Habitat: The Western Himalayas from Kashmir to Garhwal.
Unani: Daarunaj Aqrabi Hindi.Action: The root is reported to prevent giddiness caused during high attitude ascents.
The root yields a gum-resin, used in gargle water as stimulant, astringent and in toothpaste. Root—used in rheumatism. Leaves—carminative.... doronicum royleiStructure Each tooth is composed of enamel, dentine, cement, pulp and periodontal membrane. ENAMEL is the almost translucent material which covers the crown of a tooth. It is the most highly calci?ed material in the body, 96–97 per cent being composed of calci?ed salts. It is arranged from millions of long, six-sided prisms set on end on the dentine (see below), and is thickest over the biting surface of the tooth. With increasing age or the ingestion of abrasive foods the teeth may be worn away on the surface, so that the dentine becomes visible. The outer sides of some teeth may be worn away by bad tooth-brushing technique. DENTINE is a dense yellowish-white material from which the bulk and the basic shape of a tooth are formed. It is like ivory and is harder than bone but softer than enamel. The crown of the tooth is covered by the hard protective enamel and the root is covered by a bone-like substance called cement. Decay can erode dentine faster than enamel (see TEETH, DISORDERS OF – Caries of the teeth). CEMENT or cementum is a thin bone-like material which covers the roots of teeth and helps hold them in the bone. Fibres of the periodontal membrane (see below) are embedded in the cement and the bone. When the gums recede, part of the cement may be exposed and the cells die. Once this has happened, the periodontal membrane can no longer be attached to the tooth and, if su?cient cement is destroyed, the tooth-support will be so weakened that the tooth will become loose. PULP This is the inner core of the tooth and is
composed of a highly vascular, delicate ?brous tissue with many ?ne nerve-?bres. The pulp is very sensitive to temperature variation and to touch. If the pulp becomes exposed it will become infected and usually cannot overcome this. Root-canal treatment or extraction of the tooth may be necessary. PERIODONTAL MEMBRANE This is a layer of ?brous tissue arranged in groups of ?bres which surround and support the root of a tooth in a bone socket. The ?bres are interspersed with blood vessels and nerves. Loss of the membrane leads to loss of the tooth. The membrane can release and re-attach the ?bres to allow the tooth to move when it erupts, or (to correct dental deformities) is being moved by orthodontic springs.
Arrangement and form Teeth are present in most mammals and nearly all have two sets: a temporary or milk set, followed by a permanent or adult set. In some animals, like the toothed whale, all the teeth are similar; but in humans there are four di?erent shapes: incisors, canines (eye-teeth), premolars (bicuspids), and molars. The incisors are chisel-shaped and the canine is pointed. Premolars have two cusps on the crown (one medial to the other) and molars have at least four cusps. They are arranged together in an arch in each jaw and the
cusps of opposing teeth interdigitate. Some herbivores have no upper anterior teeth but use a pad of gum instead. As each arch is symmetrical, the teeth in an upper and lower quadrant can be used to identify the animal. In humans, the quadrants are the same: in other words, in the child there are two incisors, one canine and two molars (total teeth 20); in the adult there are two incisors, one canine, two premolars and three molars (total 32). This mixture of tooth-form suggests that humans are omnivorous. Anatomically the crown of the tooth has mesial and distal surfaces which touch the tooth next to it. The mesial surface is the one nearer to the centre line and the distal is the further away. The biting surface is called the incisal edge for the anterior teeth and the occlusal surface for the posteriors.
Development The ?rst stage in the formation of the teeth is the appearance of a down-growth of EPITHELIUM into the underlying mesoderm. This is the dental lamina, and from it ten smaller swellings in each jaw appear. These become bell-shaped and enclose a part of the mesoderm, the cells of which become specialised and are called the dental papillae. The epithelial cells produce enamel and the dental papilla forms the dentine, cement and pulp. At a ?xed time the teeth start to erupt and a root is formed. Before the deciduous teeth erupt, the permanent teeth form, medial to them. In due course the deciduous roots resorb and the permanent teeth are then able to push the crowns out and erupt themselves. If this process is disturbed, the permanent teeth may be displaced and appear in an abnormal position or be impacted.
Eruption of teeth is in a de?nite order and at a ?xed time, although there may be a few months’ leeway in either direction which is of no signi?cance. Excessive delay is found in some congenital disorders such as CRETINISM. It may also be associated with local abnormalities of the jaws such as cysts, malformed teeth and supernumerary teeth.
