Synanceja sp. Health Dictionary

See SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.... ankylosing spondylitis

See SPERMATOZOON.... sperm

A circular muscle which surrounds the opening from an organ, and, by maintaining a constant state of moderate contraction, prevents the escape of the contents of the organ. Sphincters close the outlet from the URINARY BLADDER and RECTUM, and in certain nervous diseases their action is interfered with, so that the power to relax or to keep moderately contracted is lost, and retention or INCONTINENCE of the evacuation results.... sphincter

Inflammation of the spleen... splenitis

Enlargement of the spleen... splenomegaly

The large organ lying to the left of, below, and behind the stomach. This organ is partially responsible for white blood cell formation (red blood cells in childhood), and it is lined with resident macrophages that help it filter the blood, remove and recycle old and dead red blood cells, and send this all up to the liver in the portal blood. The liver, in fact, does most of the recycling of splenic hemoglobin derivatives. The spleen initiates much resistance and immunologic response, being made mostly of lymph pulp, and it stores and concentrates a large number of red blood cells. These can be injected into the bloodstream for immediate use under flight or fight stress, since the spleen is covered with capsule and vascular muscles that constrict in the presence of adrenalin or sympathetic adrenergic nerve stimulus.... spleen

Also known as salaam attacks, these are a rare but serious type of EPILEPSY, usually starting in the ?rst eight months of life. The spasms are short and occur as involuntary ?exing of the neck, arms, trunk and legs. They may occur several times a day. If the baby is sitting, it may collapse into a ‘salaam’ position; more usually there is a simple body jerk, sometimes accompanied by a sudden cry. An electroencephalogram (see ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)) shows a picture of totally disorganised electrical activity called hypsarrhythmia. The condition results from any one of many brain injuries, infections or metabolic insults that may have occurred before, during, or in the ?rst few months after birth. Its importance is that in most cases, the baby’s development is seriously affected such that they are likely to be left with a profound learning disability. Consequently, prompt diagnosis is important. Treatment is with CORTICOSTEROIDS or with certain anti-convulsants – the hope being that prompt and aggressive treatment might prevent further brain damage leading to learning disability.... infantile spasms

A fever of the typhus group (see TYPHUS FEVER). It received its name from the fact that it was ?rst reported in the Rocky Mountain States of the United States; these are still the most heavily infected areas, but the fever is now found in all parts of the US. The causative organism is Rickettsia rickettsi, which is transmitted to humans by tics.... rocky mountain spotted fever

Helping to relieve cramps and other muscle contractions... spasmolytic

An involuntary, and, in severe cases, painful contraction of a muscle or of a hollow organ with a muscular wall. Spasm may be due to affections in the muscle where the spasm takes place, or it may originate in some disturbance of that part of the nervous system which controls the spasmodically acting muscles. Spasms of a general nature are usually spoken of as CONVULSIONS; spasms of a painful nature are known as cramp (see under MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF) when they affect the muscles of the limbs, and as COLIC when they are situated in the stomach, intestines, ureters or bile duct, or other organs of the abdomen. Spasm of the heart is called ANGINA PECTORIS, and is both a serious and an agonising condition. When the spasm is a prolonged ?rm contraction, it is spoken of as tonic spasm; when it consists of a series of twitches or quick alternate contractions and relaxations, it is known as clonic spasm. Spasm is a symptom of many diseases.... spasm

A high rate of detection of “true negatives”, for example, the fraction of subjects who actually received bad care who are classified as recipients of bad care. For medical screening tests, the proportion of truly non-diseased persons who are so identified by the screening test. It is a measure of the probability of correctly identifying a non-diseased person with a screening test (synonymous with ‘true negative rate’).... specificity

An instrument designed to aid the examination of the various openings on the surface of the body. Many specula are provided with small electric lamps so placed as to light up the cavity of the mouth, ear, nose, rectum or vagina.... speculum

The treatment of speech and communication disorders.... speech therapy

This comprises the VAS DEFERENS, nerves and blood vessels, and it runs from the cavity of the ABDOMEN to the TESTICLE in the SCROTUM.... spermatic cord

The traditional device for measuring blood pressure in clinical practice, devised by Riva-Rocci and Korotko? about a century ago. Measurement depends on accurate transmission and interpretation of the pulse wave to an artery. The sphygmomanometer is of two types, mercury and aneroid. The former is more accurate. Both have some features in common – an in?ation-de?ation system, an occluding bladder encased in a cu?, and the use of AUSCULTATION with a STETHOSCOPE. The mercury sphygmomanometer consists of a pneumatic armlet which is connected via a rubber tube with an air-pressure pump and a measuring gauge comprising a glass column containing mercury. The armlet is bound around the upper arm and pumped up su?ciently to obliterate the pulse felt at the wrist or heard by auscultation of the artery at the bend of the elbow. The pressure, measured in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), registered at this point on the gauge is regarded as the pressure of the blood at each heartbeat (ventricular contraction). This is called the systolic pressure. The cu? is then slowly de?ated by releasing the valve on the air pump and the pressure at which the sound heard in the artery suddenly changes its character marks the diastolic pressure. Aneroid sphygmomanometers register pressure through an intricate bellows and lever system which is more susceptible than the mercury type to the bumps and jolts of everyday use which reduce its inaccuracy.

While mercury sphygmomanometers are simple, accurate and easily serviced, there is concern about possible mercury toxicity for users, those servicing the devices and the environment. Use of them has already been banned in some European hospitals. Although it may be a few years before they are widely replaced, automated blood-pressure-measuring devices will increasingly be in routine use. A wide variety of ambulatory blood-pressuremeasuring devices are already available and may be ?tted in general practice or hospital settings, where the patient is advised on the technique. Blood-pressure readings can be taken half-hourly – or more often, if required – with little disturbance of the patient’s daily activities or sleep. (See also BLOOD PRESSURE; HYPERTENSION.)... sphygmomanometer

Aralia racemosa. N.O. Araliaceae.

Synonym: Indian Spikenard, Pettymorrel, Spignet.

Habitat: U.s.a

Features ? Rhizome is about one inch in diameter, oblique, with concave stem scars. Root is a similar thickness at the base, wrinkled, light brown. Fracture short and whitish. Taste and odour aromatic.

Part used ? Root, rhizome.

Action: Alterative, diaphoretic.

The strong alterative properties are made considerable use of in rheumatic and general uric acid disorders, as well as various skin diseases. Decoction of 1/2 ounce to 1 1/2 pints (reduced to 1 pint) is taken in tablespoonful doses four times daily.... spikenard

An order of bacteria which has a spiral form. (See MICROBIOLOGY.)... spirochaete

One of the group of substances known as spirolactones. These are steroids similar to ALDOSTERONE in structure which competitively act as inhibitors of it; they can thus antagonise the action of aldosterone in the renal tubules. As there is evidence that there is an increased output of aldosterone in oedematous conditions (see OEDEMA) – such as congestive heart failure, which accentuates the oedema – spironolactone is used, along with other DIURETICS.... spironolactone

Removal of the SPLEEN. This operation may be necessary if the spleen has been severely injured, or in the treatment of the severe form of acholuric JAUNDICE or autoimmune thrombocytopenic PURPURA.... splenectomy

Another name for ARTHRITIS of the spine (see SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF).... spondylitis

See SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.... spondylolisthesis

This is the lower portion of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM which is situated within the SPINAL COLUMN. Above, it forms the direct continuation of the medulla oblongata, this part of the BRAIN changing its name to spinal cord at the foramen magnum, the large opening in the base of the skull through which it passes into the spinal canal. Below, the spinal cord extends to about the upper border of the second lumbar vertebra, where it tapers o? into a ?ne thread, known as the ?lum terminale, that is attached to the coccyx at the lower end of the spine. The spinal cord is thus considerably shorter than the spinal column, being only 37– 45 cm (15–18 inches) in length, and weighing around 30 grams.

In its course from the base of the skull to the lumbar region, the cord gives o? 31 nerves on each side, each of which arises by an anterior and a posterior root that join before the nerve emerges from the spinal canal. The openings for the nerves formed by notches on the ring of each vertebra have been mentioned under the entry for spinal column. To reach these openings, the upper nerves pass almost directly outwards, whilst lower down their obliquity increases, until below the point where the cord ends there is a sheaf of nerves, known as the cauda equina, running downwards to leave the spinal canal at their appropriate openings.

The cord is a cylinder, about the thickness of the little ?nger. It has two slightly enlarged portions, one in the lower part of the neck, the other at the last dorsal vertebra; and from these thickenings arise the nerves that pass to the upper and lower limbs. The upper four cervical nerves unite to produce the cervical plexus. From this the muscles and skin of the neck are mainly supplied, and the phrenic nerve, which runs down through the lower part of the neck and the chest to innervate the diaphragm, is given o?. The brachial plexus is formed by the union of the lower four cervical and ?rst dorsal nerves. In addition to nerves to some of the muscles in the shoulder region, and others to the skin about the shoulder and inner side of the arm, the plexus gives o? large nerves that proceed down the arm.

The thoracic or dorsal nerves, with the exception of the ?rst, do not form a plexus, but each runs around the chest along the lower margin of the rib to which it corresponds, whilst the lower six extend on to the abdomen.

The lumbar plexus is formed by the upper four lumbar nerves, and its branches are distributed to the lower part of the abdomen, and front and inner side of the thigh.

The sacral plexus is formed by parts of the fourth and ?fth lumbar nerves, and the upper three and part of the fourth sacral nerves. Much of the plexus is collected into the sciatic nerves, the largest in the body, which go to the legs.

The sympathetic system is joined by a pair of small branches given o? from each spinal nerve, close to the spine. This system consists of two parts, ?rst, a pair of cords running down on the side and front of the spine, and containing on each side three ganglia in the neck, and beneath this a ganglion opposite each vertebra. From these two ganglionated cords numerous branches are given o?, and these unite to form the second part – namely, plexuses connected with various internal organs, and provided with numerous large and irregularly placed ganglia. The chief of these plexuses are the cardiac plexus, the solar or epigastric plexus, the diaphragmatic, suprarenal, renal, spermatic, or ovarian, aortic, hypogastric and pelvic plexuses.

The spinal cord, like the brain, is surrounded by three membranes: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater, from without inwards. The arrangement of the dura and arachnoid is much looser in the case of the cord than their application to the brain. The dura especially forms a wide tube which is separated from the cord by ?uid and from the vertebral canal by blood vessels and fat, this arrangement protecting the cord from pressure in any ordinary movements of the spine.

In section the spinal cord consists partly of grey, but mainly of white, matter. It di?ers from the upper parts of the brain in that the white matter (largely) in the cord is arranged on the surface, surrounding a mass of grey matter (largely neurons – see NEURON(E)), while in the brain the grey matter is super?cial. The arrangement of grey matter, as seen in a section across the cord, resembles the letter H. Each half of the cord possesses an anterior and a posterior horn, the masses of the two sides being joined by a wide posterior grey commissure. In the middle of this commissure lies the central canal of the cord, a small tube which is the continuation of the ventricles in the brain. The horns of grey matter reach almost to the surface of the cord, and from their ends arise the roots of the nerves that leave the cord. The white matter is divided almost completely into two halves by a posterior septum and anterior ?ssure and is further split into anterior, lateral and posterior columns.

Functions The cord is, in part, a receiver and originator of nerve impulses, and in part a conductor of such impulses along ?bres which pass through it to and from the brain. The cord contains centres able to receive sensory impressions and initiate motor instructions. These control blood-vessel diameters, eye-pupil size, sweating and breathing. The brain exerts an overall controlling in?uence and, before any incoming sensation can affect consciousness, it is usually ‘?ltered’ through the brain.

Many of these centres act autonomously. Other cells of the cord are capable of originating movements in response to impulses brought direct to them through sensory nerves, such activity being known as REFLEX ACTION. (For a fuller description of the activities of the spinal cord, see NEURON(E) – Re?ex action.)

The posterior column of the cord consists of the fasciculus gracilis and the fasciculus cuneatus, both conveying sensory impressions upwards. The lateral column contains the ventral and the dorsal spino-cerebellar tracts passing to the cerebellum, the crossed pyramidal tract of motor ?bres carrying outgoing impulses downwards together with the rubro-spinal, the spino-thalamic, the spino-tectal, and the postero-lateral tracts. And, ?nally, the anterior column contains the direct pyramidal tract of motor ?bres and an anterior mixed zone. The pyramidal tracts have the best-known course. Starting from cells near the central sulcus on the brain, the motor nerve-?bres run down through the internal capsule, pons, and medulla, in the lower part of which many of those coming from the right side of the brain cross to the left side of the spinal cord, and vice versa. Thence the ?bres run down in the crossed pyramidal tract to end beside nerve-cells in the anterior horn of the cord. From these nerve-cells other ?bres pass outwards to form the nerves that go direct to the muscles. Thus the motor nerve path from brain to muscle is divided into two sections of neurons, of which the upper exerts a controlling in?uence upon the lower, while the lower is concerned in maintaining the muscle in a state of health and good nutrition, and in directly calling it into action. (See also NERVE; NERVOUS SYSTEM.)... spinal cord

A disease occurring most commonly in patients in or from the tropics, and characterised by diarrhoea with large, fatty stools; ANAEMIA; sore tongue; and weight loss. Its manifestations resemble those of non-tropical sprue, or gluten enteropathy, and COELIAC DISEASE.

Causes Tropical sprue is thought to be due to an inborn error of metabolism, characterised primarily by an inability to absorb fats from the intestines. Its epidemiological pattern suggests that an infection such as DYSENTERY may be the precipitating factor. Subsequently there is interference with the absorption of carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, leading to anaemia and HYPOCALCAEMIA.

Symptoms Of gradual or rapid onset, there is initial weakness, soreness of the tongue, dif?culty swallowing, indigestion, diarrhoea and poor appetite. Anaemia is typically macrocytic, and mild HYPOGLYCAEMIA may occur. Untreated, the patient steadily loses weight and, unless appropriate treatment is started early, death may be expected because of exhaustion and some intercurrent infection.

Treatment This consists of bed rest, a high-protein diet (initially skimmed milk), and treatment of the anaemia and any other de?ciencies present. Minimum fat should be given to sufferers, who should also take folic acid and cyanocobalamin for the anaemia; large vitamin-B-complex supplements (such as Marmite®) are helpful. Vitamins A and D, together with calcium supplements, help to raise the concentration of calcium in the blood. A long convalescence is often required, which may lead to marked depression, and patients should be sent home to a temperate climate.

Non-tropical sprue is the result of GLUTEN hypersensitivty and is treated with a gluten-free diet.... sprue

The ?eld of medicine concerned with physical ?tness and the diagnosis and treatment of both acute and chronic sports injuries sustained during training and competition. Acute injuries are extremely common in contact sports, and their initial treatment is similar to that of those sustained in other ways, such as falls and road traf?c incidents. Tears of the muscles (see MUSCLES, DISORDERS OF), CONNECTIVE TISSUE and LIGAMENTS which are partial (sprains) are initially treated with rest, ice, compression, and elevation (RICE) of the affected part. Complete tears (rupture) of ligaments (see diagrams) or muscles, or fractures (see BONE, DISORDERS OF – Bone fractures) require more prolonged immobilisation, often in plaster, or surgical intervention may be considered. The rehabilitation of injured athletes requires special expertise

– an early graded return to activity gives the best long-term results, but doing too much too soon runs the risk of exacerbating the original injury.

Chronic (overuse) injuries affecting the bones (see BONE), tendons (see TENDON) or BURSAE of the JOINTS are common in many sports. Examples include chronic INFLAMMATION of the common extensor tendon where it

attaches to the later EPICONDYLE of the humerus – common in throwers and racquet sportspeople – and stress fractures of the TIBIA or METATARSAL BONES of the foot in runners. After an initial period of rest, management often involves coaching that enables the athlete to perform the repetitive movement in a less injury-susceptible manner.

Exercise physiology is the science of measuring athletic performance and physical ?tness for exercise. This knowledge is applied to devising and supervising training regimens based on scienti?c principles. Physical ?tness depends upon the rate at which the body can deliver oxygen to the muscles, known as the VO2max, which is technically di?cult to measure. The PULSE rate during and after a bout of exercise serves as a good proxy of this measurement.

Regulation of sport Sports medicine’s role is to minimise hazards for participants by, for example, framing rule-changes which forbid collapsing the scrum, which has reduced the risk of neck injury in rugby; and in the detection of the use of drugs taken to enhance athletic performance. Such attempts to gain an edge in competition undermine the sporting ideal and are banned by leading sports regulatory bodies. The Olympic Movement Anti-Doping Code lists prohibited substances and methods that could be used to enhance performance. These include some prohibited in certain circumstances as well as those completely banned. The latter include:

stimulants such as AMPHETAMINES, bromantan, ca?eine, carphedon, COCAINE, EPHEDRINE and certain beta-2 agonists.

NARCOTICS such as DIAMORPHINE (heroin), MORPHINE, METHADONE HYDROCHLORIDE and PETHIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE.

ANABOLIC STEROIDS such as methandione, NANDROLONE, stanazol, TESTOSTERONE, clenbuterol, androstenedone and certain beta-2 agonists.

peptide HORMONES, mimetics and analogues such as GROWTH HORMONE, CORTICOTROPHIN, CHORIONIC GONADOTROPHIC HORMONE, pituitary and synthetic GONADOTROPHINS, ERYTHROPOIETIN and INSULIN. (The list produced above is not comprehen

sive: full details are available from the governing bodies of relevant sports.) Among banned methods are blood doping (pre-competition administration of an athlete’s own previously provided and stored blood), administration of arti?cial oxygen carriers or plasma expanders. Also forbidden is any pharmacological, chemical or physical manipulation to affect the results of authorised testing.

Drug use can be detected by analysis of the URINE, but testing only at the time of competition is unlikely to detect drug use designed to enhance early-season training; hence random testing of competitive athletes is also used.

The increasing professionalism and competitiveness (among amateurs and juveniles as well as professionals) in sports sometimes results in pressures on participants to get ?t quickly after injury or illness. This can lead to

players returning to their activity before they are properly ?t – sometimes by using physical or pharmaceutical aids. This practice can adversely affect their long-term physical capabilities and perhaps their general health.... sports medicine

BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE)

Scrapie. Notifiable disease. Fatal disease in the nervous system of cattle, unknown before 1985. Microscopic holes appear in the brain giving a spongiform appearance, but with little inflammation. Can spread from one animal to another: sheep, goats, deer, mules, mink, hamsters, mice, pigs and monkeys. Cause: not a virus. Animals itch and scrape themselves against trees or posts for relief. May spread from animals to humans, with brain infection after the character of polio.

Symptoms. (Human). Speech impairment, short-term-memory-loss, difficulty in controlling body movements. Zinc deficiency.

Treatment. Hospitalisation.

Suggested treatment for human infection, unproven.

Tinctures. Echinacea 5; Black Cohosh 3; Yarrow 2; Senna leaf 1.2-3 teaspoons in water (or cup hot Yarrow tea) 3-4 times daily. For headache: Gelsemium.

Supplement: Zinc.

To be treated by a general medical practitioner or hospital specialist. ... bovine spongiform encephalopathy

A misnomer applied to the brown MACULES often seen on the backs of the hands of those chronically exposed to sunlight (see LENTIGO). They have no connection with any liver disorder.... liver spots

Irregularly shaped areas of bluish-black pigmentation found occasionally on the buttocks, lower back or upper arms in newborn infants of African, Chinese and Japanese parentage, and sometimes in the babies of black-haired Europeans. They measure from one to several centimetres in diameter, and usually disappear in a few months. They are commonly mistaken for bruises.... mongolian blue spots

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is the most signi?cant therapeutic advance in male INFERTILITY treatment in the past 30 years. The technique is used when in vitro fertilisation (IVF – see under ASSISTED CONCEPTION) is not possible because the man has very few, motile, normal sperm (see SPERMATOZOON), or when previous attempts at IVF have not produced a fertilised EMBRYO. ICSI requires a single sperm which is injected directly into the cytoplasm of an egg previously retrieved from the woman. Once fertilised, the embryo is transferred to her UTERUS. For men with no sperm in the semen, it may be possible to retrieve sperm by needle aspiration of the EPIDIDYMIS under local anaesthetic (see ANAESTHESIA). Other techniques involve microsurgical retrieval from the epididymis or TESTICLE under a general anaesthetic. Potential complications include scrotal pain, bruising, HAEMATOMA formation and infection. ICSI and surgical sperm-retrieval require extensive training and expertise and is currently available in only a few selected

infertility units. Safety concerns relate to a higher-than-expected rate of abnormalities in the SEX CHROMOSOMES after ICSI, and also the potential risk of transmitting paternal genetic defects in the Y chromosome to sons born after ICSI.... intracytoplasmic sperm injection

A speech disorder in which articulated syllables are wrongly spaced and each is given the same vocal emphasis. The condition occurs as a result of disease in the cerebellum (see BRAIN) or its connecting nerves. (See also VOICE AND SPEECH.)... scanning speech

See MEDIAL TIBIAL SYNDROME.... shin splints

A medical specialty dealing with the physiological, PSYCHOLOGICAL and pathological consequences of space ?ight in which the body has to cope with unusual variations in gravitational forces, including weightlessness, a constricted environment, prolonged close contact with work colleagues in very demanding technical circumstances, and sustained periods of emotional pressure including fear. Enormous progress has been made in providing astronauts with as normal an environment as possible, and they have to undergo prolonged physical and mental training before embarking on space travel.... space medicine

A popular term for cantharides, which is used as a blistering agent.... spanish fly

A ?at, knife-like instrument used for spreading plasters and ointments, and also for depressing the tongue when the throat is being examined.... spatula

A health professional who is specially trained in a certain branch of his/her profession related to specific services or procedures.... specialist

A fairly well-defined, interbreeding group of plants or animals. The lowest taxonomic grouping of closelyrelated varieties - below a Genus. See Taxonomy .... species

These may be of physical or psychological origin – or a combination of both. Di?culties may arise at various stages of development: due to problems during pregnancy; at birth; caused by childhood illnesses; or as a result of delayed development. Congenital defects such as CLEFT PALATE or lip may make speech unintelligible until major surgery is performed, thus discouraging talking and delaying development. Recurrent ear infections may make hearing dif?cult; the child’s experience of speech is thus limited, with similar results. Childhood DYSPHASIA occurs if the language-development area of the BRAIN develops abnormally; specialist education and SPEECH THERAPY may then be required.

