The involuntary expulsion of air through the nose and mouth as a result of irritation of the upper respiratory tract. This may be due to the common cold, allergic rhinitis, the presence of mucus, or inhaling an irritant substance.
Sneezing may be caused by the presence of irritating particles in the nose, such as snu?, or the pollen of grasses and ?owers. It is also an early symptom of colds, INFLUENZA, MEASLES, and HAY FEVER, being then accompanied or followed by running at the nose (RHINITIS).
There is little evidence that any one antihistamine is superior to another, and patients vary considerably in their response to them. The antihistamines di?er in their duration of action and in the incidence of side-effects such as drowsiness. Most are short-acting, but some (such as promethazine) work for up to 12 hours. They all cause sedation but promethazine, trimeprazine and dimenhydrinate tend to be more sedating while chlorpheniramine and cyclizine are less so, as are astemizole, oxatomide and terfenadine. Patients should be warned that their ability to drive or operate machinery may be impaired when taking these drugs, and that the effects of ALCOHOL may be increased.... antihistamine drugs
Incontinence can be divided broadly into two groups: stress incontinence and incontinence due to an overactive URINARY BLADDER – also called detrusor instability – which affects one-third of incontinent women, prevalence increasing with age. Bladder symptoms do not necessarily correlate with the underlying diagnosis, and accurate diagnosis may require urodynamic studies – examination of urine within, and the passage of urine through and from, the urinary tract. However, such studies are best deferred until conservative treatment has failed or when surgery is planned.
Incontinence causes embarassment, inconvenience and distress in women, and men are reluctant to seek advice for what remains a social taboo for most people. Su?erers should be encouraged to seek help early and to discuss their anxieties and problems frankly. Often it is a condition which can be managed e?ectively at primary care centres, and quite simple measures can greatly improve the lives of those affected. STRESS INCONTINENCE is the most common cause of urinary incontinence in women. This is the involuntary loss of urine during activities that raise the intra-abdominal pressure, such as sneezing, coughing, laughing, exercise or lifting. The condition is caused by injury or weakness of the urethral sphincter muscle; this weakness may be either congenital or the result of childbirth, PROLAPSE of the VAGINA, MENOPAUSE or previous surgery. A CYSTOCOELE may be present. Urinary infection may cause incontinence or aggravate the symptoms of existing incontinence.
The ?rst step is to diagnose and treat infection, if present. Patients bene?t from simple advice on incontinence pads and garments, and on ?uid intake. Those with a high ?uid intake should restrict this to a litre a day, especially if frequency is a problem. Constipation should be treated and smoking stopped. The use of DIURETICS should be reduced if possible, or stopped entirely. Postmenopausal women may bene?t from oestrogen-replacement therapy; elderly people with chronic incontinence may need an indwelling urethral catheter.
Pelvic-?oor exercises can be successful and the insertion of vaginal cones can be a useful subsidiary treatment, as can electrical stimulation of the pelvic muscles. If these procedures are unsuccessful, then continence surgery may be necessary. The aim of this is to raise the neck of the bladder, support the mid part of the urethra and increase urethral resistance. Several techniques are available. URGE INCONTINENCE An overactive or unstable bladder results in urge incontinence, also known as detrusor incontinence – the result of uninhibited contractions of the detrusor muscle of the bladder. The bladder contracts (spontaneously or on provocation) during the ?lling phase while the patient attempts to stop passing any urine. Hyperexcitability of the muscle or a disorder of its nerve supply are likely causes. The symptoms include urgency (acute wish to pass urine), frequency and stress incontinence. Diagnosis can be con?rmed with CYSTOMETRY. Bladder training is the ?rst step in treatment, with the aim of reducing the frequency of urination to once every three to four hours. BIOFEEDBACK, using visual, auditory or tactile signals to stop bladder contractions, will assist the bladder training. Drug treatments such as CALCIUM-CHANNEL BLOCKERS, antimuscarinic agents (see ANTIMUSCARINE), TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT DRUGS, and oestrogen replacement can be e?ective. Surgery is rarely used and is best reserved for di?cult cases. OVERFLOW INCONTINENCE Chronic urinary retention with consequent over?ow – more common in men than in women. The causes include antispasmodic drugs, continence surgery, obstruction from enlargement and post-prostatectomy problems (in men), PSYCHOSIS, and disease or damage to nerve roots arising from the spinal cord. Urethral dilatation or urethrotomy may be required when obstruction is the cause. Management is intermittent selfcatheterisation or a suprapubic catheter and treatment of any underlying cause.
