is a callus on a toe.

If corns are painful, the thickened skin can be pared away by a chiropodist using a scalpel.... callus, skin

Chapped Skin

Sore, cracked, rough skin, usually on the hands, face, and particularly the lips, due to dryness. Chapping is caused by the lack, or removal, of the natural oils that keep skin supple. It tends to occur in cold weather, when oil-secreting glands produce less oil, or after repeated washing or wetting. Treatment is with a lanolin-based cream.... chapped skin

Kidney Function Tests

Tests performed to investigate kidney disorders.

Urinalysis is a simple test in which a urine sample is examined under a microscope for blood cells, pus cells, and casts (cells and mucous material that accumulate in the tubules of the kidneys and pass into the urine).

Urine may be tested for substances, such as proteins, that leak into the urine when the kidneys are damaged.

Kidney function can be assessed by measuring the concentration in the blood of substances, such as urea and creatinine, that the kidneys normally excrete.

Kidney function may also be assessed by kidney imaging techniques.... kidney function tests

Liver Function Tests

Tests of blood chemistry that can detect changes in the way the liver is making new substances and breaking down and/or excreting old ones.

The tests can also show whether liver cells are healthy or being damaged.... liver function tests

Skin, Diseases Of

They may be local to the SKIN, or a manifestation of systemic disorders – inherited or acquired. Some major types are described below.

Others appear under their appropriate alphabetical headings: ACNE; ALBINISM; ALOPECIA; ALOPECIA AREATA; APHTHOUS ULCER; BASAL CELL CARCINOMA; BOILS (FURUNCULOSIS); BOWEN’S DISEASE; CALLOSITIES; CANDIDA; CHEILOSIS; CHEIRAPOMPHOLYX; DANDRUFF; DERMATOFIBROMA; DERMATOMYOSITIS; DERMATOPHYTES; DERMOGRAPHISM; ECTHYMA; ERYSIPELAS; ERYTHEMA; ERYTHRASMA; ERYTHRODERMA; ESCHAR; EXANTHEM; FUNGAL AND YEAST INFECTIONS; HAND, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE; HERPES GENITALIS; HERPES SIMPLEX; HERPES ZOSTER; IMPETIGO; INTERTRIGO; KELOID; KERATOSIS; LARVA MIGRANS; LICHEN; LUPUS; MADURA FOOT; MELANOMA; MILIARIA; MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM; MOLE; MYCOSIS FUNGOIDES; NAEVUS; ORF; PEDICULOSIS; PEMPHIGUS; PHOTOCHEMOTHERAPY; PHOTODERMATOSES; PITYRIASIS; PORPHYRIAS; PRURITUS; PSORIASIS; RINGWORM; ROSACEA; SARCOIDOSIS; SCABIES; SCLERODERMA; URTICARIA; VITILIGO; WARTS; XANTHOMATA.

Skin cancer Primary cancer is common and chronic exposure to ultraviolet light is the most important cause. BASAL CELL CARCINOMA is the most common form; squamous cell carcinoma is less common and presents as a growing, usually painless nodule which may ulcerate. Squamous cancer may spread to regional lymph glands and metastasise, unlike basal cell cancer. Occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens may cause squamous carcinoma – for example, cancer from pitch warts or the scrotal carcinoma of chimney sweeps exposed to coal dust in earlier centuries. Squamous carcinoma of the lip is associated with clay-pipe smoking.

Cancer may arise from the population of melanocytes of the skin (see MELANOCYTE; MELANOMA).

Apart from these three most frequent forms of skin cancer, various forms of cancer can arise from cells of the dermis, of which LYMPHOMA is the most important (see also MYCOSIS FUNGOIDES).

Lastly, secondary deposits from internal cancer, particularly from the breast, may metastasise to the skin.