The usual order of eruption of deciduous teeth is:
Middle incisors 6–8 months Lateral incisors 8–10 months First molars 12–16 months Canines (eye-teeth) 16–20 months Second molars 20–30 months
The usual order of eruption of permanent teeth is:
First molars 6–7 years Middle incisors 6–8 years Lateral incisors 7–9 years Canines 9–12 years First and second premolars 10–12 years Second molars 11–13 years Third molars (wisdom teeth) 17–21 years
The permanent teeth of the upper (top) and lower (bottom) jaws.
Teeth, Disorders of
Teething, or the process of eruption of the teeth in infants, may be accompanied by irritability, salivation and loss of sleep. The child will tend to rub or touch the painful area. Relief may be obtained in the child by allowing it to chew on a hard object such as a toy or rusk. Mild ANALGESICS may be given if the child is restless and wakens in the night. A serious pitfall is to assume that an infant’s symptoms of ill-health are due to teething, as the cause may be more serious. Fever and ?ts (see SEIZURE) are not due to teething.
Toothache is the pain felt when there is in?ammation of the pulp or periodontal membrane of a tooth (see TEETH – Structure). It can vary in intensity and may be recurring. The commonest cause is caries (see below) when the cavity is close to the pulp. Once the pulp has become infected, this is likely to spread from the apex of the tooth into the bone to form an abscess (gumboil – see below). A lesser but more long-lasting pain is felt when the dentine is unprotected. This can occur when the enamel is lost due to decay or trauma or because the gums have receded. This pain is often associated with temperature-change or sweet foods. Expert dental advice should be sought early, before the decay is extensive. If a large cavity is accessible, temporary relief may be obtained by inserting a small piece of cotton wool soaked, for example, in oil of cloves.
Alveolar abscess, dental abscess or gumboil This is an ABSCESS caused by an infected tooth. It may be present as a large swelling or cause trismus (inability to open the mouth). Treatment is drainage of the PUS, extraction of the tooth and/or ANTIBIOTICS.
Caries of the teeth or dental decay is very common in the more a?uent countries and is most common in children and young adults. Increasing awareness of the causes has resulted in a considerable improvement in dental health, particularly in recent years; this has coincided with a rise in general health. Now more than half of ?ve-year-old children are caries-free and of the others, 10 per cent have half of the remaining carious cavities. Since the start of the National Health Service, the emphasis has been on preventive dentistry, and now edentulous patients are mainly found among the elderly who had their teeth removed before 1948.
The cause of caries is probably acid produced by oral bacteria from dietary carbohydrates, particularly re?ned sugar, and this dissolves part of the enamel; the dentine is eroded more quickly as it is softer (see TEETH – Structure). The exposed smooth surfaces are usually protected as they are easily cleaned during normal eating and by brushing. Irregular and overcrowded teeth are more at risk from decay as they are di?cult to clean. Primitive people who chew coarse foods rarely get caries. Fluoride in the drinking water at about one part per million is associated with a reduction in the caries rate.
Prolonged severe disease in infancy is associated with poor calci?cation of the teeth, making them more vulnerable to decay. As the teeth are formed and partly calci?ed by the time of birth, the diet and health of the mother are also important to the teeth of the child. Pregnant mothers and children should have a good balanced diet with su?cient calcium and vitamin
D. A ?brous diet will also aid cleansing of the teeth and stimulate the circulation in the teeth and jaws. The caries rate can be reduced by regular brushing with a ?uoride toothpaste two or three times per day and certainly before going to sleep. The provision of sweet or sugary juices in an infant’s bottle should be avoided.
Irregularity of the permanent teeth may be due to an abnormality in the growth of the jaws or to the early or late loss of the deciduous set (see TEETH – Development). Most frequently it is due to an imbalance in the size of the teeth and the length of the jaws. Some improvement may take place with age, but many will require the help of an orthodontist (specialist dentist) who can correct many malocclusions by removing a few teeth to allow the others to be moved into a good position by means of springs and elastics on various appliances which are worn in the mouth.
Loosening of the teeth may be due to an accident or in?ammation of the GUM. Teeth loosened by trauma may be replaced and splinted in the socket, even if knocked right out. If the loosening is due to periodontal disease, the prognosis is less favourable.
Discoloration of the teeth may be intrinsic or extrinsic: in other words, the stain may be in the calci?ed structure or stuck on to it. Intrinsic staining may be due to JAUNDICE or the antibiotic tetracycline. Extrinsic stain may be due to tea, co?ee, tobacco, pan (a mixture of chuna and betel nuts wrapped in a leaf), iron-containing medicines or excess ?uoride.