Faecal incontinence is the inability to control bowel movements and may be due to severe CONSTIPATION, especially in the elderly; to local disease; or to injury or disease of the spinal cord or nervous supply to rectum and anal muscles. Those with the symptom require further investigation.... incontinence
Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
English: Black Mustard.Ayurvedic: Banarasi Raai, Raajika (var.).Unani: Khardal Siyah. Siddha/Tamil: Kadugu. Folk: Raai.Action: Seeds are used for treating coryza with thin excoriating discharge with lacrimation, sneezing and hacking cough, nostril blockage and dry and hot feeling of pharyngitis.
The seeds contain glucosinolate sin- igrin, which produces allyl isothio- cyanate when mixed with warm water. Allyl isothiocynate acts as a counterir- ritant when diluted (1:50).Brayera anthelmintica Kunth.Synonym: Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J. F. Gmelin.Family: Rosaceae.Habitat: Indigenous to north-east Africa. Imported into Mumbai.
English: Cusso, Brayera.Folk: Kusso.Action: Anthelmintic. Administered in the form of an infusion for the expulsion of tapeworm (ineffective against hookworm, roundworm, whipworm). Irritant to mucous membrane; produces nausea, vomiting and colic in large doses.... brassica nigra
Also called acute coryza or upper respiratory infection, the common cold is characterised by in?ammation of any or all of the airways – NOSE, sinuses (see SINUS), THROAT, LARYNX, TRACHEA and bronchi (see BRONCHUS). Most common, however, is the ‘head cold’, which is con?ned to the nose and throat, with initial symptoms presenting as a sore throat, runny nose and sneezing. The nasal discharge may become thick and yellow – a sign of secondary bacterial infection – while the patient often develops watery eyes, aching muscles, a cough, headache, listlessness and the shivers. PYREXIA (raised temperature) is usual. Colds can also result in a ?are-up of pre-existing conditions, such as asthma, bronchitis or ear infections. Most colds are self-limiting, resolving in a week or ten days, but some patients develop secondary bacterial infections of the sinuses, middle ear (see EAR), trachea, or LUNGS.
Treatment Symptomatic treatment with ANTIPYRETICS and ANALGESICS is usually su?cient; ANTIBIOTICS should not be taken unless there is de?nite secondary infection or unless the patient has an existing chest condition which could be worsened by a cold. Cold victims should consult a doctor only if symptoms persist or if they have a pre-existing condition, such as asthma which could be exacerbated by a cold.
Most colds result from breathing-in virus-containing droplets that have been coughed or sneezed into the atmosphere, though the virus can also be picked up from hand-to-hand contact or from articles such as hand towels. Prevention is, therefore, di?cult, given the high infectivity of the viruses. No scienti?cally proven, generally applicable preventive measures have yet been devised, but the incidence of the infection falls from about seven to eight years – schoolchildren may catch as many as eight colds annually – to old age, the elderly having few colds. So far, despite much research, no e?ective vaccines have been produced.... cold, common
Habitat: Konkan and Maharashtra, also in Bengal and Assam.
Ayurvedic: Suparnikaa, Madhu- maalati. Muurvaa (substitute). Nak-chhikkini.Siddha/Tamil: Kodippalai.Action: Root and tender stalks— emetic and expectorant, cause sneezing, used in colds, sinusitis, and biliousness. Leaves—used as an application to boils and abscesses.
The stems and leaves contain a pigment taraxerol, a triterpenoid, kaem- pferol, a glucoside of kaempferol and saponins. Seeds contain a number of pregnane glycosides which do not exhibit digitalis-like action. Root contains a glucoside which lowered carotid blood pressure in mice and dogs when administered intravenously.... dregea volubilisAlso called hay fever, it causes sneezing, a runny nose, and nasal congestion.
Antihistamine drugs and topical corticosteroid drugs are used to treat mild attacks.
The drug sodium cromoglicate, inhaled regularly throughout the pollen season, may help to prevent attacks.