Dumbness is the inability to pronounce the sounds that make up words. DEAFNESS is the most important cause, being due to a congenital brain defect, or acquired brain disease, such as tertiary SYPHILIS. When hearing is normal or only mildly impaired, dumbness may be due to a structural defect such as tongue-tie or enlarged tonsils and adenoids, or to ine?cient voice control, resulting in lisping or lalling. Increased tension is a common cause of STAMMERING; speech disorders may occasionally be of psychological origin.

Normal speech may be lost in adulthood as a result of a STROKE or head injury. Excessive use of the voice may be an occupational hazard; and throat cancer may require a LARYNGECTOMY, with subsequent help in communication. Severe psychiatric disturbance may be accompanied by impaired social and communication skills. (See also VOICE AND SPEECH.)

Treatment The underlying cause of the problem should be diagnosed as early as possible; psychological and other specialist investigations should be carried out as required, and any physical defect should be repaired. People who are deaf and unable to speak should start training in lip-reading as soon as possible, and special educational methods aimed at acquiring a modulated voice should similarly be started in early childhood – provided by the local authority, and continued as required. Various types of speech therapy or PSYCHOTHERAPY may be appropriate, alone or in conjunction with other treatments, and often the ?nal result may be highly satisfying, with a good command of language and speech being obtained.

Help and advice may be obtained from AFASIC (Unlocking Speech and Language).... speech disorders

The production of mature sperm (see SPERMATOZOON) in the testis (see TESTICLE). The sperm cells originate from the outermost layer of the seminiferous tubules in the testis: these multiply throughout reproductive life and are transformed into mature spermatozoa, a process that takes up to 80 days.... spermatogenesis

The passage of SEMEN without erection of the PENIS or ORGASM.... spermatorrhoea

See SPERMATOZOON.... spermatozoa

Contraceptive preparations that kill sperm. They may be in the form of gels, pessaries, cream or foam and should be used with a barrier contraceptive such as a diaphragm or a condom. (See CONTRACEPTION.)... spermicide

An instrument for recording the PULSE.... sphygmograph

(Plural: spermatozoa.) This is the male sex or germ cell which unites with the OVUM to form the EMBRYO or fetus. It is a highly mobile cell approximately 4 micrometres in length – much smaller than an ovum, which is about 35 micrometres in diameter. Each millilitre of SEMEN contains on average about 100 million spermatozoa, and the average volume of semen discharged during ejaculation in sexual intercourse is 2–4 ml. (Some recent research suggests that male fertility is falling because of a reduction in the production of viable spermatozoa – possibly due to environmental factors, including the discharge of hormones used for agricultural purposes and for human hormonal contraception.)

Once ejaculated during intercourse the spermatozoon travels at a rate of 1·5–3 millimetres a minute and remains mobile for several days after insemination, but quickly loses its potency for fertilisation. As it takes only about 70 minutes to reach the ovarian end of the uterine tube, it is assumed that there must be factors other than its own mobility, such as contraction of the muscle of the womb and uterine tube, that speed it on its way.... spermatozoon

(Latin) One of the brightest stars Spicah, Spicka, Spika, Spicca, Spyca, Spycka, Spyka... spica

A male accessory reproductive organ in nematodes helping to attach the male to the female during copulation. There may be one or two or it may be absent in some nematodes.... spicule

See under ANAESTHESIA.... spinal anaesthesia

A form of micro-organism of wavy or spiral shape. (See MICROBIOLOGY.)... spirillum

A device to test how the lung is working (see also PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS) to assess the effects of lung disease or the progress of treatment – a procedure called spirometry. The spirometer records the total volume of air breathed out – the forced vital capacity. The machine also records the volume of air breathed out in one second – the forced expiratory volume. In diseases such as ASTHMA, in which the airways are obstructed, the ratio of the forced expiratory volume to the forced vital capacity is reduced. (See RESPIRATION.)... spirometer

Anything belonging to the internal organs of the body, as distinguished from its framework.... splanchnic

Also known as the spine, this forms an important part of the skeleton, acting both as the rigid pillar which supports the upper parts of the body and as a protection to the SPINAL CORD and nerves arising from it. The spinal column is built up of a number of bones placed one upon another, which, in consequence of having a slight degree of turning-movement, are known as the vertebrae. The possession of a spinal cord supported by a vertebral column distinguishes the higher animals from the lower types, and is why they are called vertebrates. Of the vertebrates, humans alone stand absolutely erect, and this erect carriage of the body gives to the skull and vertebral column certain distinctive characters.

The human backbone is about 70 cm (28

inches) in length, and varies little in full-grown people; di?erences in height depend mainly upon the length of the lower limbs. The number of vertebrae is 33 in children, although in adult life ?ve of these fuse together to form the sacrum, and the lowest four unite in the coccyx, so that the number of separate bones is reduced to 26. Of these there are seven in the neck, known as cervical vertebrae; 12 with ribs attached, in the region of the thorax known as thoracic or dorsal vertebrae; ?ve in the loins, called lumbar vertebrae; ?ve fused to form the sacrum; and four joined in the coccyx. These numbers are expressed in a formula thus: C7, D12, L5, S5, Coc4=33.

Although the vertebrae in each of these regions have distinguishing features, all the vertebrae are constructed on the same general plan. Each has a thick, rounded, bony part in front, known as the body, and these bodies form the main thickness of the column. Behind the body of each is a ring of bone, the neural ring, these rings placed one above another forming the bony canal which lodges the spinal cord. From each side of the ring a short process of bone known as the transverse process stands out, and from the back of the ring a larger process, the spinous process, projects. These processes give attachment to the strong ligaments and muscles which unite, support, and bend the column. The spines can be seen or felt beneath the skin of the back lying in the centre of a groove between the muscular masses of the two sides, and they give to the column its name of the spinal column. One of these spines, that of the seventh cervical vertebra, is especially large and forms a distinct bony prominence, where the neck joins the back. Between the bodies of the vertebrae lies a series of thick discs of ?brocartilage known as intervertebral discs. Each disc consists of an outer portion, known as the annulus ?brosus, and an inner core, known as the nucleus pulposus. These 23 discs provide the upper part of the spine with pliability and resilience.

The ?rst and second cervical vertebrae are specially modi?ed. The ?rst vertebra, known as the atlas, is devoid of a body, but has a specially large and strong ring with two hollows upon which the skull rests, thus allowing forward and backward movements (nodding). The second vertebra, known as the axis, has a pivot on its body which ?ts into the ?rst vertebra and thus allows free rotation of the head from side to side. The spinal column has four natural curves (see diagram) which help to cushion the shocks of walking and running.

The neural rings of the vertebrae form a canal, which is wide in the neck, smaller and almost round in the dorsal region, and wide again in the lumbar vertebrae. Down the canal runs the spinal cord, and the nerves leaving the cord do so through openings between the vertebrae which are produced by notches on the upper and lower margins of each ring. The intervertebral foramina formed by these notches are so large in comparison with the nerves passing through them that there is no chance of pressure upon the latter, except in very serious injuries which dislocate and fracture the spine.... spinal column

See SPINE AND SPINAL CORD, DISEASES AND INJURIES OF.... spondylosis

A disease of the neurological system caused by a PRION. Spongy degeneration of the BRAIN occurs with progressive DEMENTIA. Known examples of the disorder in humans are CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE (CJD) and KURU. Among animals, scrapie in sheep and BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY (BSE) are caused by slow viruses. The latter has occurred as an outbreak in cattle over the past decade or so, probably as a result of cattle being fed processed o?al from infected animals. Some people have developed a form of CJD from eating infected beef.... spongiform encephalopathy

The term applied to cases of disease occurring here and there, as opposed to EPIDEMIC outbreaks.... sporadic

Part of the lifecycle of certain BACTERIA when the vegetative cell is encapsulated and metabolism falls to a low level. The spore is resistant to changes in the environment and, when these are unfavourable, the spore remains dormant; when they improve, it starts to grow. Certain dangerous bacteria, such as CLOSTRIDIUM, produce resistant ubiquitous spores, so sterilisation procedures need to be very e?ective.... spore

The name of a group of parasitic PROTOZOA which includes the parasitic Plasmodium that causes MALARIA. The life-cycles of sporozoa are complex, often with sexual and asexual stages.... sporozoa

The final stage of development of Plasmodium in the mosquito; this is the infective form of the malarial parasite; occurring either in a mature oocyst before its rupture or in the salivary gland of a mosquito.... sporozoites

See MENINGITIS; EPIDEMIC; TYPHUS FEVER.... spotted fever

The mucous secretions from the mouth, throat or back of the nose. Sputum is also expectorated by coughing from the lower air passages. Its production may be increased by respiratory-tract allergy (ASTHMA) or by breathing-in irritants such as tobacco smoke, smoke from a ?re, or fumes from chemical materials. Sputum is normally white, but infection will turn it to yellow or green, and blood from the lungs may produce pink frothy sputum. Treatment is to deal with the underlying disorder. Production of large quantities of sputum – for instance, in BRONCHIECTASIS – may require physiotherapy and postural drainage. (See also EXPECTORATION.)... sputum

The space between the arachnoid and the pia mater – two of the membranes covering the BRAIN. (See also MENINGES.)... subarachnoid space

Liver spots. Pigment defects.

External: Aloe Vera juice or gel. Comfrey paste: Mix a little powder and water. ... age spots

See: ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS. ... bamboo spine

The small, oval-shaped area on the retina of the eye where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball.

The area is not sensitive to light because it has no light receptors (nerve endings responsive to light).

The blind spot can also be used to describe the part of the visual field in which objects cannot be detected.... blind spot

Patches of coffeecoloured skin that may occur anywhere on the body.

Café au lait spots are usually oval in shape and may measure several centimetres across.

Generally, a few spots are not significant; larger numbers may be a sign of neurofibromatosis.... café au lait spots

Constriction of the gullet and throat. Sense of rising pressure from chest to jaw that can simulate early heart attack.

Causes: emotional tension, hiatus hernia, food allergy and the damaging potential of hot drinks. Alternatives. Acute case: Cramp bark. German Chamomile tea, freely. Phytomedicines for chronic condition or as preventatives: Passion flower, Skullcap, Wild Yam, Lobelia, Mistletoe, Valerian. Formula. Cramp bark 2; Chamomile 1; Peppermint 1. Dose – Liquid extracts: 1-2 teaspoons. Tinctures: 2-3 teaspoons. Powders: 750mg (three 00 capsules or half a teaspoon) 3 or more times daily.

Milk. Drink whole glass cold milk, with or without 1 drop oil Peppermint, immediately on onset of pain. May relieve spasms in seconds. ... oesophageal spasm

Tiny, grey-white spots that appear in the mouth during the incubation period of measles.... koplik’s spots

Increased rigidity in a group of muscles, causing stiffness and restriction of movement. Spasticity occurs in Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and tetanus.... spasticity

Inability to move a part of the body, accompanied by rigidity of the muscles. Causes of spastic paralysis include stroke, cerebral palsy, and multiple sclerosis. (See also paralysis.)... spastic paralysis

The ratio of the density of a substance to that of water.... specific gravity

A harmless cyst of the epididymis containing fluid and sperm.... spermatocele

A surgical procedure that involves cutting the muscle that closes a body opening or that constricts the opening between body passages.... sphincterotomy

A red, raised pinheadsized dot, from which small blood vessels radiate, due to a dilated minor artery and its connecting capillaries. Small numbers of spider naevi are common in children and pregnant women, but in larger numbers, they may indicate liver disease. (See also telangiectasia.)... spider naevus

A congenital defect that is a type of neural tube defect in which part of 1 or more vertebrae fails to develop completely. As a result, a portion of the spinal cord is left exposed.

spinal anaesthesia Injection of an anaesthetic into the cerebrospinal fluid in the spinal canal to block pain sensations before they reach the central nervous system. It is used mainly during surgery on the lower abdomen and legs.

(See also epidural anaesthesia.)... spina bifida

A set of 31 pairs of nerves that connect to the spinal cord. Spinal nerves emerge in 2 rows from either side of the spinal cord and leave the spine through gaps between adjacent vertebrae. The nerves then branch out to supply all parts of the trunk, arms, and legs with sensory and motor nerve fibres.

Disc prolapse may lead to pressure on a spinal nerve, causing pain. Injury to a nerve may lead to loss of sensation or movement in the area supplied by the nerve. (See also nerve injury; neuropathy.)... spinal nerves

The column of bones and cartilage that extends from the base of the skull to the pelvis, enclosing the spinal cord and supporting the trunk and head. The spine is made up of 33 roughly cylindrical vertebrae. Each pair of adjacent vertebrae is connected by a facet joint, which stabilizes the vertebral column. Between each pair of vertebrae lies a disc-shaped pad of cartilage called an intervertebral disc (see disc, intervertebral). These discs cushion the vertebrae during movement. The vertebrae are bound together by 2 ligaments running the length of the spine and by smaller ligaments between each vertebra. Attached to the vertebrae are several groups of muscles, which control movement of, and help to support, the spine. spine, disorders of Many disorders of the spine cause back pain. Spina bifida is a congenital disorder in which part of the spinal cord is exposed. Sometimes, the spine is abnormally curved (see lordosis, kyphosis, scoliosis). In ankylosing spondylitis, and in some cases of rheumatoid arthritis, spinal joints are affected; osteoarthritis affects the spinal joints of most people over 60. Other disorders affecting the spine are spinal injuries; disc prolapse, and spondylolisthesis.... spine

A device used to immobilize a part of the body.... splint

Bleeding under the fingernails visible as tiny splinterlike marks.

Usually due to trauma, it can also be a sign of infective endocarditis.... splinter haemorrhage

A disorder of the spine in which the arch of the 5th (or, rarely, the 4th) lumbar vertebra consists of soft fibrous tissue instead of normal bone.

As a result, the arch is weak and prone to damage under stress, which may produce spondylolisthesis.

Otherwise, spondylolysis is usually symptomless.

See cervical spondylosis; cervical osteoarthritis.... spondylolysis

A chronic infection caused by the fungus SPOROTHRIX SCHENCKII, which grows on plants.

The infection is most often contracted through a skin wound; gardeners are particularly vulnerable.

An ulcer develops at the site of the wound, followed by the formation of nodules in lymph channels around the site.

Potassium iodide solution taken orally usually clears up the infection.

Rarely, in people with reduced immunity, sporotrichosis spreads to other parts of the body and requires treatment with amphotericin, an antifungal drug.... sporotrichosis

Tearing or stretching of the ligaments that hold together the bone ends in a joint, caused by a sudden pull. The ankle is the most commonly sprained joint. A sprain causes painful swelling of the joint, which cannot be moved without increasing the pain. There may also be spasm of surrounding muscles.

Treatment consists of applying an icepack, wrapping the joint in a bandage, resting it in a raised position, and taking analgesic drugs.

In severe cases, surgical repair may be necessary.... sprain

A liquid preparation, consisting mainly of ethyl alcohol, that has a soothing and hardening effect when applied to the skin.

It may be used before injections as an antiseptic.... surgical spirit

Stapf.

Family: Ranunculaceae.

Habitat: The alpine zone of the Himalayas of Sikkim and Chumbi. Principal source of Bikh or Bish of Kolkata market. English: Nepal Aconite. Ayurvedic: Vatsanaabha (related sp.).

Action: Antipyretic, analgesic.

The roots yield 1.75% of alkaloids which contain mainly pseudoaconitine and bikhaconitine.... aconitum spicatum

Linn.

Synonym: A. acuminata Wall. ex Royle

Family: Ranunculaceae.

Habitat: Native to Europe; grows in temperate Himalayas from Hazara to Bhutan.

English: Baneberry Grapewort.

Folk: Visha-phale (Kannada).

Action: Root—antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory, nerve sedative, emetic, purgative; used in the treatment of rheumatic fever, lumbago, scrofula, nervous disorders, chorea.

The plant is reported to contain trans-aconitic acid, which shows a strong cytostatic action. Its Me ether is active against Ehrlich's ascites tumours.

In folk medicine, roots are used in cases of ovarian neuralgia, uterine tenderness and sub-involution. They are adulterant of the roots of Helleborus niger. Berries are poisonous; used topically for skin diseases. The toxic constituent is protoanemonin (lactone). It is irritant to mucous membrane.... actaea spicata

(Wendl.) K.Schum.

Synonym: A. Zerumbet Burtt and R.M. Smith

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Native to East Indies. Occurs in the eastern Himalayas from West Bengal eastwards.

English: Light Galangal.

Siddha/Tamil: Chitraraththai.

Action: Rhizomes are used as a substitute for A. galanga and even for ginger; antiulcerative, spasmolytic.

The leaves and rhizomes yield an essential oil which contains alpha-and beta-pinene, borneol, campene and ci- neole as major constituents.... alpinia speciosa

Linn.

Family: Amaranthaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated fields, waste places and along roadsides.

English: Spiny Amaranth, Thorny Amaranth, Spiny Pigweed.

Ayurvedic: Tanduliya, Tandulaka, Meghnaad, Megharava, Vishaghn, Alpamaarish.

Siddha/Tamil: Mullukkeerai.

Folk: Katili-chaulai.

Action: Galactogenic, laxative, emollient, spasmolytic, diuretic. Pollen extract—used for allergic asthma and allergic rhinitis. Root— used in menorrhoea.

Plant contains sterols. Leaves and stems contain alpha-spinasterol and hentriacontane. Leaves also contain amino acids with high content of lysine.

Dosage: Whole plant—10-20 ml juice; 400-800 mg powder. (CCRAS.)... amaranthus spinosus

Sweet.

Synonym: A. nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj.

Family: Convolvulaceae.

Habitat: Found all over India, ascending to 300 m.

English: Elephant Creeper.

Ayurvedic: Vriddhadaaruka, Vriddhadaaru, Vriddhadaaraka, Bastaantri, Sthavira, Sthaviradaaru, Atarunadaaru, Samudrashosha. (Seeds of Salvia plebeia R. Br. are also known as Samudrashosha.)

Unani: Samunder sokh.

Siddha/Tamil: Ambgar, Samuddira- pacchai

Folk: Bidhaaraa.

Action: Root—aphrodisiac (considered as a rejuvenator), nervine (used in diseases of nervous system, sexual disorders), diuretic (used in strangury), antirheumatic. Seeds—hypotensive, spasmolytic. Leaves—used externally in skin diseases (ringworm, eczema, boils, swellings); rubefacient, topically stimulant.

The seeds contain hallucinogenic ergoline alkaloids, the main ones being ergine and isoergine. EtOH (50%) extract of seeds exhibits hypotensive activity. (Seeds of all species of Argyreia contain ergoline alkaloids and are hypotensive.) Leaves of Argyreia sp. contain sitosterol and are antiphlogistic.

In Indian medicine, A. speciosa is not used as a single drug for sexual disorders in men, but as a supporting drug for exerting its antiphlogistic, spasmolytic and hypotensive actions on the central nervous system. The drug, in itself, did not show anabolic- cum-androgen-like or spermogenetic activity experimentally.

Ipomoea petaloidea Chois and Ipo- moea biloba Forskofthe Convolvulacae family are also used as Vriddhadaaru.

In Western herbal medicine, Hawaiian Baby Woodrose is equated with Argyreia nervosa (synonym Argyreia speciosa; grows in Florida, California and Hawaii). The seed is used for pain relief and as a hallucinogen.

The seeds contain hallucinogens including ergonovine, isoergine (isoly- sergic acid amide) and ergine (lysergic acid amide). Four to eight seeds are equivalent to 10-100 mcg of LSD, a potent serotonin-1A (5-HT1A) agonist. The effects last 6-8 h. (Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.)

Dosage: Root—3-5 g powder.