Gingivitis or in?ammation of the gum may occur as an acute or chronic condition. In the acute form it is often part of a general infection of the mouth, and principally occurs in children or young adults – resolving after 10–14 days. The chronic form occurs later in life and tends to be progressive. Various microorganisms may be found on the lesions, including anaerobes. Antiseptic mouthwashes may help, and once the painful stage is past, the gums should be thoroughly cleaned and any calculus removed. In severe conditions an antibiotic may be required.
Periodontal disease is the spread of gingivitis (see above) to involve the periodontal membrane of the tooth; in its ?orid form it used to be called pyorrhoea. In this, the membrane becomes damaged by the in?ammatory process and a space or pocket is formed into which a probe can be easily passed. As the pocket becomes more extensive, the tooth loosens. The loss of the periodontal membrane also leads to the loss of supporting bone. Chronic in?ammation soon occurs and is di?cult to eradicate. Pain is not a feature of the disease but there is often an unpleasant odour (halitosis). The gums bleed easily and there may be DYSPEPSIA. Treatment is largely aimed at stabilising the condition rather than curing it.
Dental abscess is an infection that arises in or around a tooth and spreads to involve the bone. It may occur many years after a blow has killed the pulp of the tooth, or more quickly after caries has reached the pulp. At ?rst the pain may be mild and intermittent but eventually it will become severe and a swelling will develop in the gum over the apex of the tooth. A radiograph of the tooth will show a round clear area at the apex of the tooth. Treatment may be by painting the gum with a mild counter-irritant such as a tincture of aconite and iodine in the early stages, but later root-canal therapy or apicectomy may be required. If a swelling is present, it may need to be drained or the o?ending teeth extracted and antibiotics given.
Injuries to teeth are common. The more minor injuries include crazing and the loss of small chips of enamel, and the major ones include a broken root and avulsion of the entire tooth. A specialist dental opinion should be sought as soon as possible. A tooth that has been knocked out can be re-implanted if it is clean and replaced within a few hours. It will then require splinting in place for 4–6 weeks.
Prevention of dental disease As with other disorders, prevention is better than cure. Children should be taught at an early age to keep their teeth and gums clean and to avoid re?ned sugars between meals. It is better to ?nish a meal with a drink of water rather than a sweetened drink. Fluoride in some of its forms is useful in the reduction of dental caries; in some parts of the UK natural water contains ?uoride, and in some areas where ?uoride content is low, arti?cial ?uoridation of the water supply is carried out. Overcrowding of the teeth, obvious maldevelopment of the jaw and persistent thumbsucking into the teens are all indications for seeking the advice of an orthodontist. Generally, adults have less trouble with decay but more with periodontal disease and, as its onset is insidious, regular dental inspections are desirable.... teeth
Habitat: Native to China. Now cultivated in Kumaon, Sikkim and West Bengal.
English: Japanese Raisin tree, Coral tree.Folk: Sikkaa.Action: Fruit—diuretic; relieves intoxication due to wine.
The leaves and root bark gave tri- terpene saponins. Root bark also gave peptide alkaloids.The fruit extract contains potassium nitrate and potassium malate and is strongly diuretic. The seeds contain beta-carboline alkaloid, perlolyrine. A toothpaste, containing extracts of the fruits and seeds as one of the ingredients, has been patented for controlling dental caries (in Japan).... hovenia dulcisHabitat: Native to Europe and Asia. Conditions for its successful cultivation are reported to exist in Kashmir and parts of Himachal Pradesh.
English: Hops.Unani: Hashish-ut-Dinaar.Action: Flowers—sedative, hypnotic, nervine tonic, diuretic, spasmolytic on smooth muscle, analgesic, astringent. Used for nervous diseases, intestinal cramps, menopause, insomnia, neuralgia and nervous diarrhoea. Also as a tonic in stomach and liver affections. As a blood cleanser, the root is used like sarsaparilla.