Dermatitis and eczema These are broadly synonymous, and the terms are frequently interchangeable. Eczema is a pattern of in?ammation with many potential causes. Dermatitis is commonly used to suggest an eczema caused by external factors; it is a common pattern of in?ammation of the skin characterised by redness and swelling, vesiculation (see VESICLE), and scaling with intense itching and often exudation (weeping). Fissuring, thickening (licheni?cation – see LICHEN) and secondary bacterial infection may follow. Dermatitis can affect any part of the body. It may be genetically detemined or due to other ‘internal’ factors, such as venous HYPERTENSION in a leg, or stress. Often it is ‘external’ in origin – due to strong irritants or chemical allergens. (See also ALLERGY; ALLERGEN.) ATOPIC DERMATITIS is genetic in origin and usually begins in infancy. It may persist for years, and ASTHMA, allergic RHINITIS and conjunctivitis (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF) – ‘hay fever’ – may be associated. Atopic children tend to have multiple allergies, especially to inhaled allergens such as house-dust mite, cat and dog dander and pollens. Allergy to foods is less common but potentially more dangerous, especially if to nuts, when it can cause acute URTICARIA or even ANAPHYLAXIS. Atopic subjects are particularly prone to persistent and multiple verrucae (see WARTS) and mollusca (see MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM) and to severe HERPES SIMPLEX infections. (See also ATOPY.)

EXFOLIATE DERMATITIS (PITYRIASIS RUBRA)

Generalised exfoliation and scaling of the skin, commonly with ERYTHEMA. Drugs may cause it, or the disorder may be linked with other skin diseases such as benign dermatoses and lupus erythematosus (see under LUPUS). SUMMER POMPHOLYX is an acute vesicular eczema of the palms and soles recurring every summer. Inhaled allergens are a frequent cause. VENOUS (STASIS) DERMATITIS begins on a lower calf, often in association with PURPURA, swelling and sometimes ulceration. Chronic venous hypertension in the leg, consequent on valvular incompetence in the deep leg veins owing to previous deep vein thrombosis (see VEINS, DISEASES OF), is the usual cause. NEURODERMATITIS A pattern of well-de?ned plaques of licheni?ed eczema particularly seen on the neck, ulnar forearms or sides of the calves in subjects under emotional stress. IRRITANT CONTACT DERMATITIS Most often seen in an industrial setting (occupational dermatitis), it is due to damage by strong chemicals such as cutting oils, cement, detergents and solvents. In almost all cases the hands are most severely affected. ALLERGIC CONTACT DERMATITIS, in contrast, can affect any part of the body depending on the cause – for example, the face (cosmetics), hands (plants, occupational allergens) or soles (rubber boots). Particularly common allergens include metals (nickel and chromate), rubber addititives, and adhesives (epoxy resins).

Treatment Avoidance of irritants and contact allergens, liberal use of EMOLLIENTS, and topical application of corticosteroid creams and ointments (see CORTICOSTEROIDS) are central.... skin, diseases of

Lung Function Tests

See pulmonary function tests.... lung function tests

Personality Tests

Questionnaires designed to define various personality traits or types. Tests may be designed to detect psychiatric symptoms, underlying personality traits, how outgoing or reserved a person is, and predisposition to developing neurotic illness.... personality tests

Respiratory Function Tests

See pulmonary function tests.... respiratory function tests

Skin Allergy

Irritation of the skin following contact with a specific substance that provokes an inappropriate or exaggerated reaction from the immune system. There are 2 main types of allergic skin reaction. In contact allergic dermatitis, red, itchy patches develop a few hours to 2 days after contact with the allergen. In contact urticaria, red, raised areas appear a few minutes after skin contact. In some cases, skin tests are needed, to identify the allergen, for contact with it to be minimized. (See also atopic eczema.)... skin allergy

Skin Biopsy

Removal of a portion of skin for laboratory analysis in order to diagnose a skin disorder.... skin biopsy

Skin Cancer

A malignant tumour in the skin. Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma are common forms related to long-term exposure to sunlight. Bowen’s disease, a rare disorder that can become cancerous, may also be related to sun exposure. Less common types include Paget’s disease of the nipple and mycosis fungoides. Kaposi’s sarcoma is a type usually found in people with AIDS. Most skin cancers can be cured if treated early.... skin cancer