(CCRAS.)... argyreia speciosa

... bovine spongiform

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: High Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin A, folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium, iron

About the Nutrients in This Food Brussels sprouts are high in dietary fiber, especially insoluble cellulose and lignan in the leaf ribs. They are also a good source of vitamin A and vitamin C. One-half cup cooked fresh brussels sprouts has three grams of dietary fiber, 1,110 IU vitamin A (48 percent of the R DA for a woman, 37 percent of the R DA for a man), 47 mcg folate (16 percent of the R DA), and 48 mg vitamin C (64 percent of the R DA for a woman, 53 percent of the R DA for a man). Brussels sprouts also contain an antinutrient, a natural chemical that splits the thiamin (vitamin B1) molecule so that it is no longer nutritionally useful. This thiamin inhibitor is inactivated by cooking.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Fresh, lightly steamed to preserve the vitamin C and inactivate the antinutrient.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Antiflatulence diet Low-fiber diet

Buying This Food Look for: Firm, compact heads with bright, dark-green leaves, sold loose so that you can choose the sprouts one at a time. Brussels sprouts are available all year round. Avoid: Puff y, soft sprouts with yellow or wilted leaves. The yellow carotenes in the leaves show through only when the leaves age and their green chlorophyll pigments fade. Wilting leaves and puff y, soft heads are also signs of aging. Avoid sprouts with tiny holes in the leaves through which insects have burrowed.

Storing This Food Store the brussels sprouts in the refrigerator. While they are most nutritious if used soon after harvesting, sprouts will keep their vitamins (including their heat-sensitive vitamin C) for several weeks in the refrigerator. Store the sprouts in a plastic bag or covered bowl to protect them from moisture loss.

Preparing This Food First, drop the sprouts into salted ice water to flush out any small bugs hiding inside. Next, trim them. Remove yellow leaves and leaves with dark spots or tiny holes, but keep as many of the darker, vitamin A–rich outer leaves as possible. Then, cut an X into the stem end of the sprouts to allow heat and water in so that the sprouts cook faster.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Brussels sprouts contain mustard oils (isothiocyanates), natural chemicals that break down into a variety of smelly sulfur compounds (including hydrogen sulfide and ammonia) when the sprouts are heated, a reaction that is intensified in aluminum pots. The longer you cook the sprouts, the more smelly compounds there will be. Adding a slice of bread to the cook- ing water may lessen the odor; keeping a lid on the pot will stop the smelly molecules from floating off into the air. But keeping the pot covered will also increase the chemical reaction that turns cooked brussels sprouts drab. Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes green vegetables green, is sensi- tive to acids. When you heat brussels sprouts, the chlorophyll in their green leaves reacts chemically with acids in the sprouts or in the cooking water to form pheophytin, which is brown. The pheophytin turns cooked brussels sprouts olive or, since they also contain yel- low carotenes, bronze. To keep cooked brussels sprouts green, you have to reduce the interaction between chlorophyll and acids. One way to do this is to cook the sprouts in a lot of water, so the acids will be diluted, but this increases the loss of vitamin C.* Another alternative is to leave the lid off the pot so that the hydrogen atoms can float off into the air, but this allows the smelly sulfur compounds to escape, too. The best solution is to steam the sprouts quickly in very little water, so they retain their vitamin C and cook before there is time for reaction between chlorophyll and hydrogen atoms to occur.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Freezing. Frozen brussels sprouts contain virtually the same amounts of vitamins as fresh boiled sprouts.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Protection against cancer. Naturally occurring chemicals (indoles, isothiocyanates, gluco- sinolates, dithiolethiones, and phenols) in brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower and other cruciferous vegetables appear to reduce the risk of some cancers, perhaps by pre- venting the formation of carcinogens in your body or by blocking cancer-causing substances from reaching or reacting with sensitive body tissues or by inhibiting the transformation of healthy cells to malignant ones. All cruciferous vegetables contain sulforaphane, a member of a family of chemicals known as isothiocyanates. In experiments with laboratory rats, sulforaphane appears to increase the body’s production of phase-2 enzymes, naturally occurring substances that inac- tivate and help eliminate carcinogens. At Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, 69 percent of the rats injected with a chemical known to cause mammary cancer developed tumors vs. only 26 percent of the rats given the carcinogenic chemical plus sulforaphane. In 1997, the Johns Hopkins researchers discovered that broccoli seeds and three- day-old broccoli sprouts contain a compound converted to sulforaphane when the seed and sprout cells are crushed. Five grams of three-day-old broccoli sprouts contain as much sulforaphane as 150 grams of mature broccoli. The sulforaphane levels in other cruciferous vegetables have not yet been calculated. Lower risk of some birth defects. Up to two or every 1,000 babies born in the United States each year may have cleft palate or a neural tube (spinal cord) defect due to their mothers’ not having gotten adequate amounts of folate during pregnancy. NOTE : The current R DA for folate is 180 mcg for a woman and 200 mcg for a man, but the FDA now recommends * Brussels sprouts will lose as much as 25 percent of their vitamin C if you cook them in water that is cold when you start. As it boils, water releases oxygen that would otherwise destroy vitamin C. You can cut the vitamin loss dramatically simply by letting the water boil for 60 seconds before adding the sprouts. 400 mcg for a woman who is or may become pregnant. Taking a folate supplement before becoming pregnant and continuing through the first two months of pregnancy reduces the risk of cleft palate; taking folate through the entire pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Possible lower risk of heart attack. In the spring of 1998, an analysis of data from the records for more than 80,000 women enrolled in the long-running Nurses’ Health Study at Harvard School of Public Health/Brigham and Women’s Hospital, in Boston, demonstrated that a diet providing more than 400 mcg folate and 3 mg vitamin B6 daily, either from food or supple- ments, might reduce a woman’s risk of heart attack by almost 50 percent. Although men were not included in the study, the results were assumed to apply to them as well. However, data from a meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in December 2006 called this theory into question. Researchers at Tulane Univer- sity examined the results of 12 controlled studies in which 16,958 patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease were given either folic acid supplements or placebos (“look-alike” pills with no folic acid) for at least six months. The scientists, who found no reduction in the risk of further heart disease or overall death rates among those taking folic acid, concluded that further studies will be required to verif y whether taking folic acid supplements reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease. Vision protection. In 2004, the Johns Hopkins researchers updated their findings on sulfora- phane to suggest that it may also protect cells in the eyes from damage due to ultraviolet light, thus reducing the risk of macular degeneration, the most common cause of age-related vision loss.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). Cruciferous vegetables, including brussels sprouts, contain goitrin, thiocyanate, and isothiocyanate. These chemicals, known collectively as goitrogens, inhibit the formation of thyroid hormones and cause the thyroid to enlarge in an attempt to produce more. Goitrogens are not hazardous for healthy people who eat moderate amounts of cruciferous vegetables, but they may pose problems for people who have a thyroid condi- tion or are taking thyroid medication. Intestinal gas. Bacteria that live naturally in the gut degrade the indigestible carbohydrates (food fiber) in brussels sprouts and produce gas that some people find distressing.

Food/Drug Interactions Anticoagulants Brussels sprouts are rich in vitamin K, the blood-clotting vitamin produced naturally by bacteria in the intestines. Consuming large quantities of this food may reduce the effectiveness of anticoagulants (blood thinners) such as warfarin (Coumadin). One cup of drained, boiled brussels sprouts contains 219 mcg vitamin K, nearly three times the R DA for a healthy adult.... brussels sprouts

See also Beans.

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Moderate Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins, folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Iron, potassium

About the Nutrients in This Food Because beans use stored starches and sugars to produce green shoots called sprouts, sprouted beans have less carbohydrate than the beans from which they grow. But bean sprouts are a good source of dietary fiber, including insoluble cellulose and lignin in leaf parts and soluble pectins and gums in the bean. The sprouts are also high in the B vitamin folate and vitamin C. One-half cup raw mung bean sprouts has 1.2 mg dietary fiber, 31.5 mcg folate (8 percent of the R DA), and 7 mg vitamin C (9 percent of the R DA for a woman, 7 percent of the R DA for a man). Raw beans contain anti-nutrient chemicals that inhibit the enzymes we use to digest proteins and starches; hemagglutinins (substances that make red blood cells clump together); and “factors” that may inactivate vita- min A. These chemicals are usually destroyed when the beans are heated. with the bean must be cooked before serving. Sprouted beans served

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Cooked (see Adverse effects associated with this food ).

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-fiber, low-residue diet

Buying This Food Look for: Fresh, crisp sprouts. The tips should be moist and tender. (The shorter the sprout, the more tender it will be.) It is sometimes difficult to judge bean sprouts packed in plastic bags, but you can see through to tell if the tip of the sprout looks fresh. Sprouts sold from water-filled bowls should be refrigerated, protected from dirt and debris, and served with a spoon or tongs, not scooped up by hands. Avoid: Mushy sprouts (they may be decayed) and soft ones (they have lost moisture and vitamin C).

Storing This Food Refrigerate sprouts in a plastic bag to keep them moist and crisp. If you bought them in a plastic bag, take them out and repack them in bags large enough that they do not crush each other. To get the most vitamin C, use the sprouts within a few days.

Preparing This Food R inse the sprouts thoroughly under cold running water to get rid of dirt and sand. Discard any soft or browned sprouts, then cut off the roots and cook the sprouts. Do not tear or cut the sprouts until you are ready to use them. When you slice into the sprouts, you tear cells, releasing enzymes that begin to destroy vitamin C.

What Happens When You Cook This Food Cooking destroys some of the heat-sensitive vitamin C in sprouts. To save it, steam the sprouts quickly, stir-fry them, or add them uncooked just before you serve the dish.

How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Canning. Vitamin C is heat-sensitive, and heating the sprouts during the canning process reduces their vitamin C content.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Lower risk of some birth defects. As many as t wo of ever y 1,000 babies born in the United States each year may have cleft palate or a neural tube (spinal cord) defect due to their mothers’ not having gotten adequate amounts of folate during pregnancy. The R DA for folate is 400 mcg for healthy adult men and women, 600 mcg for pregnant women, and 500 mcg for women who are nursing. Taking folate supplements before becoming pregnant and continuing through the first t wo months of pregnancy reduces the risk of cleft palate; taking folate through the entire pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Lower risk of heart attack. In the spring of 1998, an analysis of data from the records for more than 80,000 women enrolled in the long-running Nurses’ Health Study at Harvard School of Public Health/Brigham and Woman’s Hospital, in Boston, demonstrated that a diet provid- ing more than 400 mcg folate and 3 mg vitamin B6 daily, from either food or supplements, more than twice the current R DA for each, may reduce a woman’s risk of heart attack by almost 50 percent. Although men were not included in the analysis, the results are assumed to apply to them as well. However, data from a meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in December 2006 called this theory into question. Researchers at Tulane University examined the results of 12 controlled studies in which 16,958 patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease were given either folic acid supplements or placebos (“look-alike” pills with no folic acid) for at least six months. The scientists, who found no reduction in the risk of further heart disease or overall death rates among those taking folic acid, concluded that further studies will be required to verif y whether taking folic acid supplements reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Food poisoning: Reacting to an outbreak of Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 food poisoning associated with eating raw alfalfa sprouts, the Food and Drug Administration issued a warn- ing in 1998 and again in summer 1999, cautioning those at high risk of food-borne illness not to eat any raw sprouts. The high-risk group includes children, older adults, and people with a weakened immune system (for example, those who are HIV-positive or undergoing cancer chemotherapy). Tests conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1999 sug- gest that irradiating raw sprouts and bathing them in an antiseptic solution at the processing plant may eliminate disease organisms and prolong the vegetable’s shelf life; this remains to be proven.... bean sprouts

A South African spider similar to the Redback spider of Australia and the Black Widow spider of America. Belongs to the species Latrodectus indistinctus.... button spider

This is applied to a broken leg in such a way that in walking, the weight of the body is taken by the hip-bone and not by the foot.... calliper splint

Linn.

Capparis moonii Wight.

Family: Capparidaceae.

Habitat: Indigenous to New Zealand. Now distributed in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Ayurvedic: Rudanti.

Action: Fruit—used in puerperal sepsis and septic wounds, also for debility and cough.

EtOH (50%) extract of aerial parts is CNS depressant.

Fruits contain l-stachydrine, rutin and beta-sitosterol.... capparis spinosa

These rates commonly are also age, death rate sex, or race specific. They are expressed as numbers of deaths assigned to a stated cause in a calendar year, divided by total population as of July 1st of that year, expressed in 100,000.... cause specific

(Koenig) Sm.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Assam, North Bengal, Khasi and Jaintia Hills, sub Himalayan tracts of Uttar Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh and Western Ghats.

English: Canereed, Wild Ginger.

Ayurvedic: Kebuka, Kembuka.

Siddha/Tamil: Krrauvam, Malai Vasambu, Ven Kottam.

Folk: Kebu.

Action: Astringent, purgative, depurative, anti-inflammatory (used in gout, rheumatism; bronchitis, asthma, catarrhal fevers, dysuria), anthelmintic, antivermin, maggoticide, antifungal.

The rhizomes contain saponins— dioscin, gracillin and beta-sitosterol- beta-D-glucoside. The alkaloids show papaverine-like smooth-muscle-relaxant activity, cardiotonic activity like that of digitalis and antispasmodic,

CNS-depressant, diuretic and hydro- choleretic activities. Saponins show significant anti-inflammatory and an- tiarthritic activity.

The seeds also contain saponins and exhibit potent and sustained hypoten- sive and bradycardiac activities in dogs with low toxicity and without any haemolytic activity; also weak spasmolytic activity on isolated guinea-pig ileum.

All parts of the plant yield steroidal sapogenin, diogenin (quantity varies from 0.32 to 4%).

(Not to be confused with Kushtha of Indian medicine, Saussurea lappa.)... costus speciosus

De Morgan’s spots are a type of small HAEMANGIOMA occuring in the skin of middle-aged people. No more than 3 mm in diameter, they are rarely widespread and are not malignant.... de morgan’s spots

Gas exchange only occurs in the terminal parts of the pulmonary airways (see LUNGS). That portion of each breath that is taken into the lungs but does not take part in gas exchange is known as dead space. Anatomical dead space describes air in the airways up to the terminal BRONCHIOLES. Physiological dead space also includes gas in alveoli (air sacs) which are unable to take part in gas exchange because of structural abnormalities or disease.... dead space

(Brandy, gin, rum, tequila, whiskey, vodka)

Nutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Moderate to high Protein: None Fat: None Saturated fat: None Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: None (except for cordials which contain added sugar) Fiber: None Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: None Major mineral contribution: Phosphorus

About the Nutrients in This Food Spirits are the clear liquids produced by distilling the fermented sugars of grains, fruit, or vegetables. The yeasts that metabolize these sugars and convert them into alcohol stop growing when the concentration of alcohol rises above 12–15 percent. In the United States, the proof of an alcoholic beverage is defined as twice its alcohol content by volume: a beverage with 20 percent alcohol by volume is 40 proof. This is high enough for most wines, but not high enough for most whiskies, gins, vodkas, rums, brandies, and tequilas. To reach the concentra- tion of alcohol required in these beverages, the fermented sugars are heated and distilled. Ethyl alcohol (the alcohol in beer, wine, and spirits) boils at a lower temperature than water. When the fermented sugars are heated, the ethyl alcohol escapes from the distillation vat and condenses in tubes leading from the vat to a collection vessel. The clear liquid that collects in this vessel is called distilled spirits or, more technically, grain neutral spirits. Gins, whiskies, cordials, and many vodkas are made with spirits American whiskeys (which include bourbon, rye, and distilled from grains. blended whiskeys) and Canadian, Irish, and Scotch whiskies are all made from spirits aged in wood barrels. They get their flavor from the grains and their color from the barrels. (Some whiskies are also colored with caramel.) Vodka is made from spirits distilled and filtered to remove all flavor. By law, vodkas made in America must be made with spirits distilled from grains. Imported vodkas may be made with spirits distilled either from grains or potatoes and may contain additional flavoring agents such as citric acid or pepper. Aquavit, for example, is essentially vodka flavored with caraway seeds. Gin is a clear spirit flavored with an infusion of juniper berries and other herbs (botanicals). Cordials (also called liqueurs) and schnapps are flavored spirits; most are sweetened with added sugar. Some cordials contain cream. Rum is made with spirits distilled from sugar cane (molasses). Tequila is made with spirits distilled from the blue agave plant. Brandies are made with spirits distilled from fruit. (Arma- gnac and cognac are distilled from fermented grapes, calvados and applejack from fermented apples, kirsch from fermented cherries, slivovitz from fermented plums.) Unless they contain added sugar or cream, spirits have no nutrients other than alcohol. Unlike food, which has to be metabolized before your body can use it for energy, alcohol can be absorbed into the blood-stream directly from the gastrointestinal tract. Ethyl alcohol provides 7 calories per gram.

The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food The USDA /Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines for Americans defines one drink as 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits, and “moderate drinking” as two drinks a day for a man, one drink a day for a woman.

Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Bland diet Lactose-free diet (cream cordials made with cream or milk) Low-purine (antigout) diet

Buying This Food Look for: Tightly sealed bottles stored out of direct sunlight, whose energy might disrupt the structure of molecules in the beverage and alter its flavor. Choose spirits sold only by licensed dealers. Products sold in these stores are manufac- tured under the strict supervision of the federal government.

Storing This Food Store sealed or opened bottles of spirits in a cool, dark cabinet.

Preparing This Food All spirits except unflavored vodkas contain volatile molecules that give the beverage its characteristic taste and smell. Warming the liquid excites these molecules and intensifies the flavor and aroma, which is the reason we serve brandy in a round glass with a narrower top that captures the aromatic molecules as they rise toward the air when we warm the glass by holding it in our hands. Whiskies, too, though traditionally served with ice in America, will have a more intense flavor and aroma if served at room temperature.

What Happens When You Cook This Food The heat of cooking evaporates the alcohol in spirits but leaves the flavoring intact. Like other alcoholic beverages, spirits should be added to a recipe near the end of the cooking time to preserve the flavor while cooking away any alcohol bite. Alcohol is an acid. If you cook it in an aluminum or iron pot, it will combine with metal ions to form dark compounds that discolor the pot and the food you are cooking. Any recipe made with spirits should be prepared in an enameled, glass, or stainless-steel pot.

Medical Uses and/or Benefits Reduced risk of heart attack. Data from the American Cancer Society’s Cancer Prevention Study 1, a 12-year survey of more than 1 million Americans in 25 states, shows that men who take one drink a day have a 21 percent lower risk of heart attack and a 22 percent lower risk of stroke than men who do not drink at all. Women who have up to one drink a day also reduce their risk of heart attack. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower cholesterol levels. Beverage alcohol decreases the body’s production and storage of low density lipoproteins (LDLs), the protein and fat particles that carry cholesterol into your arteries. As a result, people who drink moderately tend to have lower cholesterol levels and higher levels of high density lipoproteins (HDLs), the fat and protein particles that carry cholesterol out of the body. Numerous later studies have confirmed these findings. Lower risk of stroke. In January 1999, the results of a 677-person study published by researchers at New York Presbyterian Hospital-Columbia University showed that moderate alcohol consumption reduces the risk of stroke due to a blood clot in the brain among older people (average age: 70). How alcohol prevents stroke is still unknown, but it is clear that moderate use is a key. Heavy drinkers (those who consume more than seven drinks a day) have a higher risk of stroke. People who once drank heavily, but cut their consumption to moderate levels, reduce their risk of stroke. Stimulating the appetite. Alcoholic beverages stimulate the production of saliva and the gastric acids that cause the stomach contractions we call hunger pangs. Moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages, which may help stimulate appetite, are often prescribed for geriatric patients, convalescents, and people who do not have ulcers or other chronic gastric problems that might be exacerbated by the alcohol. Dilation of blood vessels. Alcoholic beverages dilate the tiny blood vessels just under the skin, bringing blood up to the surface. That’s why moderate amounts of alcoholic beverages (0.2–1 gram per kilogram of body weight, or two ounces of whiskey for a 150-pound adult) temporarily warm the drinker. But the warm blood that flows up to the surface of the skin will cool down there, making you even colder when it circulates back into the center of your body. Then an alcohol flush will make you perspire, so you lose more heat. Excessive amounts of beverage alcohol may depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature.

Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Alcoholism. Alcoholism is an addiction disease, the inability to control one’s alcohol consumption. It is a potentially life-threatening condition, with a higher risk of death by accident, suicide, malnutrition, or acute alcohol poisoning, a toxic reaction that kills by para- lyzing body organs, including the heart. Fetal alcohol syndrome. Fetal alcohol syndrome is a specific pattern of birth defects—low birth weight, heart defects, facial malformations, learning disabilities, and mental retarda- tion—first recognized in a study of babies born to alcoholic women who consumed more than six drinks a day while pregnant. Subsequent research has found a consistent pattern of milder defects in babies born to women who drink three to four drinks a day or five drinks on any one occasion while pregnant. To date there is no evidence of a consistent pattern of birth defects in babies born to women who consume less than one drink a day while preg- nant, but two studies at Columbia University have suggested that as few as two drinks a week while pregnant may raise a woman’s risk of miscarriage. (One drink is 12 ounces of beer, five ounces of wine, or 1.25 ounces of distilled spirits.) Increased risk of breast cancer. In 2008, scientists at the National Cancer Institute released data from a seven-year survey of more than 100,000 postmenopausal women showing that even moderate drinking (one to two drinks a day) may increase by 32 percent a woman’s risk of developing estrogen-receptor positive (ER+) and progesterone-receptor positive (PR+) breast cancer, tumors whose growth is stimulated by hormones. No such link was found between consuming alcohol and the risk of developing ER-/PR- tumors (not fueled by hor- mones). The finding applies to all types of alcohol: beer, wine, and distilled spirits. Increased risk of oral cancer (cancer of the mouth and throat). Numerous studies confirm the A merican Cancer Societ y’s warn ing that men and women who consume more than t wo drinks a day are at higher risk of oral cancer than are nondrinkers or people who drink less. Increased risk of cancer of the colon and rectum. In the mid-1990s, studies at the University of Oklahoma suggested that men who drink more than five beers a day are at increased risk of rectal cancer. Later studies suggested that men and women who are heavy beer or spirits drinkers (but not those who are heavy wine drinkers) have a higher risk of colorectal cancers. Further studies are required to confirm these findings. Malnutrition. While moderate alcohol consumption stimulates appetite, alcohol abuses depresses it. In addition, an alcoholic may drink instead of eating. When an alcoholic does eat, excess alcohol in his/her body prevents absorption of nutrients and reduces the ability to synthesize new tissue. Hangover. Alcohol is absorbed from the stomach and small intestine and carried by the bloodstream to the liver, where it is oxidized to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), the enzyme our bodies use every day to metabolize the alcohol we produce when we digest carbohydrates. The acetaldehyde is converted to acetyl coenzyme A and either eliminated from the body or used in the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, and body tis- sues. Although individuals vary widely in their capacity to metabolize alcohol, an adult of average size can metabolize the alcohol in four ounces (120 ml) whiskey in approximately five to six hours. If he or she drinks more than that, the amount of alcohol in the body will exceed the available supply of ADH. The surplus, unmetabolized alcohol will pile up in the bloodstream, interfering with the liver’s metabolic functions. Since alcohol decreases the reabsorption of water from the kidneys and may inhibit the secretion of an antidiuretic hormone, the drinker will begin to urinate copiously, losing magnesium, calcium, and zinc but retaining uric acid, which is irritating. The level of lactic acid in the body will increase, making him or her feel tired and out of sorts; the acid-base balance will be out of kilter; the blood vessels in the head will swell and throb; and the stomach, its lining irritated by the alcohol, will ache. The ultimate result is a hangover whose symptoms will disappear only when enough time has passed to allow the body to marshal the ADH needed to metabolize the extra alcohol in the person’s blood. Changes in body temperature. Alcohol dilates capillaries, tiny blood vessels just under the skin, producing a “flush” that temporarily warms the drinker. But drinking is not an effective way to stay warm in cold weather. Warm blood flowing up from the body core to the surface capillaries is quickly chilled, making you even colder when it circulates back into your organs. In addition, an alcohol flush triggers perspiration, further cooling your skin. Finally, very large amounts of alcohol may actually depress the mechanism that regulates body temperature. Impotence. Excessive drinking decreases libido (sexual desire) and interferes with the ability to achieve or sustain an erection. Migraine headache. Some alcoholic beverages contain chemicals that inhibit PST, an enzyme that breaks down certain alcohols in spirits so that they can be eliminated from the body. If they are not broken down by PST, these alcohols will build up in the bloodstream and may trigger a migraine headache. Gin and vodka appear to be the distilled spirits least likely to trigger headaches, brandy the most likely.

Food/Drug Interactions Acetaminophen (Tylenol, etc.). FDA recommends that people who regularly have three or more drinks a day consult a doctor before using acetaminophen. The alcohol/acetaminophen combination may cause liver failure. Anti-alcohol abuse drugs (disulfiram [Antabuse]). Taken concurrently with alcohol, the anti- alcoholism drug disulfiram can cause flushing, nausea, a drop in blood pressure, breathing difficulty, and confusion. The severity of the symptoms, which may var y among individu- als, generally depends on the amount of alcohol consumed and the amount of disulfiram in the body. Anticoagulants. Alcohol slows the body’s metabolism of anticoagulants (blood thinners), intensif ying the effect of the drugs and increasing the risk of side effects such as spontane- ous nosebleeds. Antidepressants. Alcohol may strengthen the sedative effects of antidepressants. Aspirin, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Like alco- hol, these analgesics irritate the lining of the stomach and may cause gastric bleeding. Com- bining the two intensifies the effect. Insulin and oral hypoglycemics. Alcohol lowers blood sugar and interferes with the metabo- lism of oral antidiabetics; the combination may cause severe hypoglycemia. Sedatives and other central nervous system depressants (tranquilizers, sleeping pills, antide- pressants, sinus and cold remedies, analgesics, and medication for motion sickness). Alcohol intensifies the sedative effects of these medications and, depending on the dose, may cause drowsiness, sedation, respiratory depression, coma, or death. MAO inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase (M AO) inhibitors are drugs used as antidepressants or antihypertensives. They inhibit the action of natural enzymes that break down tyramine, a substance formed naturally when proteins are metabolized. Tyramine is a pressor amine, a chemical that constricts blood vessel and raises blood pressure. If you eat a food that contains tyramine while you are taking an M AO inhibitor, the pressor amine cannot be eliminated from your body and the result may be a hypertensive crisis (sustained elevated blood pressure). Brandy, a distilled spirit made from wine (which is fermented) contains tyramine. All other distilled spirits may be excluded from your diet when you are taking an M AO inhibitor because the spirits and the drug, which are both sedatives, may be hazard- ous in combination.... distilled spirits

A tick-borne disease found on Flinder’s Island, north of Tasmania. Zoonotic and caused by Rickettsia honei.... flinder’s island spotted fever

Linn.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: Native to tropical America; occurs in tidal forests of South India and in Andaman Islands. (An extract of flowers, resembling rose-water, in sold in Travancore markets.)

Action: Bark—used in chronic dysentery; also applied to wounds and abscesses.

Siddha/Tamil: Pey Ellu, Uch Ellu.

Folk: Raam-til, Kaalaa Til, Sargujaa.

Action: Oil from seed—an- tirheumatic.

The seeds yield an oil (33%), a mixture of triglycerides, lauric, palmitic, palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and arachidic acids. The unsaponifiable matter is a mixture of stigmasterol, n- triacontane and lupeol. Seeds contain lysine.... guettarda speciosa

(Forsk.) Fiori.

Synonym: G. Montana (Roth) Benth.

Maytenus senegulensis Exell. M. emarginata Ding Hou.

Family: Celastraceae.

Habitat: Throughout the drier parts of India.

Ayurvedic: Vikankata (substitute) Sruva-Vrksha (substitute), Vyaaghrapaadi.

Siddha/Tamil: Kattangi, Nandunarai, Valuluvai.

Folk: Baikal.

Action: Plant—antispasmodic. Root—used in gastroenteritis and dysentery.

The bark is ground to a paste and applied with mustard oil to kill lice in the hair. A decoction of leafy twigs is used as a mouth wash to relieve toothache.

The leaves contain celacinnine, al- pha-and beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone, beta-sitosterol and its 3'-O-glucoside and kaempferol. The extracts of the plant show cytotoxic effect on some cancers. An ointment, prepared by mixing leaf ash and purified butter, is used for sores.... gymnosporia spinosa

A vague term applied to small in?amed and congested areas which appear especially upon the skin of the face, neck and chest or other parts of the body in warm weather.... heat spots

Bluish-white spots appearing on the mucous membrane of the mouth in cases of MEASLES about the third day, and forming the ?rst part of the rash in this disease.... koplik’s spots

The longest period over which the life of any plant or animal organism or species may extend, according to the available biological knowledge concerning it.... life span

One of the most popular drinks in China, Dragon Well tea is part of the green teas family, having an inviting and a toasty flavor. A truly enjoyable and spectacular cup of tea.

Description of Dragon Well tea

Dragon Well tea is a type of pan-fried green tea, most commonly named Longjing tea from Hangzhou, Zheijang province in China, where is produced mainly by hand. During the production process, the Dragon Well is dried under a wood-fired Chinese pan called “wok”. This process removes the green, grassy taste and also inhibits enzyme activity. Due to the widespread opinion in China that the Dragon Well tea has a cooling effect, its popularity significantly increases especially during the spring and summer seasons. Often called the national tea of China, Dragon Well tea is often served to head of states and foreign delegations during their visits in China. Presented as a tribute to many generations, it was given even to Richard Nixon during his memorable encounter with Mao Zedong. This tea is very popular because of its unique properties:  jade color, vegetative aroma, mellow chestnut flavor and singular shape. It has a buttery, nutty, rich texture and an enjoyable dry finish. Commonly, Dragon Well tea is graded using a scale of six levels from superior quality to low quality so it is advisable to chose wisely when you decide to buy it. When the flavor can barely be sensed, it is clear that you deal with a poor quality.

How to store the Dragon Well tea

If the tea is sealed, keep it in a freezer. Cover with a box to insulate from temperature change. In order to get warm, leave it to room temperature before opening. This prevents condensation. After opening the package of Dragon Well tea, it is best to keep it away from light, moisture, smell and heat in an airtight container.

Ingredients of Dragon Well tea

Like most green teas, the Dragon Well tea contains amino acids, vitamins, flavonoids, proteins, calcium, iron, fluorine, theine and has one of the highest concentrations of catechins among teas, second only to white teas.

How to brew Dragon Well tea

When it comes to brewing Dragon Well tea, the best choice is a clear glass teacup, so that you can see the beauty of the leaves as they dance and unfurl in the water. It is really spectacular. Quality of tea is related directly to the beauty of the buds. Glass is most suitable also because it disperses heat quickly and prevents over-steeping. If you see that the buds have reached the bottom, this means that the tea is ready to drink. You should infuse a small amount of leaves in high temperature water for as long as it takes. Pour hot water at approximately 80 - 90 degrees Celsius. Immerse until most of the tea buds has sink to the bottom of the glass and the tea liquor turns yellow. This will take 5 to 10 minutes for the first infusion. During soaking, the tea brings out a soft, pure aroma, a yellow-green color and a rich flavor. Decant and leave a small quantity as you may use it as the seed for the next infusion. Infuse for another 2 to 4 times with progressively shorter steeping time.

Health Benefits of Dragon Well tea

All tea comes from the same plant named Camellia sinensis. The method of production creates the different types of tea. Dragon Well tea contains the highest content of antioxidant compounds. Antioxidants are proven to fight against certain cancers, lower cholesterol levels and blood pressure, reduce the likely-hood of getting the flu and other infections, boosting the immune function of our body and help reduce the signs of aging. It is also a fat burning accelerator so let’s not forget its important benefits for diets. There’s also enough fluoride found in green tea to aid against plaque and other oral bacteria.

Side effects of Dragon Well tea

Like any other green tea, Dragon Well tea may have few side effects like restlessness, palpitations, insomnia, anxiety, irritability, increased heart rate, and elevated blood pressure due to the caffeine content. It may also cause pain in the stomach area or reduce the body’s absorption of iron by 25% so it is contraindicated to people with anemia, faintness, gastritis with hyperacidity, stomach and duodenal ulcer. In spite of few side effects, it is worth trying it and get to know its flavor. The spectacle of drinking this type of tea is truly unique and the flavor really satisfying.... discover the spectacle of dragon well green tea

Ham. ex Smith.

Synonym: H. album Buch-Ham. Ex Wall.

Family: Zingiberaceae.

Habitat: Central Himalaya at 1,1002,500 m, East India and hills of South India.

English: Spiked Ginger Lily.

Ayurvedic: Shathi, Shati, Gand- hashathi, Gandhapalaashi, Kapu- urkachari, Suvrataa, Gandhaarikaa, Gandhavadhuu, Gandhamuulikaa.

Unani: Kapuurkachari.

Siddha/Tamil: Poolankizangu, Kichilikizangu.

Folk: Ban-haldi (Kumaon).

Action: Rhizome—carminative, spasmolytic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antiemetic, antidiarrhoeal, analgesic, expectorant, antiasthmatic, emmenagogue, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, antimicrobial, anthelmintic, insect- repellent.

The rhizome shows hypotensive effect in dogs at low doses, lowers blood pressure in high doses.

EtOH (50%) extract—anti-inflammatory and hypoglycaemic; gave encouraging results in tropical pulmonary eosinophilia in clinical studies. Alcoholic extract of the plant—vasodilator, mild hypotensive and antiseptic in animals. Essential oil from rhizome—mild tranquilizer in male albino rats; antimicrobial.

Rhizome gave sitosterol and its glu- coside, a furanoid diterpene—hedy- chenone and 7-hydroxyhedychenone. The essential oil contains cineole, gamma-terpinene, limonene, beta- phellandrene, p-cymene, linalool and beta-terpineol as major constituents.

The oil inhibits the growth of several fungi. The ethanol (95%) extract showed antibacterial activity. The 50% extract showed antimalarial activity in vitro against Plasmodium berghei strain.

Dosage: Rhizome—1-3 g powder. (API Vol. I.)... hedychium spicatum

Dalz.

Family: Acanthaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats, Deccan and Gujarat.

Folk: Ganther (Gujarat and Maharashtra), Ghosa-vel (Maharashtra).

Action: Root-paste applied to ringworm.... neuracanthus sphaerostachyus

(L.) Thw.

Synonym: Lasia aculeata Linn.

Family: Araceae.

Habitat: Tropical Sikkim Himalayas, Assam, Bengal and Southwards to Sri Lanka.

Siddha: Kantakachoramu, Mulasari (Telugu.)

Folk: Kantakachu (Bengal), Kaantaasaru. Lakshmanaa and Indiver-kand are doubtful synonyms.

Action: Plant—used for colic and intestinal diseases. Leaves—used for stomachache. Rootstock and fruits—for affections of the throat.... lasia spinosa

Wight.

Synonym: L. pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decne.

Family: Asclepiadaeae.

Habitat: Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and northern parts of Mumbai along the sea coast.

Folk: Kheemp (Rajasthan), Kheep (Gujarat). Prasaarani is a doubtful synonym.

Action: Antiseptic. Plant used for the treatment of burns and wounds.

The plant contains a triterpenoid, leptadenol; also 2.32 g/100 g tannin.... leptadenia spartium

Linn. emend. Nathh.

Synonym: M. viridis Linn.

Family: Labiatae; Lamiaceae.

Habitat: Cultivated in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra.

English: Spearmint, Garden Mint.

Ayurvedic: Pudinaa, Podinaka, Puutihaa, Rochini.

Unani: Nanaa. Pudinaa Kohi.

Action: Carminative, stimulant, antispasmodic, antiemetic, diaphoretic, antiseptic. A tea of dry flowers and leaves is prescribed for tracheobronchitis and hypertension.

The chief constituents of the essential oil are carvone (55-75%) and limonene (up to 21.4%). The herb gave flavonoids, diosmin and diosmetin. Caffeic acid derivatives include ros- marinic acid in the volatile oil.

Dosage: Leaf—5-10 ml juice; 35 ml extract. (CCRAS.)... mentha spicata

A tick-borne spotted fever endemic to mainland Australia. Caused by Rickettsia australis.... queensland spotted fever

Spider found mostly in Australia and is similar to the Black Widow of America and the Button spider of South Africa. Belongs to the species Latrodectus hasseltii.... red back spider

Colloquial term for red tide. Contrary to the popular belief this has nothing to do with the spawning of the reef seen at set times of the year.... reef spawn

Linn.

Synonym: M. oppositifolia Linn. Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A. DC.

Family: Aizoaceae, Molluginaceae.

Habitat: Greater part of India, especially in Assam, Bengal and Deccan Peninsula.

Ayurvedic: Grishma-sundara, Parpata (Kerala).

Siddha/Tamil: Thurapoondu.

Folk: Jala-papr (Bihar), Jeem Shaak.

Action: Plant—stomachic, aperient and antiseptic. Used as a bitter tonic for liver disorders.

Aerial parts gave vitexin, vitexin-7- glucoside and 2"-p-coumaroylvitexin- 7-glucoside.

Mollugo stricta Linn., synonym M. pentaphylla Linn. (throughout the plains and Ghats of India), is also known as Parpatakam in the South, Jala-papr in Bihar and Kharas in Maharashtra. The plant is stomachic, aperient, emmenagogue and antiseptic. Its biological activity is spermiostatic.... mollugo spergula

An in?ammatory condition of the URETHRA due to a cause or causes other than GONORRHOEA. The most common is CHLAMYDIA trachomatis – there has been a rise of over 75 per cent in the incidence in the UK over the past ?ve years to around 70,000 a year. It produces pelvic in?ammatory disease in women, which often results in sterility, the risk of ECTOPIC PREGNANCY, and recurrent pelvic pain. Most cases respond well to TETRACYCLINES. Abstinence from sexual intercourse should be observed during treatment and until cure is complete. Children born to infected mothers may have their eyes infected during birth, producing the condition known as ophthalmia neonatorum. This is treated by the application to the eye of chlortetracycline eye ointment. The lungs of such a child may also be infected, resulting in pneumonia.... non-specific urethritis (nsu)

Orange Spice Tea is a complex, full-flavored type of black tea, kindly recommended to beginner consumers of tea blends. It is a largely-appreciated tea, having an old acknowledged tradition, its first production being placed in the 19^th century. Orange Spice Tea description. Orange Spice Tea is another variety of black tea mixed with orange zest or dried peel, together with a combination of spices, such as: cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and allspice. It has been noticed that any number of spice combination is possible. Orange Spice Tea is usually caffeine-free, being thus, a good tea to consume at any time of the day or even night.  It can be drunk hot or as an iced tea beverage, with or without adding milk or honey. Orange Spice Tea is recommended to be one of the best choices for those not yet accustomed to gourmet tea blends. It is typically available as loose leaves or as bag forms and is often found in gourmet tea shops, health stores or on grocery shelves. Orange Spice Tea recipe The abovementioned tea has a delicate taste and is also a good ingredient to be included in the daily diet, due to its healthy properties. It can be consumed both as beverage, or can be added to different cookies recipes. To brew Orange Spice Tea:

• Fill a teapot with about 16 ounces of water
• Boil the water
• Place about two tablespoons of the leaves in a teapot
• Take the pot out of the water
• Let the mix stand for about 5 to 7 minutes
• Strain and drink it slowly

To include Orange Spice Tea in sweets recipes, grind the tea leaves and mix them with the dough, together with the ingredients. Orange Spice Tea benefits Orange Spice Tea gathers the benefits of black tea, citrus and spices:

• strengthens the immune system
• helps lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases
• helps in the prevention of certain cancers
• contributes to preventing colds, cough and flu
• helps in calming and relaxing the senses
• stimulates blood circulation
• increases concentration and memory levels
• warms the body (especially during winter)

Orange Spice Tea side effects Rarely,Orange Spice Teaconsumers experienced stomach aches or the syndrome of upset stomach. Patients suffering from gastritis are advised to intake a low quantity of Orange Spice Tea. Orange Spice Tea clusters the benefits and taste of black tea, citron and a large array of spices. It is intensely consumed by connoisseurs and novices, especially due to its health contributions and proven energy booster actions.... orange spice tea: a mixture for health

Roxb.

Family: Solanaceae.

Habitat: Assam, Khasi Hills. Banga (Bengal); Titakuchi (Assam); Soh- jhari (Khasi); Mungas-kajur (root, Bihar).

Action: Root—diuretic, narcotic. Unripe berries—poisonous.

The leaves contain 1.29% alkaloids. Partial synthesis of etiolin has been reported.... solanum spirale

Protection... spanish moss

Scanty menstruation... spanomenorrhea

(English) Resembling a small songbird

Sparro, Sparroe, Sparo, Sparow, Sparowe, Sparoe... sparrow

The name given to the region behind the knee. The muscles attached to the bones immediately above and below the knee bound a diamond-shaped space through which pass the main artery and vein of the limb (known in this part of their course as the popliteal artery and vein); the tibial and common peroneal nerves (which continue the sciatic nerve from the thigh down to the leg); the external saphenous vein; and several small nerves and lymphatic vessels. The muscles – which bound the upper angle of the space and which are attached to the leg bones by strong prominent tendons – are known as the hamstrings. The lower angle of the space lies between the two heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, which makes up the main bulk of the calf of the leg.... popliteal space

Linn.

Synonym: P. cineraria Druce.

Family: Mimosaceae.

Habitat: Dry and acrid regions of India.

Ayurvedic: Shami, Tungaa, Keshahantri, Shankuphalaa.

Siddha/Tamil: Kalisam.

Action: Pod—astringent, pectoral, demulcent. Bark—anti- inflammatory, antirheumatic. Flower—administered to prevent miscarriage.

The stem bark contains vitamin K, n-octacosyl acetate, the long chain aliphatic acid. Presence of glucose, rhamnose, sucrose and starch is also reported.

A cytotoxic principle, patulibin, has been isolated from flowers.