Key application: In mood disturbances, such as restlessness and anxiety, sleep disturbances. (German Commission E. ESCOP.)The British Herbal Compendium and The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reported herb's action as sedative, soporific, spasmolytic and aromatic bitter, and indicated its use for excitability, restlessness, disorders of sleep and lack of appetite.Hop cones consist of the whole dried female inflorescences of Humu- lus lupulus.Hop contains bitter principles— lupulin containing humulon, lupulon and valerianic acid; volatile oil (0.31.0%) including humulene; flavonoids including xanthohumole; polypheno- lic tannins, asparagin, oestrogenic substances.Bitter principles stimulate the digestive system. Valerianic acid is sedative. The resin components, lupulon and humulon are antiseptic against Grampositive bacteria. Asparagin is diuretic. Research suggested that the anti- spasmodic effect is stronger than the sedative, and hops also possess antihis- taminic and anti-oxytocic properties. (Cases of amenorrhoea and dysmen- orrhoea are treated with hops.)Hop extracts exert different effects on CNS in mice. They show hypother- mic, hypnotic, sedative, muscle relaxing and spontaneous locomotor activities, besides potentiating pentobarbital anaesthesia in mice.Humulone inhibited induced inflammation in mice.The dried strobila containing humu- lone and lupulone showed antidiabetic activity in experimental rats.Hop mash or extract is used in the preparation of toothpaste for inhibiting Gram-positive bacteria and in hair preparations for preventing dandruff formation. It is also used in skin- lightening creams.... humulus lupulusHabitat: Native to Europe and North America. Distributed in Western Himalayas from Kumaon westwards at 1,700-4,200 m.
English: Common Juniper.Ayurvedic: Hapushaa, Havushaa, Haauber, Matsyagandha.Unani: Abahal, Haauber, Hubb-ul- arar, Aarar.Action: Berries—diuretic, urinary antiseptic, carminative, digestive, sudorific, anti-inflammatory, emmenagogue. Used for acute and chronic cystitis, renal suppression (scanty micturition), catarrh of the bladder, albuminuria, amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea. Aerial parts—abortifacient.
Key application: In dyspepsia. (German Commission E.) Juniper berry may increase glucose levels in diabetics. (ESCOP.) As a diuretic.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the dried fruit in malabsorption syndrome.Animal studies have shown an increase in urine excretion as well as a direct effect on sooth muscle contraction. (German Commission E, ESCOP.)Con- traindicated in kidney disease. (Sharon M. Herr.)(In Kerala, Hapushaa and Mundi are considered to be synonyms; Syphaer- anthus indicus,Asteraceae, is used as Hapushaa.)The major constituents of the volatile oil are alpha-pinene, sabinene and alpha-terpinene. Methanolic extract of the plant gave several labdane diter- penoids and diterpenes. The leaves contain the biflavones, cupressufla- vone, amentoflavone, hinokiflavone, isocryptomerin and sciadopitysin. The berries also contain condensed tannins. Seeds gave haemagglutinin.Juniperus recurva Buch-Ham ex D. Don, syn. J. excelsa auct. non-Bieb. (temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to Bhutan) is known as Weeping Blue Juniper. J. macropoda Boiss. (the Himalaya from Nepal onwards) is known as Himalayan Indian Juniper. Both the species are used like J. communis var. saxatillis.The berries gave a diterpene ketone, sugrol, beta-sitosterol glucoside and 10-nonacosanol.Plant extract can be used in toothpastes and mouth-rinses to reduce dental plaque and bleeding.Dosage: Dried fruit—2-6 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)... juniperus communisFrequent intake of sugar as well as poor oral hygiene is a major cause. The disease is more common in young people and has a predilection for specific sites. Dental caries can be most effectively prevented by restricting the frequency of sugar intake and avoiding sweet food and drinks at bedtime. The resistance of enamel to dental caries can be increased by the application of *fluoride salts to the tooth surface from toothpastes or mouth rinses. *Fluoridation of water also makes teeth resistant to caries during the period of tooth development. Once caries has spread into the dentine, treatment usually consists of removing the decayed part of the tooth using a *drill and replacing it with a *filling.... dental caries
FAMILY: Illiciaceae
SYNONYMS: Chinese anise, illicium, Chinese star anise.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Evergreen tree up to 12 metres high with a tall, slender white trunk. It bears fruit which consist of five to thirteen seed-bearing follicles attached to a central axis in the shape of a star.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south east China, also Vietnam, India and Japan. Mainly produced in China.
OTHER SPECIES: Several other related species, e.g. Japanese star anise which is highly poisonous!
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used in Chinese medicine for over 1300 years for its stimulating effect on the digestive system and for respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and unproductive coughs. In the East generally, it is used as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and often chewed after meals to sweeten the breath and promote digestion. A common oriental domestic spice.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, carminative, expectorant, insect repellent, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits, fresh or partially dried. An oil is also produced from the leaves in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, extremely sweet, liquorice like scent. It blends well with rose, lavender, orange, pine and other spice oils, and has excellent masking properties.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Trans-anethole (80–90 per cent).