Tea For Good Skin

Good skin is something we all want. Even if you’re a man or a woman, black heads or acne are really bothering you. If that is the case, you have definitely tried a lot of pharmaceutical and cosmetic products and nothing seemed to be working. Alternative medicine recommends a number of teas and decoctions that will make your skin smoother than ever. All you have to do is commit to this treatment and maintain an adequate skin hygiene. How Tea for Good Skin Works It’s important to know that not only acne can deteriorate your natural glow. There are also a number of affections that can stain your skin, such as liver or kidney failure, eczema or skin rash due to allergies. Smoke will age you before time, wrinkling your mouth area and your forehead. Also, you may want to change your pillow case more often, in order to keep allergens and microbes away from your face. A Tea for Good Skin’s main purpose is to clear your skin through its antiseptic ingredients and nourish the damaged areas. Efficient Tea for Good Skin When choosing a Tea for Good Skin, you need to pick the ones with the highest antifungal and antiseptic properties. You can either drink the tea or use it as a face cleanser. In case you don’t know which teas are adequate, here’s a list we made for you: - Chamomile Tea – thanks to its antibacterial and antiseptic properties, Chamomile Tea is a great help when it comes to skin treatments. Both the pharmaceutical and the cosmetic companies have included Chamomile on their must have list of ingredients. A cup of tea per day will restore your skin’s natural glow while also improving your general health. - Oolong Tea - contains half the amount of caffeine that other teas contain. You can drink it daily or use it as a compress to apply it on your affected areas. This is probably the most effective Tea for Good Skin and also the safest. If you haven’t tried it yet, now would be a good time! - Black Tea – this wonderful Tea for skin improves your vascular activity and enhances your epithelial cells production. Pay attention, though: don’t take it if you’re on your period or experiencing some menopausal pains in order to avoid complication! - White Tea – also a good nutrient, White Tea can improve your general health, not just your skin. It’s best not to combine it with other tea, though. White Tea can have a negative reaction when mixed with green tea or black tea. You can also use a decoction or White Tea tinctures in order to treat your localized injuries. Tea for Good Skin Side Effects When taken properly, these teas are perfectly safe. Just make sure you don’t exceed the number of cups recommended per day in order to avoid complications such as diarrhea or constipation. Other than that, there’s no reason not to try a face cleanser based on a Tea for Good skin! However, if you’re not sure about it yet, talk to a dermatologist or to an herbalist. Don’t take a Tea for Good Skin if you’re pregnant, breastfeeding, on blood thinners, anticoagulants or preparing for a major surgery. If there’s nothing that could interfere with your herbal treatment, choose a Tea for Good Skin that fits you best and enjoy its wonderful benefits!... tea for good skin

Candida, Of Skin And Nails

Infection by Candida albicans.

Internal. Goldenseal 1; Myrrh 1; Thuja half; Poke root half. Dose – Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: one 5ml teaspoon. Tinctures: two 5ml teaspoons. Thrice daily before meals.

Capricin. See entry.

Topical. Thuja lotion: 1 teaspoon Liquid extract Thuja to 1oz (30ml) distilled extract Witch Hazel.

Aloe Vera; fresh juice or gel.

Tea Tree oil; may be diluted many times.

Comfrey cream; Castor oil, Oil of Mullen or Houseleek. Cider vinegar.

Night wash. Warm water to which is added a few drops Tincture Myrrh, Tincture Thuja or Tea Tree oil. Diet and Supplements. Same as for CANDIDA – VAGINAL. ... candida, of skin and nails

Diet - Skin Disorders

Low fat, low salt, high fibre. Dairy-free (no milk, cream, cheese, eggs). Soya milk is more suitable for children and adults than cow’s milk and provides protein, calories, calcium and vitamins. Polyunsaturates: oils of safflower, corn, Soya, sunflower seed, etc which are rich in essential fatty acids, low levels of which are frequently found in the blood of those with chronic skin disorders. Evening Primrose oil is a rich source of EFAs. Gluten-free diet has proved successful in some cases.

Accept. Goat’s milk, yoghurt, eggs – twice weekly. The high potassium and low salt content of bananas help reduce itching. Lecithin. Oily fish. Purslane is a non-fish source of EPA and suitable for the vegetarian approach. Cottage cheese. Pumpkin seeds as a source of zinc. Dandelion coffee. Artichoke: such as Schoenenberger plant juice. Salad dressing: emulsify 1 teaspoon Cider vinegar to each 2 teaspoons safflower seed oil.