Long-term relief of symptoms can sometimes follow desensitization to a pollen allergen by a course of injections (see hyposensitization).... rhinitis, allergic
Several sinuses (see SINUS) lie concealed in the bones of the SKULL, into which air enters freely by apertures connecting them with the nose. These cavities occupy spaces in the frontal bone over the eyebrow (frontal sinus); in the upper jaw-bone, ?lling in the angle between the EYE and the nose (maxillary sinus); in the sphenoid bone (sphenoidal sinus); and in the lateral part of the ethmoid bone (ethmoidal sinus). The sinuses drain into the interior of the nose, as does the Eustachian or auditory tube from the middle ear (see EAR).... nose
Acute in?ammation is generally the result of a viral infection (see COLD, COMMON) affecting the mucous membrane and paranasal sinuses (see SINUSITIS); less commonly it results from the inhalation of irritant gases. Boils may develop just inside the entrance to the nose, causing pain; these are potentially troublesome as infection can spread to the sinuses. HAY FEVER is one distressing form of acute rhinitis.
Malformations are of various kinds. Racial and familial variations in the external nose occur and may be a reason for RHINOPLASTY. Di?erences in the size and shape of the nose occur, often forming the starting point for chronic in?ammation of the nose, perennial rhinitis (all the year round), hay fever, or ASTHMA. More commonly, obstruction results from nasal polyps or adenoids, leading to inhalation through the mouth. Adenoids are an overgrowth of glandular tissue at the back of the throat, into which the nose opens. Polyps are growths of soft jelly-like character: they arise from chronic in?ammation associated with allergic rhinitis, chronic sinusitis, asthma, and aspirin abuse. Large polyps can cause erosion of the nasal bones and should be surgically removed.
Bleeding (see HAEMORRHAGE).
Foreign bodies At ?rst these may not cause any symptoms, but in time they can cause obstruction of the affected nostril with a foul-smelling bloody discharge. The problem is common with small children who tend to push small objects into their noses. Foreign bodies require removal, sometimes in hospital. Anyone attempting to remove a foreign body should take care not to push it further into the nose.
Loss of sense of smell, or anosmia, may be temporary or permanent. Temporary anosmia is caused by conditions of the nose which are reversible, whereas permanent
anosmia is caused by conditions which destroy the OLFACTORY NERVES. Temporary conditions are those such as the common cold, or other in?ammatory conditions of the nasal mucosa or the presence of nasal polyps (see above). Permanent anosmia may follow in?uenzal NEURITIS or it may also follow injuries to the brain and fractures of the skull involving the olfactory nerves.
Injury to nose The commonest injury is a fracture of the nasal bones or displacement of the cartilage that forms the bridge of the nose. The nasal SEPTUM may also be displaced sideways by a lateral blow. Sporting activities, especially boxing and rugby football, are commonly a cause of nasal injury. If a fracture is suspected, or if there is substantial tissue swelling, an X-ray examination is necessary. Resetting a damaged bone should be done either immediately, before swelling makes surgery di?cult, or ten days or so later when the swelling has subsided. Results are usually good, ensuring a clear airway as well as a restored pro?le. It is not unusual for the cheek-bone to sustain a depressed fracture at the same time as the nose is broken. Careful assessment and prompt surgery are called for. (For more information on fractures, see under BONE, DISORDERS OF).
Rhinitis In?ammation of the MUCOUS MEMBRANE lining the nose. Symptoms include nasal discharge and obstruction, sneezing and sometimes pain in the sinuses. There are several types of rhinitis:
•Allergic – due to allergy to dust, pollen or other airborne particles. Also called hay fever, allergic rhinitis causes a runny nose, sneezing and local congestion. It affects up to 10 per cent of the population and is more common in people suffering from other allergic disorders such as asthma or eczema (see DERMATITIS). Skin tests help to identify the causative ALLERGEN which the sufferer can then try to avoid, although in the case of pollen this is di?cult. Decongestant drugs, ANTIHISTAMINE DRUGS, and CORTICOSTEROIDS may help, as can SODIUM CROMOGLYCATE inhaled regularly during the pollen season. A desensitisation course to a particular allergen sometimes provides long-term relief.
Atrophic rhinitis is caused by a deterioration in the nasal mucous membrane as a result of chronic bacterial infection, nasal surgery or AGEING. Symptoms include persistent nasal infection and discharge and loss of sense of smell. ANTIBIOTICS and, in some cases, OESTROGENS alleviate the symptoms.