SAFETY DATA: Despite the anethole content, it does not appear to be a dermal irritant, unlike aniseed. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; it can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive System: Colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures, lozenges, etc. and to mask undesirable odours and flavours in drugs. As a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste and detergents as well as cosmetics and perfumes. Widely used for flavouring food, especially confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.... anise, star
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Anisum officinalis, A. vulgare, anise, sweet cumin.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An annual herb, less than a metre high, with delicate leaves and white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Greece and Egypt, now widely cultivated mainly in India and China and to a lesser extent in Mexico and Spain.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different chemotypes of aniseed according to the country of origin. Not to be confused with star anise, which belongs to a different family altogether.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Widely used as a domestic spice. The volatile oil content provides the basis for its medicinal applications: dry irritable coughs, bronchitis and whooping cough. The seed can be used in smoking mixtures. Aniseed tea is used for infant catarrh, also flatulence, colic and griping pains, also for painful periods and to promote breast milk. In Turkey a popular alcoholic drink, raki, is made from the seed.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, galactagogue, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds.
CHARACTERISTICS: Colourless to pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy-sweet characteristic scent. Like star anise, it is a good masking agent.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Trans-anethole (75–90 per cent).
SAFETY DATA: Its major component, anethole, is known to cause dermatitis in some individuals – avoid in allergic and inflammatory skin conditions. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See star anise.
OTHER USES: By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures and lozenges and to mask undesirable flavours in drugs. Also used in dentifrices and as a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, mostly of the industrial type. Employed in all major food categories.... aniseed
FAMILY: Betulaceae
SYNONYMS: B. capinefolia, cherry birch, southern birch, mahogany birch, mountain mahogany.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful tree about 25 metres high which has a pyramidal shape while young. It has bright green leaves and a dark reddish-brown aromatic bark, which is broken into plates or patches.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Canada and southeastern USA; produced mainly in Pennsylvania.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous species of birch, spanning several continents, such as black birch (B. nigra) found in North America. Not to be confused with the European white birch (B. alba), which produces birch tar oil used in chronic skin diseases.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The cambium (the layer directly under the bark) is eaten in the spring, cut into strips like vermicelli. The bark, in the form of an infusion, is used as a general stimulant and to promote sweating. As a decoction or syrup, it is used as a tonic for dysentery and is said to be useful in genito-urinary irritation. The flavour of wintergreen and birch bark, in the form of a tea, was popular with the American Indians and European settlers. More recently, this has been translated into a preference for ‘root beer’ flavourings.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, depurative, diuretic, rubefacient, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the bark macerated in warm water.
CHARACTERISTICS: Colourless, pale yellow or reddish tinted liquid with an intense, sweet-woody, wintergreen-like scent.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Almost entirely methyl salicylate (98 per cent), produced during the maceration process. It is almost identical in composition to wintergreen oil.
SAFETY DATA: Methyl salicylate, the major constituent, is not exactly toxic but very harmful in concentration.’ It can be absorbed through the skin, and fatal poisoning via this route has been reported.’. ’ It is also classed as an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Limited use as a counter-irritant in anti-arthritic and antineuralgic ointments and analgesic balms. Limited use as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes; extensively used as a flavouring agent, especially ‘root beer’, chewing gum, toothpaste, etc. (usually very low-level use).... birch, sweet
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Apium carvi, carum, caraway fruits.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A biennial herb up to 0.75 metres high with a much-branched stem, finely cut leaves and umbels of white flowers, with a thick and tapering root. The small seeds are curved with five distinct pale ridges.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia, naturalized in North America. Now widely cultivated especially in Germany, Holland, Scandinavia and Russia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties depending on origin – the English, Dutch and German types derive from Prussia, which are distinct from the Scandinavian variety. Those plants grown in northerly latitudes produce more oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used extensively as a domestic spice, especially in bread, cakes and cheeses. Traditional remedy for dyspepsia, intestinal colic, menstrual cramps, poor appetite, laryngitis and bronchitis. It promotes milk secretion and is considered specific for flatulent colic in children, according to the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.
ACTIONS: Antihistaminic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, aperitif, astringent, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, galactagogue, larvicidal, stimulant, spasmolytic, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried ripe seed or fruit (approx. 2–8 per cent yield).