Reject: Fried and greasy foods, pastries, chocolates, sweets, ice cream, spicy foods, seasoning, sausage meats, white flour products, white sugar products, alcoholic drinks, meat from the pig (ham, pork, bacon), peppers, horseradish, condiments. Powdered kelp in place of salt, powdered garlic or celery.

Foods known to contain artificial colours and preservatives. All soft drinks, except those made at home from fresh fruits or raw vegetables; coffee, strong tea, oranges. Cola drinks, chocolate, milk, cream, cheese, whey.

Supplement. Beta carotene.

Study. A flare-up can be caused by nuts, jams, fruits, artificially coloured or flavoured foods. (British Journal of Dermatology, 110, 457, (1984)) ... diet - skin disorders

Skin, Disorders Of The

The skin is vulnerable to various disorders, including birthmarks and other naevi; infections that may be viral (such as cold sores and warts), bacterial (for example, cellulitis), or fungal (such as tinea, which causes athlete’s foot); rashes due to vitamin deficiency or the side effects of drugs; and tumours, both noncancerous and cancerous.

Acne is common in adolescents and is partly related to the action of androgen hormones.

Inflammation of the skin occurs in dermatitis, eczema, and skin allergy.

The skin is also vulnerable to injuries such as burns, cuts, and bites (see bites, animal; insect bites).... skin, disorders of the

Skin Flap

A surgical technique in which a section of skin and underlying tissue, sometimes including muscle, is moved to cover an area from which skin and tissue have been lost or damaged by injury, disease, or surgery.

Unlike a skin graft, a skin flap retains its blood supply, either by remaining attached to the donor site or through reattachment to blood vessels at the recipient site by microsurgery, so skin flaps adhere well even where there is extensive loss of deep tissue.... skin flap

Cancer – Skin

There is strong evidence that sunlight plays a major role in the development of human skin cancers. Skin malignancy usually takes the form of Basal Cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma that may develop from pre-existing naevi.

Basal Cell Cancer. Strong sunlight on fair skins. Common on face and hands and other exposed areas. Commences as a tiny hard nodule. See – RODENT ULCER.

Squamous Cell Cancer. The role of sunlight in this type of cancer is even more positive. Other causes: photosensitisers such as pitch and PUVA photochemotherapy. Commences as a raised scaly rapidly- growing nodule.

Malignant Melanoma. Rare, but incidence rising. Four different kinds. Incidence is increased in individuals with fair or red hair who tend to burn rather than tan in the sun.

Causes may be numerous: genetic, occupational hazards or exposure to low-level radiation. Heavy freckling in youth doubles the risk. (Western Canada Melanoma study)

A study carried out by the New York’s Memorial-Sloan Kettering Cancer Centre refers to damage to the ultra violet-blocking ozone layer by supersonic jet exhaust and aerosol propellants that can also raise the malignant melanoma rate. A University of Sydney study links fluorescent lighting with the disease. Symptoms. Itching lesion increases in size and with growing discoloration. Colours may present as brown, black, red, blue, white, with a red inflammatory border. May progress to a dry crust, with bleeding.

Study. A study conducted by a team from Melbourne University, Anti-Cancer Council and St Vincent’s Hospital, Australia, describes a summer-long experiment that showed that people who used a sun-screen lotion (in this case SPF-17) cut their chances of developing the first signs of skin cancer.

Study. Patients who receive blood transfusions are more likely to develop malignant lymphomas and non- melanomatous skin cancers. (European Journal of Cancer (Nov 1993))

Eclectic physicians of the 19th century reported success from the use of American Mandrake (podophylum peltatum). Recent experience includes a 76 per cent cure rate achieved in 68 patients with carcinoma of the skin by treatment twice daily for 14 days with an ointment consisting of Podophyllum resin 20 per cent, and Linseed oil 20 per cent, in lanolin, followed by an antibiotic ointment. (Martindale 27; 1977, p. 1341) Podophyllum is an anti-mitotic and inhibits cell-division and should not be applied to normal cells.

Aloe Vera. Fresh cut leaf, or gel, to wipe over exposed surfaces.