Dosage: Leaf, fruit—3-5 g powder, 50-100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)... prosopis spicigera

An ENZYME produced by glandular tissue in the PROSTATE GLAND. When the gland enlarges (see PROSTATE, DISEASES OF), greater amounts of PSA are secreted, raising the concentration of the enzyme in the blood. This is especially so in cancer of the prostate, and testing the level of PSA is an indicator that the disease may be present. There is much controversy about the use of PSA as a screening test. Its proponents claim that its use reduces deaths from prostate cancer; its opponents suggest that it does this only by bringing to light many cases that needed no treatment and would not have caused death in any case. Further, if the level of PSA is very high, the disease is already advanced; where the result is equivocal it is uncertain whether the bene?ts of treatment outweigh the risks.... prostate specific antigen (psa)

Linn.

Family: Gramineae; Poaceae.

Habitat: Throughout India. English: Thatch Grass.

Ayurvedic: Kaasha, Kandekshu, Shvetachaamara.

Siddha/Tamil: Naanal, Pai Karumbu.

Action: Plant—cooling, astringent, diuretic, galactagogue. Used in the treatment of burning sensation, dysuria, dyscrasia, kidney and bladder stones, dysentery, bleeding piles. Root—diuretic, galactagogue.

Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the root in calculus, dy- suria and haemorrhagic diseases.

Dosage: Root—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)

The Five-Grassroots (Tripanchmuu- la) of Ayurvedic medicine contain extracts of S. munja, S. officinarum and S. spontaneum. The compound is prescribed as a diuretic.... saccharum spontaneum

A. Br.

Synonym: S. papilionacea (Burm. f.) Boiss.

Family: Scrophulariaceae.

Habitat: The arid regions of Gujarat and in Rajasthan.

Ayurvedic: Nepaal-Nimba.

Folk: Saannipaat (Maharashtra).

Action: Broken pieces of dried fruits, stems and leaves—used in enteric fever. Leaf—antidiabetic. Fruit, leaf, stem—diuretic.

An alkaloid, schweinfurthin, a hydrocarbon and an unsaturated ketone were reported from the leaves. Recently, two macrocylic alkaloids, 11- epi-ephedradine and schweinine, have been isolated from the whole plant, along with (-)-ephedradine A. Experimentally, 11-epi-ephedradine A was mutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium.... schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa

A chronic condition in which the neck is rotated or deviated laterally, forwards, or backwards, often with additional jerking or tremor. It is a form of focal DYSTONIA, and should not be confused with the far commoner transient condition of acute painful wry-neck.... spasmodic torticollis

A term applied to any condition showing increased muscle tone: for example, spastic gait, or spastic colon (see IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME (IBS)). This is especially associated with some disease affecting the upper part of the NERVOUS SYSTEM connected with movement (upper neuron), so that its controlling in?uence is lost and the muscles become overexcitable.... spastic

Healing, Love, Mental Powers... spearmint

A long-term care facility unit with services specifically for persons with particular diseases, disorders or injuries.... special care unit

Nursing care needs that require the advanced and specialized clinical skills and knowledge of a registered nurse.... specialized nursing care needs

Linn.

Synonym: S. alba Linn.

Family: Malvaceae.

Habitat: Throughout the hotter parts of India, ascending to an altitude of 1,350 m.

English: Prickly Sida.

Ayurvedic: Naagabalaa, Balaa- kantakini, Gangaati.

Siddha/Tamil: Arivalmanai-poondu.

Folk: Gulasakari, Gangeti, Jangali- methi.

Action: Root—nervine tonic and diaphoretic; used in debility and fevers. Decoction given as a demulcent in irritability of bladder and genitourinary tract. Leaves—demulcent and refrigerant; used for scalding urine.

The root contains alkaloids—beta- phenethylamine, ephedrine, si-ephed- rine, vasicinol, vasicinone, vasicine, choline, hypaphorine, methyl ester, hy- paphorine and betaine. These alkaloids are present in aerial parts as well.

Ethanolic extract of the plant exhibits hypoglycaemic activity. It depressed the normal blood pressure and lowered the activity ofsmooth muscles of the ileum of experimental animals.... sida spinosa

Beauv.

Habitat: Native to tropical Africa. Grown as a avenue tree, in Coffee estates for shade.

English: Syringe tree, Fountain tree, African Tulip tree.

Siddha/Tamil: Patadi.

Folk: Ruugatuuraa.

Action: Bark—decoction given for dysentery, gastro-intestinal and renal ailments. Pulverized bark applied to skin diseases. Leaves— infusion administered for urethral inflammation.

The stem bark gave oleanolic and siaresinolic acids. The bark yields small quantities of tannin. Leaves gave caf- feic and chlorogenic acids, quercetin- 3-galactoside. Flowers gave malvidin and pelargonidin diglycoside.

An aqueous alcoholic extract of the leaves and the hexane and chloroform extracts of stem bark showed anti- malarial activity.... spathodea campanulata

Nuphar species

Description: This plant has leaves up to 60 centimeters long with a triangular notch at the base. The shape of the leaves is somewhat variable. The plant’s yellow flowers are 2.5 centimeter across and develop into bottle-shaped fruits. The fruits are green when ripe.

Habitat and Distribution: These plants grow throughout most of North America. They are found in quiet, fresh, shallow water (never deeper than 1.8 meters).

Edible Parts: All parts of the plant are edible. The fruits contain several dark brown seeds you can parch or roast and then grind into flour. The large rootstock contains starch. Dig it out of the mud, peel off the outside, and boil the flesh. Sometimes the rootstock contains large quantities of a very bitter compound. Boiling in several changes of water may remove the bitterness.... spatterdock or yellow water lily

A hospital that admits only certain types of patients or those with specified illnesses or conditions. Examples include psychiatric hospitals and rehabilitation hospitals for the older population.... specialty hospital

An epidemiological term (see EPIDEMIOLOGY) describing the extent to which a SCREENING TEST for the presence of the precursors of disease – for example, pre-malignant cells in the cervix – throws up false positives. A speci?c test has few false positives.... specificity

(English) An administrator; dispenser of provisions Spenser, Spincer, Spinser... spencer

(Italian) Form of Esperanza, meaning “filled with hope” Speranzia, Speranzea, Speranziya, Speranzya... speranza

(Linn.) J. Persl S C. Persl.

Synonym: Spergula rubra D. Dietr.

Family: Caryophylaceae.

Habitat: Native to Southern France and Malta; found in Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh.

English: Sand-Spurry, Sandwort, Arenaria Rubra.

Action: Diuretic. Used in cystitis and urethral colic, dysuria and urinary calculi.... spergularia rubra

Spearmint Tea is best known for treating excessive body hair or hirsutism, but its benefits involve other areas too. Spearmint looks a lot like peppermint: it has dark green leaves and pale purple flowers. It grows almost everywhere around the worlds and it’s used not only as a medicinal plant, but also as an important ingredient of the international cuisine. Its leaves, flowers and roots are not poisonous, so feel free to use any parts you like. Spearmint tea is probably the most popular tea in the world, not only for its health benefits, but also for its wonderful taste and strong fragrance. Properties of Spearmint Tea Spearmint Tea is not just some randomly boiled water: it contains vitamins and minerals, it’s rich in potassium, niacin, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium and manganese. And the good news is that it’s caffeine free and low in calories, which makes Spearmint Tea a great help in any type of diet. Spearmint Tea Benefits Spearmint Tea is a great remedy for gastrointestinal problems, hirsutism, asthma, digestion, cold and flu. If you suffer from irritable bowel, the soothing properties of this tea may come in hand. Also, the oil made from Spearmint could help with other stomach problems or digestive system conditions. Thanks to its strong fragrance, Spearmint tea can calm your throat pain and clear your stuffy nose at the same time. Also, the rosmarinic acid found in spearmint is used in asthma treatments, giving patients relief by blocking the production of proinflammatory substances (leukotrienes). Spearmint Tea also cures nausea, helps with digestion and treats acne, stomach ache and morning sickness during pregnancy. How to prepare Spearmint Tea First, you need Spearmint leaves or flowers. It doesn’t matter which or if you’re combining them when you’re making Spearmint Tea. Few people like to use the roots, even if the benefits are the same, except for the fact that these have a milder fragrance. You can either boil them for 10-15 minutes depending on the amount of water or make an infusion. Drink as much Spearmint tea as you want, but not more than 6 cups per day. Spearmint Tea Side Effects Spearmint Tea side effects are almost nonexistent; many people who give up coffee use it as a very convenient substitute. However, drinking too much Spearmint Tea may cause diarrhea. Other than that, feel free to try it anytime you want. If you’re thinking about giving up on drinking coffee or you just have a cold, Spearmint Tea is your answer! Spearmint Tea in Cosmetic Treatment Spearmint Tea has been used since ancient times as a face cleanser and its volatile substances have always been at the pick of the cosmetic industry. Even if you are buying the spearmint from the market or pick the leaves from your garden, a Spearmint Tea infusion will open your pores and make your face look healthy and shiny. You don’t need to choose between this or that product when it comes to beauty: give Spearmint Tea a chance and embrace the organic benefits of this wonderful herb! So, if you’re thinking about giving up on drinking coffee or you just have a cold, Spearmint Tea and its wonderful benefits should not be ignored. Give it a try next time you are looking for natural health remedies!... spearmint tea wonderful benefits

The name applied to the blood vessels and other structures associated with the TESTICLE.... spermatic

Veronica officinalis. N.O. Scrophulariaceae.

Synonym: Bird's Eye, Cat's Eye, Common Speedwell, Fluellin (in Wales).

Habitat: Dry banks and sandy commons.

Features ? Stem slender, creeping, covered with short hairs. Leaves opposite, oval, hairy, serrate, short-stalked, about half an inch long by a quarter of an inch broad. Flowers small, pink turning blue, in axillary spikes. Astringent to the taste, odour when dry rather tea-like.

Part used ? Herb.

Action: Mildly alterative, expectorant, diuretic.

Helpful in minor skin blemishes, coughs and catarrhs. Made as tea, it resembles certain varieties of China tea, both in taste and aroma.

Tilke recommends the substitution of Speedwell and Wood Betony for tea as, in addition to their positive virtues, they produce none of the bad effects of the last-named beverage.... speedwell

Speedwell Tea is and it has been for centuries used mainly for its soothing effects. Speedwell is a perennial herb that grows mostly in Europe. The French people used it in the 19th century as a very good replacement for ordinary tea, because of its bitter and astringent flavor. Nowadays, Speedwell Tea is used to calm any skin irritation, throat ache or cough. Speedwell Tea Properties Speedwell Tea is a great remedy for almost any health condition that involves inflammation or localized pain. You can use it as a supplementary aid or as a main treatment as well. There are many types of Speedwell Tea solutions, such as infusions, tonics or tinctures. Also, pressing the smashed plant on a open cut will calm your pain and bring relief if you are suffering from irritated skin. You can benefit from this plant’s wonders at home, preparing the tea by yourself or buy it from the tea shop. However, if you are thinking about making it at home, pay attention to our advice on How to prepare Speedwell Tea. Speedwell Tea Benefits Speedwell Tea has been used for many years as a panacea for almost any health problems. Its main use was in treating gall stones and colds. In our times, alternative medicine found new and excited benefits of Speedwell Tea in treating light-headedness, damaged hearing, sinusitis and ear infections. Also, if you are suffering from nephritic problems, skin ailments, hemorrhages or have a small opened wound, Speedwell Tea may come in hand. The leaves and roots of speedwell are astringent, gently diuretic, stomachic, slightly expectorant and stimulant. Lately, herbalists around the world announced the benefits that Speedwell Tea offers when treating ulcers or blockages of the respiratory system. How to make Speedwell Tea Infusion When making Speedwell Tea infusion, you need to pay attention to a couple of things. First of all, you need to decide if you are using Speedwell powder, freshly picked Speedwell plants or dry roots. Put the ingredients in a pot of boiled water and wait for the benefits of Speedwell Tea to be released. If you are using powder, wait only 10 minutes. For dry roots or fresh plants, 15 to 20 minutes, depending on the amount of water used. For better results and a more concentrated solution, wait another 15 minutes. You can drink it or use it on your affected area. Also, you can use the powder directly on an open cut or wound. Speedwell Tea Side Effects Speedwell Tea has almost no side effects at all. Just make sure you don’t drink more than 3 cups a day or you’ll get diarrhea and also experience vomiting sensations. Other than that, go for it! Speedwell Tea Contraindications Don’t take Speedwell Tea if you are already suffering from diarrhea or have vomiting episodes. Also, if you have a dry throat, this tea may not be the best idea for you. However, if you experience any of the symptoms mentioned before and are still thinking about taking Speedwell Tea, talk to a specialist before boiling the water. Judging by this tea’s popularity and the great reviews that people around the world gave, it’s fair to say that Speedwell tea should have its own place in your list of herbal remedies. If you have on open cut and are tired of your medicine cabinet, add Speedwell Tea to your shopping cart next time you’re shopping for natural treatments!... speedwell tea organic health benefits

Linn.

Synonym: Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) F.N. Williams. Borreria hispida (L.) K. Schum. Spermacoce articularis L. f.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: The Himalaya, from Simla westwards to Assam and southwards to Kanyakumari.

Ayurvedic: Madana Ghanti.

Siddha/Tamil: Nellichoori.

Action: Leaves—an extract is given as an astringent in haemorrhoids and gall stones. Seeds—demulcent; given in diarrhoea and dysentery. Root—prescribed as a mouthwash to cure toothache. A decoction of the herb is used in the treatment of headache.

The weed is rich in calcium and phosphorus; contains beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid and D-mannitol.

The plant gave alkaloid borreline, along with beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid and iso-rhamnetin.... spermacoce hispida

(Latin) In mythology, goddess of hope... spes

A bone lying in the centre of the base of the SKULL, and supporting the others like a wedge or keystone.... sphenoid

Linn. (also auct. non L.)

Synonym: S. senegalensis DC. S. hirtus Willd.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Tropical parts of India, in rice fields, cultivated lands as a weed.

Ayurvedic: Mundi, Mundika, Munditikaa, Bhuukadamba, Alam- busta, Shraavani, Tapodhanaa.

(Mahamundi, Mahaa-Shraavani Is Equated With S. Africanus Linn.)

Unani: Mundi.

Siddha/Tamil: Kottakarthai.

Folk: Gorakh-Mundi.

Action: Juice—Styptic, Emollient, Resolvent. Also Used In Hepatic And Gastric Disorders. Seeds And Root—Anthelmintic. Decoction Is Used In Cough And Other Catarrhal Affections And Chest Diseases. Root Bark—Given In Bleeding Piles. Flowers—Blood Purifier, Alterative, Depurative.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia Of India Recommends The Dried Leaf In Cervical Lymphadenitis, Chronic Sinusitis, Migraine, Epilepsy, Lipid Disorders, Diseases Of Spleen, Anaemia, Dysuria.

The Drug Is Mostly Administered In The Form Of Its Steam-Distillate. Steam Distillation Of Fresh Flowering Herb Yields An Essential Oil Containing Methyl Chavicol, Alpha-Ionone, D-Cadinene, P-Methoxycinnamaldehyde As Major Constituents. A Bitter Alkaloid, Sphaer- Anthine, Has Been Reported In The Plant.

Capitula Contains Albumin, A Fatty Oil (Up To 5%), Reducing Sugars, Tannins, Mineral Matter, A Volatile Oil (0.07%), And A Glucoside. No Alkaloid Was Detected In The Inflorescence. The Glucoside On Hydrolysis Gave A Aglycone, Phenolic In Nature. The Unsaponifiable Matter Of The Fatty Oil Showed Beta-Sitosterol, Stigmas- Terol, N-Triacontanol, N-Pentacosane And Hentriacontane. The Essential Oil Is Active Against Vibrio Cholera And Mi- Crococcus Pyogenes Var. Aureus. The Flower Heads Gave Beta-D-Glucoside Of Beta-Sitosterol.

Eudesmanolides, Cryptomeridiol And 4-Epicryptomeridiol Have Been Isolated From Flowers.

Flowers Gave A Sesquiterpene Glyco- Side, Sphaeranthanolide, Which Exhibited Immune Stimulating Activity.

Dosage: Leaf— 3-6 G (Api, Vol Iii); Whole Plant—10-20 Ml Juice (Api, Vol. IV).... sphaeranthus indicus

Love... spiderwort

One of the MACROLIDES isolated from Streptomyces ambofaciens which is used under strict conditions for the treatment of TOXOPLASMOSIS.... spiramycin

Spikenard Tea is the best solution if you are suffering from asthma, coughs or headaches. Spikenard is a perennial bush with large, green leaves, red berries and greenish white flowers. It grows mainly on the American continent and it’s been used for medical purposes since the 15th century, when the Native Americans used it to treat childbirth pains or coughs. Spikenard Tea can also be turned into a very consistent balm to treat bone fractures, wounds and cuts. Spikenard Tea Properties Spikenard Tea has anti-inflammatory properties, so it’s an excellent remedy for topical pains, such as localized irritations or earache. It’s versatility towards any type of health condition makes Spikenard one of the most important herbs in the Native American alternative medicine. Spikenard Tea is rich in tannis, volatile oil and diterpene acids, which help your system restore its health and vitality. Spikenard Tea Benefits Spikenard Tea contains depurative and anti-septic substances, often being used to clean and sanitize the blood. However, its action areas are many: headaches, asthma, cough, gas, pains, deafness, gout, syphilis. Also, Spikenard Tea is a great tonic that can really work miracles in case you need to induce sweating. A decoction made of Spikenard can bring relief to menstrual pains, burn injuries and backaches. If you suffer from tuberculosis, a cup of Spikenard Tea every day can really make a difference. It’s also good for detoxifying your body, and a compress of Spikenard Tea, applied on an eczema, will calm down the pain and make the irritation disappear. In North America, Spikenard Tea has also a culinary use: people make jelly out of it, which, if you think about it, it’s not a bad idea at all! Who wouldn’t want a jar of jelly that can bring joy both to your tongue and your general health? How to make Spikenard Tea Infusion Preparing Spikenard Tea is very easy. Take a handful of spikenard roots and add it to the boiling water in the teapot and let it infuse for about 5 minutes. For more energy and better results, wait for another 5 minutes and drink it sugar free. You can drink it hot or keep it in your refrigerator for not more than a week. In time, the tea loses its curative properties and health benefits. It is better to prepare a new bottle of tea every 3 or 4 days. Spikenard Tea Side Effects When taken properly, Spikenard Tea has no side effects. However, make sure you are not allergic to any of its ingredients and don’t drink more than 4 cups a day. Spikenard Tea is a medicinal treatment and it can’t replace coffee, unlike other teas, such as spearmint tea. Spikenard Tea Contraindications Don’t take Spikenard Tea if you are pregnant and it’s best to avoid it if you are breast-feeding. If you are pregnant and still thinking about taking it, talk to your doctor first. Other than that, there’s no reason not to add Spikenard tea to your herbal treatments cabinet. Follow the instructions and enjoy the great benefits of this tea!... spikenard tea great benefits

DC.

Synonym: S. acmella auct. non (L.) Murr.

S. paniculata auct. non-DC. S. pseudoacmella auct. non (L.) Murr.

Family: Asteraceae.

Habitat: Tropical and sub-tropical parts of India, in waste places and open moist fields.

English: Paracress.

Ayurvedic: Marahattikaa.

Folk: Marethi, Desi Akarkaraa.

Action: Plant—antidysenteric. Decoction, diuretic and lithotriptic, also used in scabies and psoriasis. Seeds—used in xerostomia, throat infections and neurological affection of tongue. Root—purgative.

Whole plant gave alpha-and beta- amyrin ester, myricyl alcohol, stigmas- terol and its glucoside. A tincture made from flower heads is used as a substitute for the tincture of pyrethrum to treat inflammation of jaw-bones and caries.

Ethanolic extracts of the herb were found to affect the blood pressure of dogs and cats, and also the isolated ileum of guinea pigs. Spilanthol, obtained from the ether as well as pen- tane extracts, shows a strong sialogogic action, acts as a local anaesthetic and a powerful insecticide.... spilanthes calva

A strong solution of ALCOHOL in water. Proof spirit is one containing 57 per cent of alcohol by volume or 49 per cent by weight, and is so-named because it can stand the proof of just catching ?re. Recti?ed spirit contains 90 per cent of alcohol by volume or over 85 per cent by weight. Methylated spirit (also known as wood naphtha or wood spirit) is distilled from wood; when taken internally it is a dangerous poison producing NEURITIS, especially neuritis of the optic nerves which may result in blindness. Methylated spirit is used to harden the skin for the prevention of bed sores and foot soreness.... spirit

The quality of being concerned with deeper, sometimes religious, feelings and beliefs.... spirituality

Also known as Weil’s disease, this is the term applied to infection with the Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae which is transmitted to humans by rats – these animals excreting the organism in their urine, hence the liability of sewage workers to the disease. The condition is characterised by fever, jaundice, enlarged liver, nephritis, and bleeding from mucous membranes.... spirochaetosis icterohaemorrhagica

Murr.

Family: Compositae; Asteraceae.

Habitat: Introduced from Brazil; often cultivated in Indian gardens.

English: Brazilian Cress, Para Cress.

Ayurvedic: Mahaaraashtri, Marethi, Desi Akarkaraa. Aakaarakarab- ha of Ayurvedic medicine and Aaqarqarha of Unani medicine is equated with Anacyclus pyrethrum DC. (root is used); S. acmella and S. oleracea flowering heads are used as Desi Akarkaraa and should not be confused with the original drug.