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude caraway oil is a pale yellowish-brown liquid with a harsh, spicy odour. The redistilled oil is colourless to pale yellow, with a strong, warm, sweet-spicy odour, like rye bread. It blends well with jasmine, cinnamon, cassia and other spices; however, it is very overpowering.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly carvone (50–60 per cent) and limonene (40 per cent), with carveol, dihydrocarveol, dihydrocarvone, pinene, phellandrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, may cause dermal irritation in concentration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs, laryngitis.
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, gastric spasm, nervous indigestion, poor appetite. See also sweet fennel and dill.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: Used in carminative, stomachic and laxative preparations and as a flavour ingredient in pharmaceuticals; also to mask unpleasant tastes and odours. Fragrance component in toothpaste, mouthwash products, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially condiments. The German brandy ‘Kummel’ is made from the seeds.... caraway
Habitat: Cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar.
English: Ammi, Lovage, Carum, Ajowan.Ayurvedic: Yavaani, Yamaani, Yavaanikaa, Yamaanikaa, Dipyaka.Unani: Nankhwaah, DesiAjawaayin.Siddha/Tamil: Omam.Action: Fruits—carminative, antispasmodic, anticholerin, an- tidiarrhoeal, bechic, stimulant.
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India recommends the dried fruits in tympanitis, constipation, colic and helminthiasis. Oil—used as an expectorant in emphysema, bronchial and other respiratory ailments.Used externally in cases of rheumatism. Leafjuice—anthelmintic. Root— carminative, diuretic, febrifuge.The aqueous extract of the fruit is a popular remedy for diarrhoea in Indian medicine.The fruit, in addition to protein (17.1), fat (21.8), carbohydrates (24.6) and mineral matter (7.9%), contains sugars, tannins, flavone and sterol. The seeds contain a phenolic glucoside, 2-methyl-3-glucosyloxy-5-isopropyl phenol.The principal constituents of the Ajowan oil are the phenols, mainly thymol (35-60%) and some carvacrol. (Crystalized thymol is known in the trade as Ajowan-kaa-phuul, Flower- of-Ajowan.)Thymol is a powerful antiseptic and antifungal. It is an ingredient in deodorant mouth-washes, toothpastes and gargles. The aqueous portion, left after the separation of essential oil, is known as Omum-water and is prescribed in flatulence and gripe, especially in children.Dosage: Fruit—3-6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)... trachyspermum ammiAction: antispasmodic, antidiarrhoeal, antimicrobial, anti-emetic, carminative, anti-putrescent, aromatic, febrifuge, mild analgesic.
Uses: Flatulent dyspepsia, colic, irritable bowel, diverticulosis. Influenza and colds. Leucorrhoea (5 drops oil in honey before meals). Lung affections: chest rub. Loss of weight and malaise. Deficiency of stomach acid. Snakebite.
Preparations: Thrice daily, or more frequently in acute cases.
Tea: Quarter to half a teaspoon in each cup boiling water, hot tea or other beverage.
Tincture BPC (1949). Dose 30-60 drops (2-4ml).
Inhalant: Inhale steam from 20-30 drops oil or essence in 1 pint boiling water, with head covered. Chest-rub. 5 drops oil in 2 teaspoons Almond or Olive oil.
Not a front-line remedy. Much used to flavour medicines and toothpastes. Avoid in pregnancy. Combines well with Ginger (equal parts). ... cinnamon, chinese
at the tooth’s core. Advanced decay causes toothache and bad breath.
Treatment consists of drilling away the area of decay and filling the cavity (see filling, dental). In advanced decay, it may be necessary to remove the infected pulp (see extraction, dental).
Water fluoridation and the use of fluoride toothpaste helps prevent caries.
The risk of caries is also reduced by cutting sugar consumption, practising good oral hygiene, and visiting the dentist regularly.... caries, dental
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: C. aromaticum, Laurus cassia, Chinese cinnamon, false cinnamon, cassia cinnamon, cassia lignea.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A slender, evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with leathery leaves and small white flowers. It is usually cut back to form bushes for commercial production.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the south eastern parts of China; found to a lesser extent in Vietnam and India (Cochin).
OTHER SPECIES: Not to be confused with the Ceylon Cinnamon bark (C. verum) which is from a related species. There are also several other varieties from different regions used for essential oil production – see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Extensively used as local domestic spice. It is used medicinally in much the same way as Ceylon cinnamon, mainly for digestive complaints such as flatulent dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea and nausea, as well as the common cold, rheumatism, kidney and reproductive complaints.
The powdered bark is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia or colic with nausea.