Hypertrophic rhinitis results from repeated nasal infection, and is characterised by thickened nasal membranes and congestion of the nasal veins. Removal of thickened mucosa may help severe cases.
Vasomotor rhinitis occurs when the mucosa becomes oversensitive to stimuli such as pollutants, temperature changes or certain foods or medicines. It may occur as a result of emotional disturbances and is common in pregnancy.
Viral rhinitis occurs as a result of infection by the common cold virus; treatment is symptomatic. Sinusitis is sometimes a complication.... nose, disorders of
Mechanism of respiration For the structure of the respiratory apparatus, see AIR PASSAGES; CHEST; LUNGS. The air passes rhythmically into and out of the air passages, and mixes with the air already in the lungs, these two movements being known as inspiration and expiration. INSPIRATION is due to a muscular e?ort which enlarges the chest, so that the lungs have to expand in order to ?ll up the vacuum that would otherwise be left, the air entering these organs by the air passages. The increase of the chest in size from above downwards is mainly due to the diaphragm, the muscular ?bres of which contract and reduce its domed shape and cause it to descend, pushing down the abdominal organs beneath it. EXPIRATION is an elastic recoil, the diaphragm rising and the ribs sinking into the position that they naturally occupy, when muscular contraction is ?nished. Occasionally, forced expiration may occur, involving powerful muscles of the abdomen and thorax; this is typically seen in forcible coughing.
Nervous control Respiration is usually either an automatic or a REFLEX ACTION, each expiration sending up sensory impulses to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, from which impulses are sent down various other nerves to the muscles that produce inspiration. Several centres govern the rate and force of the breathing, although all are presided over by a chief respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata (see under BRAIN – Divisions). This in turn is controlled by the higher centres in the cerebral hemispheres, so that breathing can be voluntarily stopped or quickened.
Quantity of air The lungs do not completely empty themselves at each expiration and re?ll at each inspiration. With each breath, less than one-tenth of the total air in the lungs passes out and is replaced by the same quantity of fresh air, which mixes with the stale air in the lungs. This renewal, which in quiet breathing amounts to about 500 millilitres, is known as the tidal air. By a special inspiratory e?ort, an individual can draw in about 3,000 millilitres, this amount being known as complemental air. By a special expiratory e?ort, too, after an ordinary breath one can expel much more than the tidal air from the lungs – this extra amount being known as the supplemental or reserve air, and amounting to about 1,300 millilitres. If an individual takes as deep an inspiration as possible and then makes a forced expiration, the amount expired is known as the vital capacity, and amounts to around 4,000 millilitres in a healthy adult male of average size. Figures for women are about 25 per cent lower. The vital capacity varies with size, sex, age and ethnic origin.
Over and above the vital capacity, the lungs contain air which cannot be expelled; this is known as residual air, and amounts to another 1,500 millilitres.
Tests of respiratory e?ciency are used to assess lung function in health and disease. Pulmonary-function tests, as they are known, include spirometry (see SPIROMETER), PEAK FLOW METER (which measures the rate at which a person can expel air from the lungs, thus testing vital capacity and the extent of BRONCHOSPASM), and measurements of the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. (See also LUNG VOLUMES.)
Abnormal forms of respiration Apart from mere changes in rate and force, respiration is modi?ed in several ways, either involuntarily or voluntarily. SNORING, or stertorous breathing, is due to a ?accid state of the soft palate causing it to vibrate as the air passes into the throat, or simply to sleeping with the mouth open, which has a similar e?ect. COUGH is a series of violent expirations, at each of which the larynx is suddenly opened after the pressure of air in the lungs has risen considerably; its object is to expel some irritating substance from the air passages. SNEEZING is a single sudden expiration, which di?ers from coughing in that the sudden rush of air is directed by the soft palate up into the nose in order to expel some source of irritation from this narrow passage. CHEYNE-STOKES BREATHING is a type of breathing found in persons suffering from stroke, heart disease, and some other conditions, in which death is impending; it consists in an alternate dying away and gradual strengthening of the inspirations. Other disorders of breathing are found in CROUP and in ASTHMA.... respiration
Cause A virus spread by close contact with infected individuals. Rubella is infectious for a week before the rash appears and at least four days afterwards. It occurs in epidemics (see EPIDEMIC) every three years or so, predominantly in the winter and spring. Children are more likely to be affected than infants. One attack gives permanent IMMUNITY. The incubation period is usually 14–21 days.