Action: Flowers—used against scurvy, gum troubles, toothache and against bladder pains and gout.

The flower heads yield 1.25% of spilanthol from the pentane extract.

The fresh plant yields an essential oil consisting mainly of spilanthol and a hydrocarbon, spilanthene. The plant also contains cerotic acid, crystalline phytosterols, tannic acid, resin, potassium malate and large amounts of choline and potassium nitrate.... spilanthes oleracea

This is one of the most common of the congenital (present at birth) malformations. It is one of the three types of neural-tube anomaly, the other two being ANENCEPHALY and cranium bi?dum. It takes two main forms – spina bi?da occulta being much the commoner. There is a de?cit in the posterior part of the SPINAL COLUMN, usually in the LUMBAR region, and it is generally asymptomatic unless the underlying spinal cord is affected. Occasionally it is associated with a hairy patch or birthmark on the back, and a few children develop a mild spastic gait or bladder problems.

Much more serious is spina bi?da cystica, in which the spinal-wall defect is accompanied by a protrusion of the spinal cord. This may take two forms: a meningocele, in which the MENINGES, containing CEREBROSPINAL FLUID, protrude through the defect; and a meningomyelocele, in which the protrusion contains spinal cord and nerves.

Meningocele is less common and has a good prognosis. HYDROCEPHALUS and neurological problems affecting the legs are rare, although the bladder may be affected. Treatment consists of surgery which may be in the ?rst few days of life or much later depending upon the precise situation; long-term follow-up is necessary to pick up any neurological problems that may develop during subsequent growth of the spine.

Meningomyelocele is much more serious and more common, accounting for 90 per cent of all cases. Usually affecting the lumbo-sacral region, the range of severity may vary considerably and, while early surgery with careful attention in a minor case may achieve good mobility, normal bladder function and intellect, a more extensive protrusion may cause complete ANAESTHESIA of the skin, with increased risk of trauma; extensive paralysis of the trunk and limbs, with severe deformities; and paralysis and insensitivity of the bladder and bowel. Involuntary movements may be present, and hydrocephalus occurs in 80 per cent of cases. The decision to operate can only be made after a full examination of the infant to determine the extent of the defect and any co-existent congenital abnormalities. The child’s potential can then be estimated, and appropriate treatment discussed with the parents. Carefully selected patients should receive long-term treatment in a special centre, where full attention can be paid to all their various problems.

There is growing evidence of the value of vitamin supplements before and during pregnancy in reducing the incidence of spina bi?da. Parents of affected infants may obtain help, advice, and encouragement from the Association for Spina Bi?da and Hydrocephalus which has branches throughout the country, or the Scottish Spina Bi?da Association.... spina bifida

Linn.

Synonym: S. tetrandra Roxb.

Family: Chenopodiaceae.

Habitat: Native to South-west Asia; cultivated throughout India.

English: Garden Spinach.

Ayurvedic: Paalankikaa, Paalankya, Paalakyaa.

Unani: Paalak.

Siddha/Tamil: Vasaiyila-keerai.

Action: Seeds—cooling and laxative; given during jaundice. Spinach, as a potherb, is rich in nitrogenous substances, hydrocarbons and iron sesqui-oxide.

Aerial parts afforded rutin, hyperoside, astragalin and caffeic, chloro- genic, neochlorogenic and protocate- chuic acids. Seeds contain glycopro- tein-bound hexosamine. Roots contain spirasaponins.... spinacia oleracea

A two-parted oesophagus - anterior muscular and posterior glandular structure as in most of Spiruroidea and Filarioidea.... spiruroid

Pain in the spleen... splenalgia

Spiritual pain is what may be felt when one of a person’s four key spiritual relationships (with other people, with oneself, with the world around, or with ‘Life’ itself) is traumatised or broken. A bad trauma in one of the ?rst three relationships can lead to damage to the last of them – that of the relationship with Life itself. For example, a wife deserted by her husband for another woman may not only feel devastated by the loss of her partner around the place, but may also feel a pain caused by the shattering of her beliefs about life (about faithfulness, hope, love, security, etc.). It is as if there is a picture at the centre of each person of what life should be about – whether or not held in a frame by a belief in God; this picture can be smashed by a particular trauma, so that nothing makes sense any more. The individual cannot get things together; everything loses its meaning. This shattering of someone’s picture of life is the source of the deepest pain in any spiritual trauma. The connection is often made between spiritual pain and meaninglessness. If the shattering of the picture, on the other hand, is done by the individual – for instance, by breaking his or her own moral or religious code – the pain may take the form of guilt and associated feelings. Hence, the therapist will be intent upon helping a client to recognise and come to terms with this ‘pain beneath the pain’.... spiritual pain

Enlargement of spleen and liver... splenohepatomegaly

Any disease of the spleen... splenopathy

Linear bleeding under the ?ngernails. Although they may result from injury, they are a useful physical sign of infective ENDOCARDITIS.... splinter haemorrhages

Scoliosis A condition where the spine is curved to one side (the spine is normally straight when seen from behind). The deformity may be mobile and reversible, or ?xed; if ?xed it is accompanied by vertebral rotation and does not disappear with changes in posture. Fixed scoliosis is idiopathic (of unknown cause) in 65–80 per cent of cases. There are three main types: the infantile type occurs in boys under three and in 90 per cent of cases resolves spontaneously; the juvenile type affects 4–9 year olds and tends to be progressive. The most common type is adolescent idiopathic scoliosis; girls are affected in 90 per cent of cases and the incidence is 4 per cent. Treatment may be conservative with a ?xed brace, or surgical fusion may be needed if the curve is greater than 45 degrees. Scoliosis can occur as a congenital condition and in neuromuscular diseases where there is muscle imbalance, such as in FRIEDREICH’S ATAXIA.

Kyphosis is a backward curvature of the spine causing a hump back. It may be postural and reversible in obese people and tall adolescent girls who stoop, but it may also be ?xed. Scheuermann’s disease is the term applied to adolescent kyphosis. It is more common in girls. Senile kyphosis occurs in elderly people who probably have osteoporosis (bone weakening) and vertebral collapse.

Disc degeneration is a normal consequence of AGEING. The disc loses its resiliance and becomes unable to withstand pressure. Rupture (prolapse) of the disc may occur with physical stress. The disc between the fourth and ?fth lumbar vertebrae is most commonly involved. The jelly-like central nucleus pulposus is usually pushed out backwards, forcing the annulus ?brosus to put pressure on the nerves as they leave the spinal canal. (See PROLAPSED INTERVERTEBRAL DISC.)

Ankylosing spondylitis is an arthritic disorder of the spine in young adults, mostly men. It is a familial condition which starts with lumbar pain and sti?ness which progresses to involve the whole spine. The discs and ligaments are replaced by ?brous tissue, making the spine rigid. Treatment is physiotherapy and anti-in?ammatory drugs to try to keep the spine supple for as long as possible.

A National Association for Ankylosing Spondylitis has been formed which is open to those with the disease, their families, friends and doctors.

Spondylosis is a term which covers disc degeneration and joint degeneration in the back. OSTEOARTHRITIS is usually implicated. Pain is commonly felt in the neck and lumbar regions and in these areas the joints may become unstable. This may put pressure on the nerves leaving the spinal canal, and in the lumbar region, pain is generally felt in the distribution of the sciatic nerve – down the back of the leg. In the neck the pain may be felt down the arm. Treatment is physiotherapy; often a neck collar or lumbar support helps. Rarely surgery is needed to remove the pressure from the nerves.

Spondylolisthesis means that the spine is shifted forward. This is nearly always in the lower lumbar region and may be familial, or due to degeneration in the joints. Pressure may be put on the cauda equina. The usual complaint is of pain after exercise. Treatment is bed rest in a bad attack with surgery indicated only if there are worrying signs of cord compression.

Spinal stenosis is due to a narrowing of the spinal canal which means that the nerves become squashed together. This causes numbness with pins and needles (paraesthia) in the legs. COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging scans can show the amount of cord compression. If improving posture does not help, surgical decompression may be needed.

Whiplash injuries occur to the neck, usually as the result of a car accident when the head and neck are thrown backwards and then forwards rapidly. This causes pain and sti?ness in the neck; the arm and shoulder may feel numb. Often a support collar relieves the pain but recovery commonly takes between 18 months to three years.

Transection of the cord occurs usually as a result of trauma when the vertebral column protecting the spinal cord is fractured and becomes unstable. The cord may be concussed or it may have become sheared by the trauma and not recover (transected). Spinal concussion usually recovers after 12 hours. If the cord is transected the patient remains paralysed. (See PARALYSIS.)... spine and spinal cord, diseases and injuries of

The proportion of female mosquitoes that have sporozoites in the salivary gland.... sporozoite rate

Also called FLOATERS, these can arise from a variety of causes including in?ammation and bleeding in the eye, or preceding a retina detachment. They may also occur for a variety of totally harmless reasons. (See EYE, DISORDERS OF.)... spots before the eyes

In certain diseases associated with marked changes in the blood, such as LEUKAEMIA and MALARIA, the SPLEEN becomes chronically enlarged. In some of the acute infectious diseases, it becomes congested and acutely enlarged: for example, in typhoid fever (see ENTERIC FEVER), ANTHRAX and infectious MONONUCLEOSIS. Rupture of the spleen may occur, like rupture of other internal organs, in consequence of extreme violence – but in malarious countries, where many people have the spleen greatly enlarged and softened as the result of malaria, rupture of this organ occasionally occurs following even a light blow to the left side of the abdomen. The spleen, in consequence of its structure, bleeds excessively when torn, so that this accident is generally followed by collapse, signs of internal haemorrhage – and death if not dealt with promptly by operation.... spleen, diseases of

Supports for an injured or wounded part. They are most commonly employed in cases in which a bone is fractured, and consist then of some rigid substance designed to take the place of the broken bone in maintaining the shape of the limb, as well as to keep the broken ends at rest and in contact and so ensure their union. Splints are most commonly made of wood, either shaped to the limb or consisting merely of strips of wood about the width of the injured limb, and carefully padded with wool or similar soft material. Splints are also made of metal, poroplastic felt, leather, and cotton sti?ened with plaster of Paris, as well as other materials. Splints may be improvised for ?rst-aid out of walking-sticks, ri?es, broom-handles, branches, folded-up newspapers, and in fact anything of suitable length and rigidity. (See also BONE, DISORDERS OF – Bone fractures.)... splints

(Linn. f.) Kurz.

Synonym: S. mangifera Willd.

Family: Anacardiaceae.

Habitat: A small, aromatic tree occurring wild or grown throughout the country for edible fruits.

English: Hog-Plum, Wild Mango. Great Hog-Plum is equated with S. cytherea Sonn, synonym S. dulcis Soland. ex Forst. f.

Ayurvedic: Aamraataka, Aamraata, Aamadaa, Madhuparni, Kundalini, Kapitana, Markataamra.

Siddha/Tamil: Mambulichi, Kat- tuma.

Folk: Jangali Aam.

Action: Fruits, leaves, bark— astringent, antidysenteric, anti- speptic, antiscorbutic. Bark paste applied externally to articular and muscular rheumatism. Root—used for regulating menstruation.

The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends stem bark in haem- orrhagic diseases.

The fruit contains beta-amyrin, olea- nolic acid and amino acids—glycine, cystine, serine, alanine and leucine; polysaccharides are also present.

Aerial parts gave lignoceric acid, 24-methylenecycloartanone, stigmast- 4-en-3-one, beta-sitosterol and its glu- coside.

Dosage: Stem bark—5-10 g powder for decoction (API, Vol. II); 1-3 g powder (API, Vol. III).... spondias pinnata

Injuries in the neighbourhood of joints, consisting usually in tearing of a ligament with e?usion of blood. (See JOINTS, DISEASES OF.)... sprains

The way a neoplasm increases in size or invades the body.... spread

(English) Refers to the season; born in spring Spryng... spring

A chronic malabsorptive, diarrhoeal, steatorrhoeic condition of unknown aetiology but often associated with secondary bacterial involvement.... tropical sprue

Linn.

Family: Hydrocharitaceae.

Habitat: Hydrophyte; throughout India.

English: Eel-Grass, Tape Grass, Wild Celery.

Ayurvedic: Shaivala, Shaivaala. (Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. is also equated with Shaivala.)

Folk: Sevaar.

Action: Plant—stomachic, refrigerant, demulcent. Also used in leucorrhoea and spermatorrhoea.

Extracts of the plant yielded polysaccharides containing D-galactose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, uronic acid, acidic xylan and an arabi- no galactan.... vallisneria spiralis

Hook. f.

Synonym: Meyna laxiflora Robyns.

Family: Rubiaceae.

Habitat: West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Ayurvedic: Pinditaka, Snigdh- pinditaka.

Siddha/Tamil: Manakkarai.

Folk: Muyana. Chiracholi, Alu (Maharashtra).... vangueria spinosa

A side-effect of hard training in endurance sports with low haemoglobin and haematocrit levels due to rapid depletion of iron on excessive exertion. See: IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA. ... anaemia: sports

 Most usual cause is nutrition. High in minerals, Alfalfa tea is known to toughen soft or splitting nails. Liquid Extract Echinacea: 10-20 drops in water, thrice daily. Paint nails with Tincture Myrrh.

Supplementation: zinc. ... fingernails, splitting

Spreng.

Family: Orchidaceae.

Habitat: Kerala.

Ayurvedic: Svarna-pushpa Bandaa, Baandaa.

Folk: Ponnampomaraiva (Kerala).

Action: Flowers—dried flowers are powdered and given for asthma, consumption, also for mood-swings and psychosomatic bursts.

Action: Fruits—refrigerant and cholagogue; used in biliary complaints and hepatic congestion. Dry fruits—narcotic; used in dysentery.

The seeds contain linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids.... vanda spathulata

Terms applied to the sounds produced in the upper AIR PASSAGES which form one of the means of communication between human beings. Air passes through the LARYNX to produce the fundamental notes and tones known as voice. This is then modi?ed during its passage through the mouth so as to form speech or song.

Voice This has three varying characteristics: loudness, pitch, and quality or timbre. Loudness depends on the volume of air available and therefore on the size of the chest and the strength of its muscles. Pitch is determined by larynx size, the degree of tenseness at which the vocal cords are maintained, and whether the cords vibrate as a whole or merely at their edges.

In any given voice, the range of pitch seldom exceeds two and a half octaves. Typically, the small larynx of childhood produces a shrill or treble voice; the rapid growth of the larynx around PUBERTY causes the voice to ‘break’ in boys. Changes in the voice also occur at other ages as a result of the secondary action of the SEX HORMONES. Generally speaking, the adult voice is bass and tenor in men, contralto or soprano in women. Timbre is due to di?erences in the larynx, as well as to voluntary changes in the shape of the mouth.

Speech Rapid modi?cations of the voice, produced by movements of the PALATE, tongue and lips. Infants hear the sounds made by others and mimic them; hence the speech centres in the BRAIN are closely connected with those of hearing.

Defects of speech See below, and also SPEECH DISORDERS. MUTISM, or absence of the power to speak, may be due to various causes. LEARNING DISABILITY that prevents the child from mimicking the actions of others is most common; in other cases the child has normal intelligence but some neurological disorder, or disorder of the speech organs, is responsible. Alternatively, complete DEAFNESS or early childhood ear disease may be the cause. STAMMERING is a highly individual condition, but is basically a lack of coordination between the di?erent parts of the speech mechanism. (See also main entry on STAMMERING.) DYSPHASIA is the inability to speak or understand speech, most commonly following brain disease, such as STROKE. APHONIA or loss of voice may be caused by LARYNGITIS or, rarely, a symptom of conversion and dissociative mental disorders – traditionally referred to as HYSTERIA. It is generally of short duration.... voice and speech

Dalz.

Family: Caesalpiniaceae.

Habitat: Western Ghats.

Ayurvedic: Guchh-karanja.

Siddha: Okkadi-kodi, Pulinakk- agondai.

Folk: Vaakeri (Maharashtra). Caesalpinia digyna Rottl. is also known as Vaakeri.

Action: Roots—used in pneumonia. Bark—used externally in skin diseases.

The root contains vakerin. Vakerin did not inhibit the stimulating effect of histamine and acetylcholine.

Pods contain considerable quantity of tannic acid.... wagatea spicata

Luffa cylindrica

Description: The luffa sponge is widely distributed and fairly typical of a wild squash. There are several dozen kinds of wild squashes in tropical regions. Like most squashes, the luffa is a vine with leaves 7.5 to 20 centimeters across having 3 lobes.

Some squashes have leaves twice this size. Luffa fruits are oblong or cylindrical, smooth, and many-seeded. Luffa flowers are bright yellow. The luffa fruit, when mature, is brown and resembles the cucumber.

Habitat and Distribution: A member of the squash family, which also includes the watermelon, cantaloupe, and cucumber, the luffa sponge is widely cultivated throughout the Tropical Zone. It may be found in a semiwild state in old clearings and abandoned gardens in rain forests and semievergreen seasonal forests.

Edible Parts: You can boil the young green (half-ripe) fruit and eat them as a vegetable. Adding coconut milk will improve the flavor. After ripening, the luffa sponge develops an inedible spongelike texture in the interior of the fruit. You can also eat the tender shoots, flowers, and young leaves after cooking them. Roast the mature seeds a little and eat them like peanuts.... wild gourd or luffa sponge

May be caused by a reflux from the stomach. Cramp bark.

Formula. Liquid Extracts: Goldenseal 1 drachm, Gelsemium 1 drachm, Stone root 2 drachms, Burdock 4 drachms. Water to 4oz. Dose: 1 teaspoon after meals, thrice daily. (W.W. Fraser, MD). Practitioner use. ... glottis – spasm of

A range of developmental disorders, usually first diagnosed in childhood, that are characterized by obsessive behaviour and impaired communication and social skills (see autism; Asperger’s syndrome).... autism spectrum disorders

Agents for relief of muscular cramp, spasm or mild pain. To reduce spasm of smooth muscle. The key remedy is Cramp bark but all have their specific uses.

They may be general (Black Haw, Cramp bark), or those that exert their influence upon specific structures: Hyssop (lungs), Cloves (mucous membranes), Wild Thyme (bronchi), Figwort (anus).

Others in common use: Asafoetida, Balm, Betony, Black Haw (muscles generally, also womb), Black Cohosh, Blue Cohosh, Butterburr, Blood root (externally), Cayenne, German Chamomile (stomach), Dong Quai (ovaries), Eucalyptus, Hops (stomach), Ladyslipper, Liquorice, Lime Blossom, Lobelia, Mistletoe, Motherwort (heart), Nutmeg (angina), Passion Flower, Skullcap, Skunk Cabbage, Thyme, Valerian, Vervain, Wild Cherry (respiratory), Wild Carrot (kidneys and bladder), Wild Lettuce, Wild Yam. Devil’s Claw (muscles).

Anti-Spasmodic Drops (Heath and Heather). Cramp, neuralgia, etc. Tincture Myrrh 6 per cent; Tincture Capsic 15 per cent; with 45 per cent ethanol extractive from Scutellaria (Skullcap) 10 per cent; Lobelia 1.25 per cent; Fennel 2.5 per cent; American Valerian 5 per cent. Dose: 10-30 drops according to age.

John Christopher: 2oz crushed Lobelia seeds; half an ounce Lobelia herb; 1 teaspoon Cayenne; macerated in 1 pint cider 8 days. 1-2 teaspoon when necessary.

Combination: powders. Equal parts: Skullcap, Valerian, Lobelia, Black Cohosh. Myrrh quarter part. Mix. Sift. Quarter of a teaspoon in water, honey etc as necessary.

Formula. Powders. Cramp Bark 2; Skullcap 1; Cloves half; Cayenne Pepper quarter. Mix. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon thrice daily. (Indian Herbology of North America, Alma R. Hutchens) ... anti-spasmodics

Chronic enlargement with tumour. Cannot lie on the left side for pain. A common cause is the use of vaccines for which Thuja would be indicated.

Where irradiation and chemotherapy are not possible, any of the following alternatives may be taken with profit as secondary to medical treatment.

Astragalus. Popular spleen protective in Chinese medicine. Reduces toxicity of chemotherapy.

New Jersey tea. (Ceanothus americanus) has an affinity for the spleen and may sustain that organ under stress.

Chinese medicine. Ho-Shou-wu (Polygonum multiflorum).

Decoction, Red root. 1 teaspoon to each cup water simmered gently 10 minutes. Dose: half-1 cup 3-4 times daily.

Formula. Red root 2; Barberry 1; Bayberry 1. Mix. Dose: Powders: 500mg (two 00 capsules or one-third teaspoon). Liquid extracts: 1 teaspoon. Tinctures: 2 teaspoons. 3-4 times daily in water or honey. Formula. Alternative. Tinctures. Fringe Tree 1; Goldenseal 2; Red root 3. Mix. Dose: 15-30 drops before meals and at bedtime.

Diet: See: DIET – CANCER.

Vinchristine: use in orthodox medicine reported.