ACTIONS: Antidiarrhoeal, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, astringent, carminative, spasmolytic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil 1. by steam distillation from the leaves, and 2. by water distillation from the bark, leaves, twigs and stalks.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Leaf oil is brownish yellow (the rectified oil is pale yellow), with a sweet woody-spicy tenacious odour. 2. Bark oil is a dark brown liquid with a strong, spicy warm, resinous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Leaf and Bark oil contain mainly cinnamic aldehyde (75–90 per cent) with some methyl eugenol, salicylaldehyde and methylsalicylaldehyde.
SAFETY DATA: Dermal toxin, dermal irritant, dermal sensitizer, mucous membrane irritant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should never be used on the skin (one of the most hazardous oils).’.
OTHER USES: Some pharmaceutical applications due to bactericidal properties, such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, gargles; also tonic and carminative preparations. Extensively used in food flavouring, including alcoholic and soft drinks. Little used in perfumes and cosmetics, due to its dark colour.
CASSIE... cassia
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: C. verum, Laurus cinnamomum, Ceylon cinnamon, Seychelles cinnamon, Madagascar cinnamon, true cinnamon, cinnamon leaf (oil), cinnamon bark (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical evergreen tree up to 15 metres high, with strong branches and thick scabrous bark with young shoots speckled greeny-orange. It has shiny green, leathery leaves, small white flowers and oval bluish-white berries. The leaves have a spicy smell when bruised.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Sri Lanka, Madagascar, the Comoro Islands, South India, Burma and Indochina. It is also cultivated in India, Jamaica and Africa – each region tending to have its own particular species.
OTHER SPECIES: Madagascar cinnamon is considered superior to the various other types of cinnamon such as the Saigon cinnamon (C. loureirii) and the Batavia Cinnamon (C. burmanii). See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The inner bark of the new shoots from the cinnamon tree are gathered every two years and sold in the form of sticks for use as a domestic spice. It has been used for thousands of years in the east for a wide range of complaints including colds, ’flu, digestive and menstrual problems, rheumatism, kidney troubles and as a general stimulant. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic and dyspepsia with nausea.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal, antidote (to poison), antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiputrescent, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, digestive, emmenagogue, haemostatic, orexigenic, parasiticide, refrigerant, spasmolytic, stimulant (circulatory, cardiac, respiratory), stomachic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the 1. leaves and twigs, and 2. dried inner bark.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A yellow to brownish liquid with a warm-spicy, somewhat harsh odour. 2. A pale to dark yellow liquid with a sweet, warm-spicy, dry, tenacious odour. It blends well with olibanum, ylang ylang, orange, mandarin, benzoin, Peru balsam and in oriental type mixtures.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Leaf – eugenol (80-96 per cent), eugenol acetate, cinnamaldehyde (3 per cent), benzyl benzoate, linalol, safrol among others. 2. Bark - cinnamaldehyde (40-50 per cent), eugenol (4-10 per cent), benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, pinene, cineol, phellandrene, furfurol, cymene, linalol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: 1. The leaf oil is relatively nontoxic, though possibly irritant due to cinnamaldehyde. Its major component, eugenol, causes irritation to the mucous membranes: use in moderation. 2. The bark oil is a dermal toxin, irritant and sensitizer; also irritant to the mucous membranes. ‘Should never be used on the skin (one of the most hazardous oils).’.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Cinnamon bark oil – none. Cinnamon leaf oil:
Skin care: Lice, scabies, tooth and gum care, warts, wasp stings.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Poor circulation, rheumatism.
Digestive System: Anorexia, colitis, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, intestinal infection, sluggish digestion, spasm.
Genito-Urinary System: Childbirth (stimulates contractions), frigidity, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia, scanty periods.
Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.
Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Both bark and leaf oils are used for their fragrance and therapeutic actions in toothpastes, nasal sprays, mouthwashes, cough syrups and dental preparations. The leaf oil is used in soaps, cosmetics, toiletries and perfumes. Both are used extensively in food flavouring, especially in alcoholic and soft drinks, including Coca-Cola.... cinnamon
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Eugenia aromatica, E. caryophyllata, E. caryophyllus.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A slender evergreen tree with a smooth grey trunk, up to 12 metres high. It has large bright green leaves standing in pairs on short stalks. At the start of the rainy season long buds appear with a rosy pink corolla at the tip; as the corolla fades the calyx slowly turns deep red. These are beaten from the tree and, when dried provide the cloves of commerce.
DISTRIBUTION: Believed to be native to Indonesia; now cultivated worldwide, especially in the Philippines, the Molucca Islands and Madagascar. The main oil-producing countries are Madagascar, and Indonesia.