Vitamin E oil. Applying the oil to the skin can reduce chances of acquiring skin cancer from the sun. (University of Arizona College of Medicine)

Red Clover. “I have seen a case of skin cancer healed by applying Red Clover blossoms. After straining a strong tea, the liquid was simmered until it was the consistency of tar. After several applications the skin cancer was gone, and has not returned.” (May Bethel, in “Herald of Health”, Dec. 1963)

Clivers. Equal parts juice of Clivers (from juice extractor) and glycerine. Internally and externally.

Thuja. Internal: 3-5 drops Liquid Extract, morning and evening.

Topical. “Take a small quantity powdered Slippery Elm and add Liquid Extract Thuja to make a stiff paste. Apply paste to the lesion. Cover with gauze and protective covering. When dry remove pack and follow with compresses saturated with Thuja.” (Ellingwood’s Therapeutist, Vol 10, No 6, p. 212) Echinacea and Thuja. Equal parts liquid extracts assist healthy granulation and neutralise odour.

Rue Ointment. Simmer whole fresh leaves in Vaseline.

Poke Root. An old physician laid great stress on the use of concentrated juice of green leaves. Leaves are bruised, juice extracted, and concentrated by slow evaporation until the consistency of a paste, for persistent skin cancer. Care should be taken to confine to the distressed area. (Ellingwood’s Therapeutist, Vol 8, No 7, p. 275)

Maria Treben. Horsetail poultice.

Laetrile. Some improvement claimed. 1 gram daily.

Cider vinegar. Anecdotal evidence: external use: small melanoma.

Diet. See: DIET – CANCER. Beta-carotene foods.

Treatment by skin specialist or oncologist. ... cancer – skin

Blood Tests

Analysis of a sample of blood to give information on its cells and proteins and any of the chemicals, antigens, antibodies, and gases that it carries. Such tests can be used to check on the health of major organs, as well as on respiratory function, hormonal balance, the immune system, and metabolism. Blood tests may look at numbers, shape, size, and appearance of blood cells and assess the function of clotting factors. The most important tests are blood count and blood group tests if transfusion is needed. Biochemical tests measure chemicals in the blood (see acid–base balance; kidney function tests; liver function tests). Microbiological tests (see immunoassay) look for microorganisms that are in the blood, as

in septicaemia. Microbiology also looks for antibodies in the blood, which may confirm immunity to an infection. blood transfusion The infusion of large volumes of blood or blood products directly into the bloodstream to remedy severe blood loss or to correct chronic anaemia. In an exchange transfusion, nearly all of the recipient’s blood is replaced by donor blood. Before a transfusion, a sample of the recipient’s blood is taken to identify the blood groups, and it is matched with suitable donor blood. The donor blood is transfused into an arm vein through a plastic cannula. Usually, each unit (about 500 ml) of blood is given over 1–4 hours; in an emergency, 500 ml may be given in a couple of minutes. The blood pressure, temperature, and pulse are monitored during the procedure.

If mismatched blood is accidentally introduced into the circulation, antibodies in the recipient’s blood may cause donor cells to burst, leading to shock or kidney failure. Less severe reactions can produce fever, chills, or a rash. Reactions can also occur as a result of an allergy to transfused blood components. All

blood used for transfusion is carefully screened for a number of infectious agents, including HIV (the AIDS virus) and hepatitis B and hepatitis C.

In elderly or severely anaemic patients, transfusion can overload the circulation, leading to heart failure.

In patients with chronic anaemia who need regular transfusion over many years, excess iron may accumulate (haemosiderosis) and damage organs such as the heart, liver, and pancreas.

Treatment with desferrioxamine to remove excess iron may be needed.... blood tests

Skin Patch

See transdermal patch.... skin patch

Skin Peeling, Chemical

A cosmetic operation in which the outer layers of the skin are peeled away by the application of a caustic paste in order to remove freckles, acne scars, delicate wrinkles, or other skin blemishes.... skin peeling, chemical

Hearing Tests

Tests carried out to assess hearing. Hearing tests are performed as part of a routine assessment of child development and when hearing impairment is suspected. The tests are sometimes included in a general medical examination. Hearing tests may also be used to identify the cause of tinnitus or dizziness.