Treatment by a general medical practitioner or hospital oncologist. ... cancer – spleen

An orthopaedic device that corrects or controls a deformed leg or supports a leg weakened by a muscular disorder, allowing a person to stand and walk.... caliper splint

An alternative name for cervical osteoarthritis.... cervical spondylosis

See irritable bowel syndrome.... colon, spastic

Harmless red or purple raised spots in the skin, consisting of a cluster of minute blood vessels. About 2 mm across, the spots usually affect middle-aged or older people. With increasing age, the spots become more numerous but do not increase in size. They may bleed if injured. Treatment is unnecessary.... de morgan’s spots

An uncommon disorder in which there is frequent twitching of facial muscles, which are supplied by the facial nerve. Facial spasm affects predominantly middle-aged women and is of unknown cause.... facial spasm

See spherocytosis, hereditary.... hereditary spherocytosis

Excessive tightening of the muscles that surround and support the lower region of the spine, causing back pain. Treatment of lumbosacral spasm may include analgesic drugs and muscle-relaxant drugs.... lumbosacral spasm

Surgery to relieve pressure on the spinal cord or a nerve root emerging from it (see microdiscectomy). Pressure may have various causes, including a disc prolapse, a tumour or abscess of the spinal cord, or a tumour, abscess or fracture of the vertebrae. Any of these conditions can cause weakness or paralysis of the limbs and loss of bladder control.

To treat major disc prolapses and tumours, a laminectomy (removal of the bony arches of 1 or more vertebrae) to expose the affected part of the cord or nerve roots may be performed. Recovery after treatment depends on the severity and duration of the pressure, the success of the surgery in relieving the pressure, and whether any damage is sustained by the nerves during the operation.... decompression, spinal canal

A blue-black pigmented spot found on the lower back and buttocks at birth. The spots are a type of naevus and are caused by a concentration of melanocytes (pigmentproducing cells). Mongolian blue spots are commonly found in black or Asian children, and they usually disappear by the age of 3–4 years.... mongolian blue spot

Sudden and involuntary contraction of a muscle. Muscle spasm is a normal reaction to pain and inflammation around a joint. Common causes are muscle strain, disc prolapse, and stress. Usually, the cause of the spasm is treated. Muscle-relaxant drugs may also be needed. (See also spasticity.)... muscle spasm

A technique for producing speech after surgical removal of the larynx (see laryngectomy).

Air is trapped in the oesophagus and is gradually expelled while the tongue, palate, and lips form distinguishable sounds.... oesophageal speech

See ankylosing spondylitis.... rheumatoid spondylitis

Difficulty in one or more areas of learning in a child of average or above average intelligence.

Specific learning disabilities include dyslexia and dyscalculia, where there is a problem with mathematics.... specific learning disability

A sample of tissue, body fluids, waste products, or an infective organism taken for analysis, identification, and/or diagnosis. The sample may be prepared for examination under a microscope.... specimen

The abbreviation for single photon emission computed tomography, a type of radionuclide scanning.... spect

See glasses.... spectacles

A system of sounds by which humans communicate. Children learn speech through listening to and imitating the speech of others.Speech production originates in 2 regions of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain. These regions are linked to the centre for language expression (Broca’s area) in the dominant hemisphere. They send signals down nerve pathways to muscles controlling the larynx, tongue, and other parts involved in speech. The cerebellum plays a part in coordinating movements of these parts. Air from the lungs is vibrated through the vocal cords in the larynx. This produces a noise, which is amplified in the cavities of the throat, nose, and sinuses. The sound of the vibrated air is modified by movements of the tongue, mouth, and lips to produce speech sounds.... speech

Contraceptive preparations that kill sperm. They are usually recommended for use with a barrier device.... spermicides

A surgically created valve or other device used to treat or prevent urinary or faecal incontinence.... sphincter, artificial

Nearly all spiders produce venom, which they use to kill their prey.

However, only a few species, such as the black widow in North America, are harmful to humans.

Antivenoms are available for many dangerous spider bites.... spider bites

See lumbar puncture.... spinal tap

A pulmonary function test used to diagnose or assess a lung disorder or to monitor treatment. It records the rate at which a person exhales air from the lungs and the total volume exhaled.... spirometry

The application of a splint, most often used to immobilize a fractured or otherwise injured limb or digit.... splinting

The mechanical joining of several teeth to hold them firmly in place while an injury heals or while periodontal disease is treated.... splinting, dental

A common term for multiple personality.

It is also used, incorrectly, to describe schizophrenia.... split personality

Any injury that arises during sports participation.

Typical sports injuries include fractures, head injury (including concussion), muscle strain or compartment syndrome, ligament sprain, tendinitis or tendon rupture, and joint dislocation or subluxation.

Some so-called sports injuries, such as tennis elbow, are in fact a type of overuse injury.... sports injuries

A general term for a small lump, mark, or inflamed area on the skin.... spot

See breakthrough bleeding.... spotting

A substance secreted by a specific type of tumour that can be detected in the blood and may be used to help monitor a patient’s response to therapy.

Alpha-fetoprotein is an example of a tumour-specific antigen.... tumour-specific antigen

see perineal tear; obstetric anal sphincter injury.... anal sphincter tears

Four main types of drug are abused by athletes to enhance physical or mental condition.

Stimulants such as amfetamines can prevent fatigue and increase confidence.

Three types of hormone drugs may be abused: anabolic steroids (see steroids, anabolic) to speed muscle recovery after exercise; erythropoietin to boost the haemoglobin content of the blood, which may increase stamina; and growth hormone to stimulate muscle growth.

Analgesic drugs may be used to mask the pain of an injury.

Betablockers are taken to reduce tremor in sports that require a steady hand.

Aside from the health risks associated with abuse of these drugs, their use is prohibited in many competitive sports.... sport, drugs and

eyeglasses prescribed after cataract surgery when no intraocular lens is inserted into the eye (not common practice now). Usually these are thick convex lenses.... aphakic spectacles

an apparatus designed to replace or support a *sphincter that is either absent or ineffective. See also neosphincter.... artificial sphincter

(auditory neuropathy, auditory dyssynchrony) a form of hearing loss characterized by normal cochlear function as measured by *otoacoustic emissions or detection of *cochlear microphonics but abnormal or absent *middle ear reflexes and abnormal *auditory brainstem responses.... auditory neuropathy spectrum disorder

cheesy foamy greyish spots that form on the surface of dry patches of conjunctiva at the sides of the eyes. They consist of fragments of keratinized epithelium. A common cause is vitamin A deficiency. [P. A. Bitot (1822–88), French physician]... bitot’s spots

greyish-brown spots seen in the iris of the eye. They can be found in normal individuals but are usually associated with *Down’s syndrome. [T. Brushfield (1858–1937), British physician]... brushfield spots

see angioma. [C. G. de Morgan (1811–76), British physician]... campbell de morgan spots

see spasm.... carpopedal spasm

the blood sinus that surrounds the urethra of the male. Together with the corpora cavernosa, it forms the erectile tissue of the *penis. It is expanded at the base of the penis to form the urethral bulb and at the tip to form the glans penis.... corpus spongiosum

soft fluffy spots in the retina resulting from accumulations of *axoplasm in the nerve-fibre layer of the retina. These may indicate diseases causing hypoxia (oxygen deficiency) in the nerve-fibre layer (e.g. diabetes, hypertension, connective-tissue disease, or AIDS).... cotton-wool spots

elongated *casts of the smaller bronchi, which are coughed up in bronchial asthma. They unroll to a length of 2 cm or more and have a central core ensheathed in mucus and cell debris. [H. Curschmann (1846–1910), German physician]... curschmann’s spirals

a disorder affecting the gullet (oesophagus) in which uncoordinated, sometimes simultaneous, oesophageal contractions precipitate difficulty in swallowing (*dysphagia), regurgitation of food, and chest pain. The cause is unclear. Diagnosis is suggested by characteristic appearances during a *barium swallow (corkscrew oesophagus) and confirmed by oesophageal manometry. Medical treatment comprises the use of calcium-channel blockers, nitrates, and sildenafil; endoscopic treatment may include infiltration of *botulinum toxin in specific oesophageal segments and, infrequently, endoscopic dilatation. Surgical myotomy is reserved for extreme cases.... diffuse oesophageal spasm

(DSI) the production of static images using an *image intensifier, usually during a fluoroscopic examination. The images can be stored digitally (see digitization) and either transferred to photographic film or viewed on a TV monitor.... digital spot imaging

a technique that retains the essentials of splinting but allows some controlled movement of the restrained body part.... dynamic splintage

(FASD, fetal alcohol syndrome, FAS) a condition of newborn babies that results from the toxic effects on the fetus of maternal alcohol abuse. Babies have a low birth weight and growth is retarded. They have a small head (*microcephaly), low-set ears, eye, nose, lip, and nail abnormalities, and disturbances of behaviour and intellect. The greater the alcohol abuse, the more severe the fetal manifestations.... fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

visible sebaceous glands present in most individuals. They are 1–3-mm painless papules that may be noticed on the scrotum, shaft of the penis, labia, and inner surface and border of the lips. They become more visible from puberty onwards and are easier to see when the skin is stretched. Completely harmless, they are not sexually transmitted or infectious and do not require any treatment. [J. A. Fordyce (1858–1925), US dermatologist]... fordyce spots

pigmented lesions in the macular area of the retina that are seen in severely myopic (short-sighted) individuals. They are breaks in *Bruch’s membrane allowing choroidal *neovascularization and can result in reduced vision. [E. Fuchs]... fuchs’ spots

(GPwSI, GPSI) see general practitioner.... general practitioner with special interest

a type of *dystonia that results in irregular spasms affecting the facial muscles on one side. It is usually due to irritation of the facial nerve by an overlying artery within the skull base. Treatment is with injections of *botulinum toxin.... hemifacial spasm

see juvenile idiopathic arthritis.... juvenile-onset spondylarthropathy

a vertical linear deposit of brown pigment on the inner surface of the cornea (corneal endothelium), appearing in cases of pigment dispersion syndrome. [F. E. Krukenberg (1871–1946), German pathologist]... krukenberg’s spindle

see parapharyngeal space.... lateral parapharyngeal space

(MRS) a diagnostic technique that utilizes the phenomenon of *nuclear magnetic resonance to obtain a biochemical profile of tissues by exciting elements other than hydrogen in water and other body components. It is particularly useful for biochemical analysis of tissues in the living body. This technique is used clinically in the brain and prostate.... magnetic resonance spectroscopy

(MAS) an orthodontic device used to advance the mandible to improve the airway in the pharynx during sleep in the treatment of *obstructive sleep apnoea.... mandibular advancement splint

a mixture consisting mainly of ethyl alcohol with *methyl alcohol and petroleum hydrocarbons. The addition of pyridine gives it an objectionable smell, and the dye methyl violet is added to make it recognizable as unfit to drink. It is used as a solvent, cleaning fluid, and fuel.... methylated spirits

see MESA.... microsurgical epididymal sperm aspiration

(MSU) a specimen of urine that is subjected to examination for the presence of microorganisms. In order to obtain a specimen that is free of contamination, the periurethral area is cleansed and the patient is requested to discard the initial flow of urine before collecting the specimen in a sterile container.... midstream specimen of urine

a specialized receptor, sensitive to stretch, that is embedded between and parallel to the fibres of striated muscles. These receptors are important for coordinated muscular movement. See also stretch receptor.... muscle spindle

the spinous process situated on the neural arch of a *vertebra.... neural spine

(OASIS) a spectrum of injuries that encompasses both third- and fourth-degree *perineal tears. Injury to the anal sphincter mechanism during childbirth may arise secondarily to direct disruption of the sphincter muscles and/or traction of the pudendal nerves. Disruption of the anal sphincter muscles is best assessed by anal ultrasound examination. This is usually performed using a high-frequency (10 MHz) endoanal probe. In selected cases with complex injury and/or suspected rectovaginal *fistula, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be employed.... obstetric anal sphincter injury

(lateral parapharyngeal space) the region at the side of the *pharynx. Infection in this space can result in a parapharyngeal abscess. It is also a site where tumours can develop.... parapharyngeal space

see PESA.... percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration

see Virchow–Robin spaces.... perivascular spaces

see nasopharynx.... postnasal space

brief hesitant speech using few words (often monosyllables) and lacking spontaneity. It can be observed in patients with schizophrenia, dementia, and depression.... poverty of speech

a public health practitioner with postgraduate training in public health or with demonstrated competence in key areas of public health practice. These specialists perform the same roles as *public health consultants but do not have medical training.... public health specialist

(PSA) a protease enzyme produced by the glandular epithelium of the prostate. Its effect is to liquefy the semen within the ejaculate. Overall PSA has a half-life of 2–3 days. Increased quantities are secreted when the gland becomes enlarged or inflamed, and levels of PSA in the blood are significantly elevated in cancer of the prostate. Although there is no clear ‘cut-off’ level for normality, over 4 ng/ml in the blood is associated with a 20% risk of prostate cancer, even in patients with normal-feeling prostates on rectal examination. Age-specific PSA reference ranges are often used. Newer PSA assays can measure free PSA and compare it to the total PSA in the blood. Low free:total PSA ratios indicate a greater risk of prostate cancer and improve the discrimination between cancer and benign disease in men with a PSA in the range 4–10 ng/ml. PSA levels tend to be much higher in advanced prostate cancer and the rate of fall on treatment (e.g. after radical prostatectomy or radiotherapy) is a good prognostic indicator of response.... prostate specific antigen

see catchment area.... regional specialty

the region between the posterior parietal *peritoneum and the front of the *lumbar vertebrae. It contains important structures, including the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, lumbar spinal nerve roots, sympathetic ganglia and nerves, and the abdominal *aorta and its major branches.... retroperitoneal space

the region behind the *pharynx and in front of the bones of the neck. Infection in this space can result in a retropharyngeal abscess.... retropharyngeal space

a pale area surrounded by haemorrhage sometimes seen in the retina, with the aid of an *ophthalmoscope, in those who have bacterial endocarditis, septicaemia, or leukaemia. [M. Roth (1839–1915), Swiss physician]... roth spot

an influenza-like viral disease that affects the brain and nervous system and occurs in Russia and central Europe. It is transmitted to humans either through the bite of forest-dwelling ticks of the species Ixodes persulcatus or by drinking the milk of infected goats. Infection of the meninges results in paralysis of the limbs and of the muscles of the neck and back. The disease, which is often fatal, can be prevented by vaccination.... russian spring-summer encephalitis

a custom-made orthodontic appliance that maintains an existing space in the dentition to allow a permanent tooth to erupt into the space. It may be removable or cemented into place.... space maintainer

n. a plastic container with a mouthpiece at one end and a hole for an aerosol inhaler at the other. The dose from the inhaler is sprayed into the spacer, from which it can be inhaled without needing to coordinate breathing. It is particularly useful for babies and small children who do not have this coordination. Paediatric spacers also have a small mask that fits onto the mouthpiece of the spacer and is placed over the child’s nose and mouth. Spacers help to deliver a greater proportion of the dose to the airways while reducing the proportion absorbed into the body (which is the usual cause of unwanted side-effects)... spacer

n. a disease caused by the migration of certain tapeworm larvae (see sparganum) in the tissues beneath the skin, between the muscles, and occasionally in the viscera and brain. The larvae, which normally develop in frogs and reptiles, are transferred to humans who eat the uncooked flesh of these animals or drink water contaminated with minute crustaceans infected with the tapeworm larvae. The larvae cause inflammation, swelling, and fibrosis of the tissues. Treatment of the condition, common in the Far East, involves surgical removal of the larvae.... sparganosis

n. the larvae of certain tapeworms, including species of *Diphyllobothrium and Spirometra, which may infect humans (see sparganosis). They are actually *plerocercoids, but the generic name Sparganum is sometimes given to them since they fail to develop into adults and definite classification of the species is not possible from the larvae alone.... sparganum

combining form denoting spasm.... spasmo

adj. occurring in spasms or resembling a spasm.... spasmodic

a combination of symptoms including a slow nodding movement of the head, *nystagmus (involuntary movements of the eyes), and spasm of the neck muscles. It affects infants and it normally disappears within a year or two.... spasmus nutans

n. the technique of widening the orifice of an anatomical tube prior to joining it up, which makes the join more secure and less prone to narrowing.... spatulation

(SEN) the requirements of children who have difficulties in learning or in accessing education. Children with SEN can be supported via mainstream schools or may attend a *special school. Children identified as having SEN that cannot be met by a mainstream school should be assessed by their local authority, which may issue a statement of special educational needs. This statement describes the child and the additional help needed.... special educational needs

a type of NHS trust that provides services across the NHS in England, rather than in a single defined geographical area. There are four special health authorities, which exist as arms-length bodies of the Department of Health and Social Care, independent of government: *NHS Blood and Transplant, *NHS Business Services Authority, *NHS Resolution and *NHS Counter Fraud Authority.... special health authority

(secure hospitals) hospitals for the care of mentally ill patients who are also dangerous and must therefore be kept securely. The level of security can be low, medium, or high. Most (but not all) patients are there compulsorily under a hospital order made by a court according to the *Mental Health Act 1983.... special hospitals

(in Britain) an education establishment for children with *special educational needs. The identification and assessment of those needing to attend a special school may occur long before school age. Special schools exist for children with different types of need, including physical disability and hearing impairment. Special education for children with severe disabilities may start as early as two years.... special school

(in a hospital) see consultant.... specialty registrar

1. n. a medicine that has properties especially useful for the treatment of a particular disease. 2. adj. (of a disease) caused by a particular microorganism that causes no other disease. 3. adj. of or relating to a species.... specific

(Fourier domain OCT) a noncontact noninvasive imaging technique that can reveal layers of the retina by looking at the interference patterns of reflected laser light. Automated software is able to outline the retinal nerve-fibre layer with great precision, which is relevant in glaucoma.... spectral domain optical coherence tomography

n. an instrument (a *spectrometer or *spectroscope) that produces a photographic record (spectrogram) of the intensity and wavelength of electromagnetic radiations.... spectrograph

n. any instrument for measuring the intensity and wavelengths of visible or invisible electromagnetic radiations. See also spectroscope.... spectrometer

n. an instrument (a spectrometer) for measuring the intensity of the wavelengths of the components of light (visible or ultraviolet).... spectrophotometer

n. an instrument used to split up light or other radiation into components of different wavelengths. The simplest spectroscope uses a prism, which splits white light into the rainbow colours of the visible spectrum.... spectroscope

(single photon emission computing tomography) (in nuclear medicine) a *cross-sectional imaging technique for observing an organ or part of the body using a *gamma camera; images are produced after injecting a radioactive *tracer. The camera is rotated around the patient being scanned. Using a computer reconstruction *algorithm similar to that of a *computerized tomography scanner, multiple ‘slices’ are made through the area of interest. SPECT scanning is used particularly in cardiac nuclear medicine imaging (see MUGA scan). It differs from PET scanning in that radioactive decay gives off only a single gamma ray.... spect scanning

(in *ultrasonics) the reflection of sound waves from the surface of an internal structure, which can be used to produce a picture of the surface as a sonogram (see ultrasonography). A specular reflection contrasts with vaguer diffuse echoes produced by minor differences in tissue density.... specular reflection

the treatment of patients who have problems with communication or eating or drinking because of congenital causes, accidents, or illness (e.g. stroke). Speech and language therapists are *allied health professionals who have special training in this field.... speech and language therapy

n. the time a patient spends in one hospital or treatment centre, from admission to discharge or transfer to another such. This may consist of one or more *finished consultant episodes. See also continuous patient pathway.... spell

(spermato-) combining form denoting 1. sperm. 2. organs or ducts associated with sperm.... spermat

either of two arteries that originate from the abdominal aorta and travel downwards to supply the testes.... spermatic artery

n. a small cell produced as an intermediate stage in the formation of spermatozoa. Spermatids become embedded in *Sertoli cells in the testis. They are transformed into spermatozoa by the process of spermiogenesis (see spermatogenesis).... spermatid

n. a cell produced as an intermediate stage in the formation of spermatozoa (see spermatogenesis). Spermatocytes develop from spermatogonia in the walls of the seminiferous tubules of the testis; they are known as either primary or secondary spermatocytes according to whether they are undergoing the first or second division of meiosis.... spermatocyte

n. (pl. spermatogonia) a cell produced at an early stage in the formation of spermatozoa (see spermatogenesis). Spermatogonia first appear in the testis of the fetus but do not multiply significantly until after puberty. They act as stem cells in the walls of the seminiferous tubules, dividing continuously by mitosis and giving rise to *spermatocytes.... spermatogonium

n. the presence of spermatozoa in the urine. Spermatozoa are occasionally seen on microscopic examination of the urine and their presence is not abnormal. If present in large numbers, the urine becomes cloudy, usually towards the end of micturition. Abnormal ejaculation into the bladder on orgasm (retrograde ejaculation) may occur after *prostatectomy or other surgical procedures or in neurological conditions that destroy the ability of the bladder neck to close on ejaculation.... spermaturia

a facility that collects, freezes, and stores human sperm for future use in *artificial insemination (see cryopreservation). Sperm is donated by men who relinquish legal rights to any future child, and donors’ identities are generally unknown to recipients. In some cases, men store their sperm for their own future use if they are to undergo a medical treatment that might leave them sterile.... sperm bank

see seminal analysis.... sperm count

n. the process by which spermatids become mature spermatozoa within the seminiferous tubules of the testis. See spermatogenesis.... spermiogenesis

combining form denoting the sphenoid bone. Examples: sphenomaxillary (relating to the sphenoid and maxillary bones); sphenopalatine (relating to the sphenoid bone and palate).... spheno

a bone forming the base of the cranium behind the eyes. It consists of a body, containing air spaces continuous with the nasal cavity (see paranasal sinuses); two wings that form part of the orbits; and two pterygoid processes projecting down from the point where the two wings join the body. See skull.... sphenoid bone