Symptoms are very mild, and the disease is not at all serious. On the day of onset there may be shivering, headache, slight CATARRH with sneezing, coughing and sore throat, with very slight fever – not above 37·8 °C (100 °F). At the same time the glands of the neck become enlarged. Within 24 hours of the onset a pink, slightly raised eruption appears, ?rst on the face or neck, then on the chest, and the second day spreads all over the body. The clinical signs and symptoms of many other viral infections are indistinguishable from rubella so a precise diagnosis cannot be made without taking samples (such as saliva) for antibody testing, but this is rarely done in practice.
An attack of German measles during the early months of pregnancy may be responsible for CONGENITAL defects in the FETUS (for information on fetal abnormalities, see under PREGNANCY AND LABOUR). The incidence of such defects is not precisely known, but probably around 20 per cent of children whose mothers have had German measles in the ?rst three months of the pregnancy are born with congenital defects. These defects take a variety of forms, but the most important ones are: low birth weight with retarded physical development; malformations of the HEART; cataract (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF); and DEAFNESS.
Treatment There is no speci?c treatment. Children who develop the disease should not return to school until they have recovered, and in any case not before four days have passed from the onset of the rash.
In view of the possible dangerous e?ect of the disease upon the fetus, particular care should be taken to isolate pregnant mothers from contact with infected subjects. As the risk is particularly high during the ?rst 16 weeks of pregnancy, any pregnant mother exposed to infection during this period should be given an intramuscular injection of GAMMA-GLOBULIN. A vaccine is available to protect an individual against rubella (see IMMUNISATION).
In the United Kingdom it is NHS policy for all children to have the combined measles, mumps and rubella vaccine (see MMR VACCINE), subject to parental consent. All women of childbearing age, who have been shown by a simple laboratory test not to have had the disease, should be vaccinated, provided that the woman is not pregnant at the time and has not been exposed to the risk of pregnancy during the previous eight weeks.... rubella
Symptoms The ?rst, or catarrhal, stage is characterised by mild, but non-speci?c, symptoms of sneezing, conjunctivitis (see under EYE, DISORDERS OF), sore throat, mild fever and cough. Lasting 10–14 days, this stage is the most infectious; unfortunately it is almost impossible to make a de?nite clinical diagnosis, although analysis of a nasal swab may con?rm a suspected case. This is followed by the second, or paroxysmal, stage with irregular bouts of coughing, often prolonged, and typically more severe at night. Each paroxysm consists of a succession of short sharp coughs, increasing in speed and duration, and ending in a deep, crowing inspiration, often with a characteristic ‘whoop’. Vomiting is common after the last paroxysm of a series. Lasting 2–4 weeks, this stage is the most dangerous, with the greatest risk of complications. These may include PNEUMONIA and partial collapse of the lungs, and ?ts may be induced by cerebral ANOXIA. Less severe complications caused by the stress of coughing include minor bleeding around the eyes, ulceration under the tongue, HERNIA and PROLAPSE of the rectum. Mortality is greatest in the ?rst year of life, particularly among neonates – infants up to four weeks old. Nearly all patients with whooping-cough recover after a few weeks, with a lasting IMMUNITY. Very severe cases may leave structural changes in the lungs, such as EMPHYSEMA, with a permanent shortness of breath or liability to ASTHMA.
Treatment Antibiotics, such as ERYTHROMYCIN or TETRACYCLINES, may be helpful if given during the catarrhal stage – largely in preventing spread to brothers and sisters – but are of no use during the paroxysmal stage. Cough suppressants are not always helpful unless given in high (and therefore potentially narcotic) doses, and skilled nursing may be required to maintain nutrition, particularly if the disease is prolonged, with frequent vomiting.... whooping-cough
Symptoms: Red itching eyes, clear nasal discharge progressing to yellow and thick, slight sore throat, sneezing, mild fever, headache, blocked or running nose, malaise.