An audiometer (an electrical instrument) is used to test an individual’s ability to hear sounds at different frequencies and volumes. The lowest level at which a person can hear and repeat words (the speech reception threshold) is tested, as is the ability to hear words clearly (speech discrimination). The type of hearing loss (see deafness) is determined by holding a tuning fork to different parts of the ear.... hearing tests

Intelligence Tests

Tests designed to provide an estimate of a person’s mental abilities. The most widely used are Wechsler tests of which there are 2 basic types: the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Each is divided into verbal (concerned with language skills) and performance sections, including measures of constructional ability and visual-spatial and perceptual ability (interpretation of shapes). Other tests include the Stanford–Binet test, which is used mainly as a measure of scholastic ability.

In most intelligence tests, scoring is based on mental age (MA) in relation to chronological age (CA). The intelligence quotient (IQ) is MA divided by CA, multiplied by 100. The tests are devised to ensure that 3 in 4 people have an IQ between 80 and 120. They are standardized so that the score indicates the same relative ability at different age levels.

Intelligence tests may be used to assess school or job aptitude. However, they have been criticized for their alleged bias regarding gender and race.... intelligence tests

Skin Tag

A harmless, small, brown or flesh-coloured flap of skin that may appear spontaneously or as a result of poor healing of a wound.... skin tag

Skin Tumours

A growth on or in the skin that may be cancerous (see skin cancer) or noncancerous.

Keratoses and squamous papillomas are common types of noncancerous tumour; other types include sebaceous cysts, cutaneous horns, keratoacanthomas, and haemangiomas.... skin tumours

Tests, Medical

Tests may be performed to investigate the cause of symptoms and establish a diagnosis, to monitor the course of a disease, or to assess response to treatment. A medical testing programme carried out on apparently healthy people to find disease at an early stage is known as screening.

The accuracy of a test is based on its sensitivity (ability to correctly identify diseased subjects), specificity (ability to correctly identify healthy subjects), and predictive value.

The predictive value is determined by a mathematical formula that involves the number of accurate test results and the total number of tests performed.

The best tests have both high specificity and high sensitivity, and therefore high predictive value.... tests, medical

Thyroid-function Tests

A group of blood tests used to evaluate the function of the thyroid gland and to detect or confirm any thyroid disorder. The thyroid hormones T3 and T4 are measured, as well as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), the pituitary gland hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland.... thyroid-function tests

Tuberculin Tests

Skin tests used to determine whether or not a person has been exposed to the bacterium that causes tuberculosis. Tuberculin tests are carried out for diagnosis of tuberculosis, and before BCG vaccination. A small amount of tuberculin (purified protein from the bacteria) is injected into the skin. A few days later, the skin reaction, if any, is noted. A reaction indicates previous exposure.... tuberculin tests

Tuning Fork Tests

Hearing tests carried out to diagnose conductive deafness. In the Weber test, a vibrating tuning fork is held against the forehead. If there is conductive hearing loss, the sound seems louder in the affected ear. In the Rinne test, a vibrating tuning fork is held first near the ear, and then against the bone behind it. If it sounds louder when held against the bone, there is conductive hearing loss.... tuning fork tests

Urine Tests

See urinalysis.... urine tests

Renal Function Tests

tests for assessing the function of the kidneys. These include measurements of the specific gravity of urine, creatinine *clearance time, and blood urea levels; intravenous urography; and renal angiography.... renal function tests

Split-skin Graft

(SSG, Thiersch’s graft) a type of skin graft in which thin partial thicknesses of skin are used to cover and heal a wound. They are removed from one site on the body, cut into narrow strips or sheets, and placed onto the wound area to be healed.... split-skin graft

Stycar Tests

Standard Tests for Young Children and Retardates: tests to detect visual problems in children between the ages of six months and five years. They consist of a series of standardized balls, toys, or letters. The tests were developed by the paediatrician Mary Sheridan.... stycar tests