(SPA) a surgical procedure to identify and occlude the sphenopalatine artery in the nose using endoscopic surgery. It is used in the treatment of severe epistaxis (nosebleed).... sphenopalatine artery ligation

n. an abnormal form of red blood cell (*erythrocyte) that is spherical rather than disc-shaped. In blood films spherocytes appear smaller and stain more densely than normal red cells. They are characteristically seen in some forms of haemolytic anaemia. Spherocytes tend to be removed from the blood as they pass through the spleen. See also spherocytosis.... spherocyte

n. the presence in the blood of abnormally shaped red cells (*spherocytes). Spherocytosis may occur as a hereditary disorder (hereditary spherocytosis) or in certain haemolytic *anaemias.... spherocytosis

n. 1. the surgical removal of any sphincter muscle. 2. the complete division of a sphincter.... sphincterectomy

n. a *phospholipid that contains sphingosine. Sphingolipids are found in large amounts in brain and nerve tissue.... sphingolipid

n. a lipid alcohol that is a constituent of sphingolipids and cerebrosides.... sphingosine

combining form denoting the pulse.... sphygmo

n. an apparatus for producing a continuous record of both the heartbeat and the subsequent pulse in one of the blood vessels. The recording can be shown on a moving tape or on an electronic screen.... sphygmocardiograph

n. a device to record the heartbeat or pulse in the form of amplified sound waves played through a loudspeaker or earphones.... sphygmophone

n. a device for showing the heartbeat or pulse as a visible signal, especially a continuous wave signal on a cathode-ray tube.... sphygmoscope

a hernia through the spigelian fascia, a sheath of fibrous tissue that runs along the outside edge of the *rectus abdominis muscle.... spigelian hernia

a defect in the bony arch of the spine that (unlike spina bifida) has a normal skin covering; there may be an overlying hairy patch. The condition is usually an incidental finding on X-ray and it is not associated with neurological involvement.... spina bifida occulta

see accessory nerve.... spinal accessory nerve

(SMA) a hereditary condition in which cells of the spinal cord die and the muscles in the arms and legs become progressively weaker. Eventually the respiratory muscles are affected and death usually results from respiratory infection. Most affected individuals are wheelchair-bound by the age of 20 and few survive beyond the age of 30. The gene responsible has been located: in affected children it is inherited as a double *recessive. There are three forms of the disease, based on severity of the symptoms and the age at which they appear. Type 1 (infantile spinal muscular atrophy) is the most acute and aggressive form of the condition (see Werdnig–Hoffmann disease). Type 2 develops between the ages of 6 months and 2 years and type 3 (Kugelberg–Welander disease), the least severe form, appears between 2 and 17 years of age.... spinal muscular atrophy

a state of *shock accompanied by temporary paralysis of the lower extremities that results from injury to the spine and is often associated with *ileus. If the spinal cord is transected, permanent motor paralysis persists below the level of spinal-cord division.... spinal shock

n. a collection of fibres seen in a cell when it is dividing. The fibres radiate from the two ends (poles) and meet at the centre (the equator) giving a structure shaped like two cones placed base to base. It plays an important part in chromosome movement in *mitosis and *meiosis and is also involved in division of the cytoplasm.... spindle

combining form denoting 1. the spine. 2. the spinal cord.... spino

any of a group of inherited disorders of the cerebellum and corticospinal tracts in the brain. They are characterized by *spasticity of the limbs and cerebellar *ataxia.... spinocerebellar degeneration

a bandage wound round a part of the body, overlapping the previous section at each turn.... spiral bandage

(helical CT scanning) a development of conventional *computerized tomography (CT) scanning in which the X-ray tube rotates continuously around the patient as he or she passes through the scanner. This allows the acquisition of images throughout a specified volume of tissue much more quickly. Since these images are digitally acquired (see digitization), *post-processing can produce images in numerous planes, without further exposure of the patient to ionizing radiation. See also multidetector computerized tomography.... spiral ct scanning

see organ of Corti.... spiral organ

combining form denoting 1. spiral. 2. respiration.... spiro

n. an instrument for recording breathing movements. The record (a tracing) obtained is called a spirogram. —spirography n.... spirograph

a one-way valve used to drain cerebrospinal fluid in order to control *hydrocephalus. The device is inserted into the ventricles of the brain and passes via a subcutaneous tunnel to drain into either the right atrium or the peritoneum.... spitz–holter valve

(splanchno-) combining form denoting the viscera.... splanch

the series of nerves in the sympathetic system that are distributed to the blood vessels and viscera, passing forwards and downwards from the chain of sympathetic ganglia near the spinal cord to enter the abdomen and branch profusely.... splanchnic nerves

n. the part of the skull that is derived from the *pharyngeal arches, i.e. the mandible (lower jaw).... splanchnocranium

n. the wall of the embryonic gut, which consists of a layer of endoderm with a layer of mesoderm outside it. The yolk sac is a continuation of this structure. Compare somatopleure.... splanchnopleure

(spleno-) combining form denoting the spleen. Example: splenorenal (relating to the spleen and kidney).... splen

n. the thickest part of the *corpus callosum, rounded and protruding backwards over the thalami, the pineal gland, and the midbrain.... splenium

a method of treating *portal hypertension by joining the splenic vein to the left renal vein. Compare portacaval anastomosis.... splenorenal anastomosis

n. a small sphere of splenic tissue occurring at a site other than the spleen. Splenunculi are present in many people.... splenunculus

(SSG, Thiersch’s graft) a type of skin graft in which thin partial thicknesses of skin are used to cover and heal a wound. They are removed from one site on the body, cut into narrow strips or sheets, and placed onto the wound area to be healed.... split-skin graft

n. a *defence mechanism by which people deal with an emotional conflict by viewing some people as all good and others as all bad: they fail to integrate themselves or other people into complex but coherent images. It is common in people with an *emotionally unstable personality disorder.... splitting

(spondylo-) combining form denoting a vertebra or the spine.... spondyl

any *sero-negative arthritis that is characterized by the presence of the tissue-type antigen HLA-B27 (see HLA system) and the absence of rheumatoid factor. Spondyloarthropathies include ankylosing *spondylitis, *reactive arthritis, and *psoriatic arthritis.... spondyloarthropathy

n. surgical fusion of the intervertebral joints of the backbone.... spondylosyndesis

n. a type of cell that forms in the early stages of development of the nervous system, giving rise to *astrocytes and *oligodendrocytes.... spongioblast

adj. arising without apparent cause or outside aid. The term is applied in medicine to certain conditions, such as pathological fractures, that arise in the absence of outside injury; also to recovery from a disease without the aid of specific treatment.... spontaneous

(SBP) the presence of infection in the abdominal cavity without an obvious cause (see peritonitis). SBP occurs in patients with liver disease (and occasionally in those with nephrotic syndrome) due to *portal hypertension. This leads to the build-up of large volumes of peritoneal fluid (*ascites) in which infection takes hold and propagates. Patients experience fever, nausea, abdominal pain, further accumulation of ascites, and they may develop *hepatic encephalopathy with rapid deterioration. Diagnosis is made by *paracentesis culture of the ascitic fluid to confirm the presence of bacteria. Treatment includes antibiotics.... spontaneous bacterial peritonitis

see intracranial hypotension headache.... spontaneous intracranial hypotension

n. an agent that kills spores (e.g. bacterial spores). Some disinfectants that liberate chlorine are sporicides, but most other germicides are ineffective since spores are very resistant to chemical action. —sporicidal adj.... sporicide

n. the second-stage larva of a parasitic *fluke, found within the tissues of a freshwater snail. A sporocyst develops from a first stage larva (see miracidium) and gives rise either to the next larval stage (see redia) or daughter sporocysts. The latter develop directly into the final larval stage (see cercaria) without the intermediate redia stage.... sporocyst

n. the formation of *sporozoites during the life cycle of a sporozoan. The contents of the zygote, formed by the fusion of sex cells, divide repeatedly and eventually release a number of sporozoites. Compare schizogony.... sporogony

n. one of the many cells formed as a result of *sporogony during the life cycle of a sporozoan. In *Plasmodium sporozoites are formed by repeated divisions of the contents of the *oocyst inside the body of the mosquito. The released sporozoites ultimately pass into the insect’s salivary glands and await transmission to a human host at the next blood meal.... sporozoite

any injury related to the practice of a sport, often resulting from the overuse and stretching of muscles, tendons, and ligaments.... sports injury

a congenital abnormality of the scapula (shoulder blade), which is small and positioned high in the shoulder. It is caused by failure of the normal development and descent of this bone. [O. G. K. Sprengel (1852–1915), German surgeon]... sprengel’s deformity

n. a blunt needle used for removing foreign bodies embedded in the cornea of the eye.... spud

n. a sharp projection, especially one of bone.... spur

see catchment area.... supraregional specialty

a route of tumour *metastasis across a body cavity, such as the pleural, pericardial, or peritoneal cavity. Transcoelomic spread commonly occurs in advanced cancers of the lung, stomach, colon, ovary, and endometrium. It may be associated with the development of a malignant *effusion.... transcoelomic spread

(perivascular spaces) fluid-filled spaces that form around blood vessels in the *pia mater as they penetrate deeper brain tissue. They may dilate, resulting in raised intracranial pressure. [R. Virchow (1821–1902), German pathologist]... virchow–robin spaces

the soft tissue between the bases of the fingers and toes.... web space

see macula.... yellow spot

Spartium junceum

FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae).

SYNONYMS: Genista juncea, genista, weavers broom, broom (absolute), genet (absolute).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A decorative plant, often cultivated as an ornamental shrub, up to 3 metres high with upright woody branches and tough flexible stems. It has bright green leaves and large, yellow, pea-like fragrant flowers, also bearing its seeds in pods or legumes.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe, especially southern Spain and southern France; mainly cultivated in Spain, France, Italy and USA (as a garden shrub). The absolute is produced in Southern France.

OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to dyer’s greenweed (Genista tinctoria) and the common or green broom (Sarothamnus scoparius or Cytisus scoparius). There are also several other related species of broom, which are rich in their folk tradition.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The twigs and bark have been used since ancient times to produce a strong fibre which can be made into cord or a coarse cloth. The branches were also used for thatching, basketwork, fencing and, of course, for making brooms. Spanish broom has similar therapeutic properties to the common broom, which is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for cardiac dropsy, myocardial weakness, tachycardia and profuse menstruation. However, the Spanish broom is said to be five to six times more active than the common broom, and even that must be used with caution by professional herbalists due to the strength of the active ingredients: ‘A number of cases of poisoning have occurred from the substitution of the dried flowers of Spartium for those of true Broom.’.

ACTIONS: Antihaemorrhagic, cardioactive, diuretic, cathartic, emmenagogue, narcotic, vasoconstrictor.

EXTRACTION: An absolute is obtained by solvent extraction from the dried flowers.

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brown, viscous liquid with an intensely sweet, floral, hay-like scent with a herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rose, tuberose, cassie, mimosa, violet, vetiver and herbaceous-type fragrances.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The absolute contains capryllic acid, phenols, aliphatics, terpenes, esters, scoparin and sparteine, as well as wax, etc.

SAFETY DATA: Sparteine, which is contained in the flowers as the main active constituent, is toxic. In large doses, it causes vomiting, renal irritation, weakens the heart, depresses the nerve cells and lowers the blood pressure, and in extreme cases causes death.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.

OTHER USES: Used in soaps, cosmetics and high-class perfumery; also as a flavour ingredient in sweet rich ‘preserves’, alcoholic and soft drinks.... broom, spanish

Lavandula latifolia

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: L. spica, aspic, broad-leaved lavender, lesser lavender, spike.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An aromatic evergreen sub-shrub up to 1 metre high with lance-shaped leaves, broader and rougher than true lavender. The flower is more compressed and of a dull grey-blue colour.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of France and Spain; also found in North Africa, Italy, Yugoslavia and the eastern Mediterranean countries. It is cultivated internationally; the oil is mainly produced in France and Spain.

OTHER SPECIES: There are many different chemotypes of lavender in general, and this also applies to spike lavender. The French spike oil is reputed to be a more delicate, aromatic scent than the Spanish variety. For other varieties, see entries on lavandin, true lavender and the Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Culpeper recommends spike lavender for a variety of ailments including ‘pains of the head and brain which proceed from cold, apoplexy, falling sickness, the dropsy, or sluggish malady, cramps, convulsions, palsies, and often faintings’. He also warns that ‘the oil of spike is of a fierce and piercing quality, and ought to be carefully used, a very few drops being sufficient for inward or outward maladies’.. The preparation ‘oleum spicae’ was made by mixing ¼ spike oil with ¾ turpentine, and used for paralysed limbs, old sprains and stiff joints (it was also said to encourage hair growth).

Spike lavender is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, indicated for flatulent dyspepsia, colic, depressive headaches, and the oil (topically) for rheumatic pain.

ACTIONS: See true lavender.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white or pale yellow liquid with a penetrating, fresh herbaceous, camphoraceous odour. It blends well with rosemary, sage, lavandin, eucalyptus, rosewood, lavender, petitgrain, pine, cedarwood, oakmoss, patchouli and spice oils, particularly clove.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly cineol and camphor (40–60 per cent), with linalol and linalyl acetate, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See true lavender.

OTHER USES: It is used in some pharmaceutical preparations and especially in veterinary practice as a prophylactic, in incipient paralysis, for rheumatism and arthritis and to get rid of lice. It is extensively employed as a fragrance component especially in soaps and industrial perfumes such as deodorants, disinfectants and cleaning agents, as well as insecticides and room sprays, etc. It is also used in the food industry and in the production of fine varnishes and lacquers.... lavender, spike

an inflorescence in which the sessile flowers are arranged in a raceme.... spike

relating to the spleen, the largest endocrine gland.... splenic

Mentha spicata

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: M. viridis, common spearmint, garden spearmint, spire mint, green mint, lamb mint, pea mint, fish mint.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hardy branched perennial herb with bright green, lance-shaped, sharply toothed leaves, quickly spreading underground runners and pink or lilac-coloured flowers in slender cylindrical spikes.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now common throughout Europe, western Asia and the Middle East. It was introduced to the USA where it has become a very popular flavouring. The oil is produced in midwest USA, Hungary, Spain, Yugoslavia, the USSR and China.

OTHER SPECIES: There are several different types of spearmint, especially in the USA, such as the curly mint (M. spicata var. crispa). In Russia the oil from M. verticellata is also sold as spearmint oil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Valued all over the world as a culinary herb, as shown by its folk names. It was used by the ancient Greeks as a restorative and to scent their bathwater. The distilled water is used to relieve hiccough, colic, nausea, indigestion and flatulence. ‘Applied to the forehead and temples, it eases the pains in the head, and is good to wash the heads of young children with, against all manner of breakings out, sores or scabs ... being smelled unto, it is comforting to the head.’.

ACTIONS: Anaesthetic (local), antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, decongestant, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive mobile liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, minty odour. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, jasmine, eucalyptus, basil and rosemary and is often used in combination with peppermint.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: L-carvone (50–70 per cent), dihydrocarvone, phellandrene, limonene, menthone, menthol, pulegone, cineol, linalol, pinenes, among others.

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE ‘The properties of spearmint oil resemble those of peppermint but its effects are less powerful ... it is better adapted to children’s maladies.’.

Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, congested skin.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, sinusitis.

Digestive system: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatobiliary disorders, nausea, vomiting.

Immune system: Colds, fevers, ’flu.

Nervous system: Fatigue, headache, migraine, nervous strain, neurasthenia, stress.

OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component, mainly in soaps and colognes. Primarily used as a flavour ingredient in a wide range of products, including toothpaste, chewing gum, sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks.... mint, spearmint

Thymus capitatus

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: T. capitans, Coridothymus capitatus, Satureja capitata, Thymbra capitata, oreganum (oil), Israeli oreganum (oil), Cretan thyme, corido thyme, conehead thyme, headed savory, thyme of the ancients.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial creeping herb with a woody stem, small dark green leaves and pink or white flowers borne in clusters.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Middle East and Asia Minor; grows wild in Spain. The oil is produced mainly in Spain, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey.

OTHER SPECIES: Although this herb is strictly a thyme, it serves as the source for most so-called ‘oregano oil’. For other related species see entries on common thyme, common oregano and sweet marjoram; see also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: According to Mrs Grieve the properties and oil of Spanish oregano (Thymus capitatus) are similar to the common thyme (T. vulgaris); it also shares many qualities with the common oregano or wild marjoram (Origanum vulgare).

ACTIONS: See common oregano.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brownish-red or purple oil with a strong tarlike, herbaceous, refreshing odour.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Carvacrol, thymol, cymene, caryophyllene, pinene, limonene, linalol, borneol, myrcene, thujone, terpinene.

SAFETY DATA: Dermal toxin, skin irritant, mucous membrane irritant.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used on the skin at all.’.

OTHER USES: See common oregano.... oregano, spanish

Salvia lavendulaefolia

FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS: Lavender-leaved sage.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub, similar to the garden sage but with narrower leaves and small purple flowers. The whole plant is aromatic with a scent reminiscent of spike lavender.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountains in Spain, it also grows in south west France and Yugoslavia. The oil is mainly produced in Spain.

OTHER SPECIES: A very similar oil is distilled in Turkey from a Greek variety, S. triloba, which is used for pharmaceutical purposes. See also entries on clary sage and common sage for other types of sage.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Spain it is regarded as something of a ‘cure-all’. Believed to promote longevity and protect against all types of infection (such as plague). Used to treat rheumatism, digestive complaints, menstrual problems, infertility and nervous weakness.

ACTIONS: Antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, deodorant, depurative, digestive, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hypotensive, nervine, regulator (of seborrhoea), stimulant (hepatobiliary, adrenocortical glands, circulation), stomachic, tonic (nerve and general).

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves.

CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh-herbaceous, camphoraceous, slightly pinelike odour. It blends well with rosemary, lavandin, lavender, pine, citronella, eucalyptus, juniper, clary sage and cedarwood.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Camphor (up to 34 per cent), cineol (up to 35 per cent), limonene (up to 41 per cent), camphene (up to 20 per cent), pinene (up to 20 per cent) and other minor constituents.

SAFETY DATA: Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy; use in moderation.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Skin care: Acne, cuts, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, excessive sweating, hair loss, gingivitis, gum infections, sores.

Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, debility, fluid retention, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism. Respiratory system: Asthma, coughs, laryngitis.

Digestive system: Jaundice, liver congestion.

Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, sterility.

Immune system: Colds, fevers, ’flu.

Nervous system: Headaches, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes, especially ‘industrial’ type fragrances. Extensively employed in foods (especially meat products), as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... sage, spanish

Tsuga canadensis

FAMILY: Pinaceae

SYNONYMS: Pinus canadensis, Abies canadensis, spruce, eastern hemlock, common hemlock, hemlock (oil), spruce (oil), fir needle (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large evergreen tree up to 50 metres tall, with slender horizontal branches, finely toothed leaves and smallish brown cones, which yields a natural exudation from its bark.

DISTRIBUTION: Native to the west coast of the USA. The oil is produced in Vermont, New York, New Hampshire, Virginia and Wisconsin.

OTHER SPECIES: Numerous cultivars of this species exist; often the oil is produced from a mixture of different types. Similar oils, also called simply ‘spruce oil’ are produced from the black spruce (Picea nigra or mariana), the Norway spruce (P. abies) and the white or Canadian spruce (P. glauca). The essential oil from the western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), contains quite different constituents. It is also closely related to the Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), which is also used to produce an essential oil and a balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The bark of the hemlock spruce (which contains tannins and resin as well as volatile oil) is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia indicated for diarrhoea, cystitis, mucous colitis, leucorrhoea, uterine prolapse, pharyngitis, stomatitis and gingivitis. An extract of the bark is also used in the tanning industry.

ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, astringent, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, nervine, rubefacient, tonic.

EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs.

CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a pleasing, fresh-balsamic, sweet-fruity odour. It blends well with pine, oakmoss, cedarwood, galbanum, benzoin, lavender, lavandin and rosemary.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinenes, limonene, bornyl acetate, tricyclene, phellandrene, myrcene, thujone, dipentene and cadinene, among others. Constituents vary according to source and exact botanical species (sometimes mixed).

SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE

Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.

Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs, respiratory weakness.

Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.

Nervous system: Anxiety, stress-related conditions – ‘opening and elevating through grounding ... excellent for yoga and meditation.’.

OTHER USES: Used in veterinary liniments. Extensively used for room spray perfumes, household detergents, soaps, bath preparations and toiletries, especially in the USA.... spruce, hemlock