The alternative school of medicine believes a cold should not be suppressed with popular drugs of the day but allowed to run its course. That course may be dramatically reduced by use of herbs. A cold is sometimes an acute healing crisis in which Nature expels accumulated wastes and toxins. Diaphoretics promote sweating, aiding this process.
Alternatives. Teas may be made from any of the following: Elderflowers, Peppermint, Catmint, Bayberry, Boneset, White Horehound, Feverfew, St John’s Wort.
Alternatives. Formulae:– Equal parts:– (1) Elderflowers and Peppermint. (2) Yarrow and Peppermint. (3) White Horehound and Hyssop. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. 1 cup freely. A trace of Cayenne Pepper enhances potency and stimulates circulation.
Decoction. Prepared from Horseradish, Pleurisy root, Prickly Ash, Bayberry. Teaspoon, of any one, to two cups water gently simmered 20 minutes. Half-1 cup freely. Pinch of Cayenne enhances action.
Irish Moss. 1 teaspoon to 2 cups water simmered gently 20 minutes. Do not strain. Eat with a spoon with honey.
Powders. Composition. 1 teaspoon to cup of tea, or hot drink.
Powders. Formula. Bayberry bark 2; Ginger 1; Pleurisy root 1. Cayenne quarter. Sift. 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.
Tablets/capsules. Lobelia. Iceland Moss. Vitamin C. Feverfew.
Essence of Cinnamon. Popular traditional herbal expectorant to help relieve symptoms of cold and flu. Composition essence and Elderflowers and Peppermint. 2 teaspoons in hot water or cup of tea every 3 hours. Children less according to age.
Life Drops. See entry.
Practitioner. Colds with fever, cardiac excitability and distress out of all proportion to the infection: Tincture Gelsemium, 3-5 drops.
Laxative. A mild laxative may be advised (5-7 Senna pods, infused in cup of boiling water, or Senacot). A healthy bowel movement may cut short a cold by assisting elimination.
Aromatherapy. Few drops of any of the following antiseptic oils added to a bowl of boiling water, head covered with a towel, steam inhaled: Eucalyptus, Peppermint, Marjoram, Thyme, Niaouli. Oil of Camphor is most effective, but as it antidotes all other medicaments, should be used alone. Oil of Scots Pine (5-10 drops) used in bath. Tiger Balm. Olbas oil.
Diet. 3-day fast; no solid food, herb teas and fruit juices only. Citrus fruits (Vitamin C) in abundance. Hot lemon and honey.
Supplementation. Daily. Vitamin A (7500iu), B-complex (50mg), C (3 grams at onset: 2 grams every 3 hours thereafter).
Prophylaxis, winter months. Daily: Vitamin C (Rose Hip, Acerola, etc), Echinacea. 2 Garlic capsules at night to build-up body’s resistance. ... colds
Constituents: tannin-mannite, iridoid glycosides, volatile oil.
Action: anti-inflammatory (eye lotion), antihistamine, anti-catarrhal, astringent.
Uses: Has special reference to eyes, nose and sinuses. Conjunctivitis, red eye, stye (lotion), poor visual acuity due to eyestrain or diabetes, eyes itch and sting. For purulent ophthalmia: (tea: Eyebright 1; Goldenseal quarter). Corneal opacity. Blepharitis (local bathing). Watery catarrh, hay fever, chronic sneezing, inflamed nasal mucosa (douche). Relaxed tonsils and sore throat (gargle).
Practitioners have advised Eyebright lotion during measles to prevent eye troubles. Many causes of eye trouble in later life date from measles in childhood. The presence of a prominent red rim around the eye of an adult, especially if eyelids are missing, may be due to childhood measles when Eyebright lotion might have proved helpful.
The tea is said to strengthen a weak memory and improve circulation of the brain. Was used by Dioscorides for eye infections when accompanying the Roman legions through many countries. Preparations. Thrice daily. Average internal dose: 1-4g.
Tea. 1 teaspoon to each cup boiling water; infuse 10 minutes. Dose (internal) half-1 cup. External, in an eyebath as a douche.
Liquid Extract. Half-1 teaspoon in water.
Tincture BHP (1983). 1 part to 5 parts 45 per cent alcohol. Dose: 2-6ml. Capsules also available. Eyebright water, (lotion). Unsuccessful as a compress or poultice, Chamomile flowers being more effective.