Bolam And Bolitho Tests

where clinical *negligence is claimed, tests used to determine the standard of care owed by professionals to those whom they serve, e.g. the standards of care provided to patients by doctors. The 1957 case of Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee established that if a doctor acts in accordance with a responsible body of medical opinion, he or she will not be negligent. In 1997 this standard of care test was amended by the case of Bolitho v City and Hackney Health Authority, which requires the doctor’s behaviour to satisfy the judgment not only of responsible medical opinion but also of a court’s own independent logical analysis.... bolam and bolitho tests

Dexamethasone Suppression Tests

(DSTs) tests based on the principle that appropriate doses of *dexamethasone can suppress the output of cortisol from the adrenal glands in the normal state and that this ability is reduced or lost in *Cushing’s syndrome. In the overnight DST 1 mg of dexamethasone is administered at midnight and the serum cortisol level is measured at 9.00 am the next morning. Failure to suppress cortisol output may indicate Cushing’s syndrome but also occurs in patients with obesity and depressive illness. In the low-dose DST (0.5 mg dexamethasone every 6 hours for 48 hours), cortisol suppression occurs in patients with obesity and depression but not in those with Cushing’s syndrome. In the high-dose DST (2 mg dexamethasone every 6 hours for 48 hours), cortisol is suppressed in patients with Cushing’s disease (in which excess amounts of ACTH are secreted by the pituitary gland) but not in those with Cushing’s syndrome due to other causes. Although the low- and high-dose tests are unreliable, all three tests should be performed to aid the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome.... dexamethasone suppression tests

Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome

(Ritter’s disease) a potentially serious condition of young infants (and occasionally seen in adults) in which the skin becomes reddened and tender and then peels off, giving the appearance of a scald. The area of skin loss may be quite extensive and is usually centred on the armpits and groin. The underlying cause is an infection by certain bacteria of the genus *Staphylococcus. It is contagious and may occur in clusters. Treatment is by antibiotics (usually intravenous), but careful nursing is essential to prevent skin damage. Admission to hospital is mandatory for small children.... staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome

Synacthen Tests

tests used to assess the ability of the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol. Serum cortisol is measured before and then 30 minutes (or 5 hours) after an intramuscular injection of 250 ?g (or 1 mg) tetracosactide (Synacthen), an analogue of *ACTH. The adrenal glands are considered to be inadequate if there is a low baseline concentration of cortisol or the rise is less than a certain predefined amount.... synacthen tests

Skin Care

Acne (M,S,F,B,I,N):

Bergamot, camphor (white), cananga, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, galbanum, geranium, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lemongrass, lime, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sage (clary & Spanish), sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, violet, yarrow, ylang ylang.

Allergies (M,S,F,B,I):

Melissa, chamomile (German & Roman), immortelle, true lavender, spikenard.

Athlete’s foot (S):

Clove bud, eucalyptus, lavender (true &spike), lemon, lemongrass, myrrh, patchouli, tea tree.

Baldness & hair care (S,H):

West Indian bay, white birch, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), grapefruit, juniper, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), yarrow, ylang ylang.

Boils, abscesses & blisters (S,C,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, mastic, niaouli, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, turpentine.

Bruises (S,C):

Arnica (cream), borneol, clove bud, fennel, geranium, hyssop, sweet marjoram, lavender, thyme.

Burns (C,N):

Canadian balsam, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, eucalyptus blue gum, geranium, immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, niaouli, tea tree, yarrow.

Chapped & cracked skin (S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, benzoin, myrrh, patchouli, sandalwood.

Chilblains (S,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, black pepper.

Cold sores/herpes (S):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lemon, tea tree.

Congested & dull skin (M,S,F,B,I):

Angelica, white birch, sweet fennel, geranium, grapefruit, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, mandarin, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), palmarosa, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, rosewood, ylang ylang.

Cuts/sores (S,C):

Canadian balsam, benzoin, borneol, cabreuva, cade, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), galbanum, geranium, hyssop, immortelle, lavender (spike & true), lavandin, lemon, lime, linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, Scotch pine, Spanish sage, Levant styrax, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Dandruff (S,H):

West Indian bay, cade, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), eucalyptus, spike lavender, lemon, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tea tree.

Dermatitis (M,S,C,F,B):

White birch, cade, cananga, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hops, hyssop, juniper, true lavender, linaloe, litsea cubeba, mint (peppermint & spearmint), palmarosa, patchouli, rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Dry & sensitive skin (M,S,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, cassie, chamomile (German & Roman), frankincense, jasmine, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), rosewood, sandalwood, violet.