Douche. Half fill an eyebath with Eyebright water or warm tea. ... eyebright
Action: antibiotic, bacteriostatic, anti-parasitic, anti-viral, anti-carcinogen, antispasmodic, antiseptic, fungicide, anti-thrombic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, hypoglycaemia, hypotensor, expectorant, anthelmintic. A wide range of anti-infection activity reported. Hypolipidaemic. Non-sedating antihistamine. Anticoagulant – reduces blood platelet clumping, raises HDL. Lowers total cholesterol after a fatty meal in normal subjects. As a vasodilator tends to reduce blood pressure. Bacteria do not become resistant to it. (Dr Stephen Fulder) Detoxifier.
Uses: Prevents build-up of cholesterol in the blood. Lowers a too high blood pressure and raises one too low. Beneficial in thrombosis and arteriosclerosis.
“Helps clear fat accumulating in blood vessels, reducing the tendency to heart disease: also can drastically reduce the level of sugar in the blood, which could help diabetics.” (Lancet i 607, 1979)
Bronchitis (loosening phlegm), asthma, cough, whooping cough and as a preventative of influenza and colds. Sinusitis; catarrh of the stomach, throat and nose. Catarrhal discharge from the eyes returning every night; catarrhal deafness. Intestinal worms. To stimulate bile for digestion of fats. Mucous colitis, allergies including hay fever, ear infections, paroxysmal sneezing, candida and some other fungus infections, vaginal trichomoniasis.
“Anti-tumour activity reported.” (Y. Kimura and K. Yamamoto, Gann, 55, 325 (1964); Chem. Abstra, 63, 1089d 919650)
The therapeutically active ingredients of Garlic are the smelly ones. Deodorised Garlic has not the efficacy of the odoriferous. (Dr Stephen Fulder, JAM Feb. 1986) Chewed Parsley may mask the odour of Garlic on the breath.
Preparations: Fresh clove: eaten at meals.
Fresh juice: half-1 teaspoon in honey or water.
Capsules: one before meals or three at night to prevent infection.
Powder: 300mg capsules; 5-10 capsules twice daily during meals.
Tincture BHP (1983): 1:5 in 45 per cent alcohol. Dose, 2-4ml in water.
Compress: mashed clove or oil on suitable material.
Ear or nasal drops: pierce Garlic capsule and squeeze oil into ear or nose for infection. Notes. Source of the important trace element, Germanium. Combines well with Echinacea. ... garlic
After an incubation period of 7–10 days, the illness starts with a mild cough, sneezing, nasal discharge, fever, and sore eyes. After a few days, the cough becomes more persistent and severe, especially at night. Whooping occurs in most cases. Sometimes the cough can
cause vomiting. In infants, there is a risk of temporary apnoea following a coughing spasm. The illness may last for a few weeks. The possible complications include nosebleeds, dehydration, pneumonia, pneumothorax, bronchiectasis (permanent widening of the airways), and convulsions. Untreated, pertussis may prove fatal.
Pertussis is usually diagnosed from the symptoms. In the early stages, erythromycin is often given to reduce the child’s infectivity. Treatment consists of keeping the child warm, giving small, frequent meals and plenty to drink, and protecting him or her from stimuli, such as smoke, that can provoke coughing. If the child becomes blue or persistently vomits after coughing, hospital admission is needed.
In developed countries, most infants are vaccinated against pertussis in the 1st year of life. It is usually given as part of the DPT vaccination at 2, 3, and 4 months of age. Possible complications include a mild fever and fretfulness. Very rarely, an infant may have a severe reaction, with high-pitched screaming or seizures.... pertussis
Allergic reactions occur only on 2nd or subsequent exposure to the allergen, once 1st contact has sensitized the body. The function of the immune system is to recognize antigens (foreign proteins) on the surfaces of microorganisms and to form antibodies (also called immunoglobulins) and sensitized lymphocytes (white blood cells). When the immune system next encounters the same antigens, the antibodies and sensitized lymphocytes interact with them, leading to destruction of the microorganisms.
A similar immune response occurs in allergies, except that the immune system forms antibodies or sensitized lymphocytes against harmless substances because these allergens are misidentified as potentially harmful antigens.
The inappropriate or exaggerated reactions seen in allergies are termed
Allergen hypersensitivity reactions and can have any of four different mechanisms (termed Types I to hypersensitivity reactions).
Most well known allergies are caused by Type I (also known as anaphylactic or immediate) hypersensitivity in which allergens cause immediate symptoms by provoking the immune system to produce specific antibodies, belonging to a type called immunoglobulin E
(IgE), which coat cells (called mast cells or basophils). When the allergen is encountered for the second time, it binds to the IgE antibodies and causes the granules in mast cells to release various chemicals, which are responsible for the symptoms of the allergy.
Among the chemicals released is histamine, which causes widened blood vessels, leakage of fluid into tissues, and muscle spasm. Symptoms can include itching, swelling, sneezing, and wheezing. Particular conditions associated with Type I reactions include asthma, hay fever, urticaria (nettle rash), angioedema, anaphylactic shock (a severe, generalized allergic reaction), possibly atopic eczema, and many food allergies.
Types to hypersensitivity reactions are less often implicated in allergies. However, contact dermatitis, in which the skin reacts to substances such as nickel, is due to a Type hypersensitivity reaction.
It is not known why certain individuals and not others get allergies, but about 1 in 8 people seem to have an inherited predisposition to them (see atopy).
Whenever possible, the most effective treatment for allergy of any kind is avoidance of the relevant allergen.
Drug treatment for allergic reactions includes the use of antihistamine drugs, which relieve the symptoms. Some antihistamine drugs have a sedative effect, which is useful in treating itching at night due to eczema. Many antihistamines do not cause drowsiness, making them more suitable for daytime use.
Other drugs, such as sodium cromoglicate and corticosteroid drugs, can be used regularly to prevent symptoms from developing.
Hyposensitization can be valuable for a minority of people who suffer allergic reactions to specific allergens such as bee stings. Treatment involves gradually increasing doses of the allergen, but it must be carried out under close supervision because a severe allergic reaction can result.... allergy
An influenzal infection provides later protection only against the specific strain of virus concerned; the same holds true for immunization. Strains are classified according to the presence of different subtypes of two glycoproteins (antigens) on the viral surface: *haemagglutinin (H) and *neuraminidase (N). Small changes in the structure of these antigens, which occur frequently in influenza A and B viruses, require the continual development of new vaccines to protect against annual outbreaks of the disease. Major changes in antigenic structure occur much more rarely, when there is genetic recombination between strains that can infect more than one species (most strains of the virus are highly species-specific). However, when it does occur, it could result in the development of hybrid strains causing new forms of influenza that are difficult to contain; the pandemic of 1918–19 is thought to have arisen in this way (see also avian influenza; swine influenza).... influenza
In pulmonary tuberculosis – formerly known as consumption and phthisis (wasting) – the bacillus is inhaled into the lungs where it sets up a primary tubercle and spreads to the nearest lymph nodes (the primary complex). Natural immune defences may heal it at this stage; alternatively the disease may smoulder for months or years and fluctuate with the patient’s resistance. Many people become infected but show no symptoms. Others develop a chronic infection and can transmit the bacillus by coughing and sneezing. Symptoms of the active disease include fever, night sweats, weight loss, and the spitting of blood. In some cases the bacilli spread from the lungs to the bloodstream, setting up millions of tiny tubercles throughout the body (miliary tuberculosis), or migrate to the meninges to cause tuberculous *meningitis. Bacilli entering by the mouth, usually in infected cows’ milk, set up a primary complex in abdominal lymph nodes, leading to *peritonitis, and sometimes spread to other organs, joints, and bones (see Pott’s disease).
Tuberculosis is curable by various combinations of the antibiotics *streptomycin, *ethambutol, *isoniazid (INH), *rifampicin, and *pyrazinamide. Preventive measures in the UK include the detection of cases by X-ray screening of vulnerable populations and vaccination with *BCG vaccine of those with no immunity to the disease (the *tuberculin test identifies which people require vaccination). The childhood immunization schedule no longer includes BCG vaccination at 10–14 years of age; vaccination now targets high-risk groups, such as immigrants from countries with a high incidence of TB. There has been a resurgence of tuberculosis in recent years in association with HIV infection. The number of patients with multidrug resistant TB has also increased due to patients not completing drug courses. Many centres have introduced directly observed therapy (DOT), in which nurse practitioners watch patients taking their drugs or administer the drugs.... tuberculosis
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