Eczema (M,S,F,B):

Melissa, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, white birch, cade, carrot seed, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, Spanish sage, thyme, violet, yarrow.

Excessive perspiration (S,B):

Citronella, cypress, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, petitgrain, Scotch pine, Spanish sage.

Greasy or oily skin/scalp (M,S,H,F,B):

West Indian bay, bergamot, cajeput, camphor (white), cananga, carrot seed, citronella, cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, juniper, lavender, lemon, lemongrass, !itsea cubeba, mandarin, marigold, mimosa, myrtle, niaouli, palmarosa, patchouli, petitgrain, rosemary, rosewood, sandalwood, clary sage, tea tree, thyme, vetiver, ylang ylang.

Haemorrhoids/piles (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Copaiba balsam, coriander, cubebs, cypress, geranium, juniper, myrrh, myrtle, parsley, yarrow.

Insect bites (S,N):

French basil, bergamot, cajeput, cananga, chamomile (German & Roman), cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, marigold, melissa, niaouli, tea tree, thyme, ylang ylang.

Insect repellent (S,V):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), Virginian cedarwood, citronella, clove bud, cypress, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), geranium, lavender, lemongrass, litsea cubeba, mastic, melissa, patchouli, rosemary, turpentine.

Irritated & inflamed skin (S,C,F,B):

Angelica, benzoin, camphor (white), Atlas cedarwood, chamomile (German & Roman), elemi, immortelle, hyssop, jasmine, lavandin, true lavender, marigold, myrrh, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Lice (S,H):

Cinnamon leaf, eucalyptus blue gum, galbanum, geranium, lavandin, spike lavender, parsley, Scotch pine, rosemary, thyme, turpentine.

Mouth & gum infections/ulcers (S,C):

Bergamot, cinnamon leaf, cypress, sweet fennel, lemon, mastic, myrrh, orange (bitter & sweet), sage (clary & Spanish), thyme.

Psoriasis (M,S,F,B):

Angelica, bergamot, white birch, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), true lavender.

Rashes (M,S,C,F,B):

Peru balsam, Tofu balsam, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), hops, true lavender, marigold, sandalwood, spikenard, tea tree, yarrow.

Ringworm (S,H):

Geranium, spike lavender, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine.

Scabies (S):

Tolu balsam, bergamot, cinnamon leaf, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemongrass, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), Scotch pine, rosemary, Levant styrax, thyme, turpentine.

Scars & stretch marks (M,S):

Cabreuva, elemi, frankincense, galbanum, true lavender, mandarin, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rosewood, sandalwood, spikenard, violet, arrow.

Slack tissue (M,S,B):

Geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lemongrass, lime, mandarin, sweet marjoram, orange blossom, black pepper, petitgrain, rosemary, yarrow.

Spots (S,N):

Bergamot, cade, cajeput, camphor (white), eucalyptus (lemon), immortelle, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lemon, lime, litsea cubeba, mandarin, niaouli, tea tree.

Ticks (S,N):

Sweet marjoram.

Toothache & teething pain (S,C,N):

Chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrrh.

Varicose veins (S,C):

Cypress, lemon, lime, neroli, yarrow.

Verrucae (S,N):

Tagetes, tea tree.

Warts & corns (S,N):

Cinnamon leaf, lemon, lime, tagetes, tea tree.

Wounds (S,C,B):

Canadian balsam, Peru balsam, Tolu balsam, bergamot, cabreuva, chamomile (German & Roman), clove bud, cypress, elemi, eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), frankincense, galbanum, geranium, immortelle, hyssop, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), linaloe, marigold, mastic, myrrh, niaouli, patchouli, rosewood, Levant styrax, tea tree, turpentine, vetiver, yarrow.

Wrinkles & mature skin (M,S,F,B):

Carrot seed, elemi, sweet fennel, frankincense, galbanum, geranium, jasmine, labdanum, true lavender, mandarin, mimosa, myrrh, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, rose (cabbage & damask), rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, spikenard, ylang ylang.... skin care

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