OTHER SPECIES: The clove tree has been cultivated in plantations for over 2000 years. The original wild trees found in the Moluccas, produce an essential oil that contains no eugenol at all.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Extensively used as a domestic spice worldwide. Tincture of cloves has been used for skin infections (scabies, athlete’s foot); for digestive upsets; to dress the umbilical cord; for intestinal parasites; to ease the pain of childbirth (steeped in wine); and notably for toothache. The tea is used to relieve nausea.
In Chinese medicine the oil is used for diarrhoea, hernia, bad breath and bronchitis as well as for those conditions mentioned above. In Indonesia, the ‘Kretak’ cigarette is popular, made from two parts tobacco and one part cloves.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antibiotic, antiemetic, antihistaminic, antirheumatic, antineuralgic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, carminative, counter-irritant, expectorant, larvicidal, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water distillation from the 1. buds and 2. leaves, and by steam distillation from the 3. stalks or stems. A concrete, absolute and oleoresin are also produced from the buds in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Clove bud is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet-spicy odour and a fruity-fresh top note. The bud oil is favoured in perfumery work. It blends well with rose, lavender, vanillin, clary sage, bergamot, bay leaf, lavandin, allspice, ylang ylang and cananga. 2. Clove leaf is a dark brown oil with a crude, burnt-woody odour. 3. Clove stem oil is a pale yellow liquid with a strong spicy-woody odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Bud: 60-90 per cent eugenol, eugenyl acetate, caryophyllene and other minor constituents. 2. Leaf: 82–88 per cent eugenol with little or no eugenyl acetate, and other minor constituents. 3. Stem: 90–95 per cent eugenol, with other minor constituents.
SAFETY DATA: All clove oils can cause skin and mucous membrane irritation; clove bud and stem oil may cause dermatitis in some individuals. Clove bud is the least toxic of the three oils due to the lower eugenol percentage. Use in moderation only in low dilution (less than 1 per cent).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Only use clove bud oil, not the leaf or stem oil.
Skin Care: Acne, athlete’s foot, bruises, burns, cuts, insect repellent (mosquito), toothache, ulcers, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis.
Digestive System: Colic, dyspepsia, nausea.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, minor infections.
OTHER USES: Used in dental preparations, and as a fragrance component in toothpastes, soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient in major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks. Used in the production of printing ink, glue and varnish; clove leaf oil is used as the starting material for the isolation of eugenol.... clove
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Field mint, Japanese mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A rather fragile herb with leafy stems up to 60 cms high, lance-shaped leaves and lilac-coloured flowers borne in clustered whorls in the axils of the upper leaves.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Japan and China); naturalized in North America. Major producers of the oil include China, Brazil, Argentina, India and Vietnam.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties and chemotypes of this herb, which is used for large-scale oil production, such as the Chinese type M. arvensis var. glabrata, and the Japanese species M. arvensis var. piperascens.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is used therapeutically in many of the same ways as peppermint; the bruised leaves are applied to the forehead to relieve nervous headache. In the East it is used to treat rheumatic pain, neuralgia, toothache, laryngitis, indigestion, colds and bronchitis. In Chinese medicine, it is also employed for relieving earache, treating tumours and some skin conditions.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, cytotoxic, digestive, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb. The oil is usually dementholized since it contains so much menthol that it is otherwise solid at room temperature.
CHARACTERISTICS: Dementholized oil – a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a strong, fresh, bitter-sweet minty odour, somewhat like peppermint.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Menthol (70–95 per cent), menthane (10–20 per cent), pinene, menthyl acetate, isomenthone, thujone, phellandrene, piperitone and menthofuran, among others. Constituents vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration); may cause sensitization in some individuals. Menthol is a dermal irritant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. Use peppermint in preference, since it is not fractionated like the commercial cornmint oil and has a more refined fragrance.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical preparations, such as cough lozenges, herb teas and syrups, mainly in the form of menthol. Extensively employed in soaps, toothpastes, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes and especially industrial fragrances. Used by the food industry especially for flavouring confectionery, liqueurs and chewing gum. However, it is mainly used for the isolation of natural menthol.... mint, cornmint
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Gum tree, southern blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum, fever tree, stringy bark.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A beautiful, tall, evergreen tree, up to 90 metres high. The young trees have bluish-green oval leaves while the mature trees develop long, narrow, yellowish leaves, creamy-white flowers and a smooth, pale grey bark often covered in a white powder.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia. Mainly cultivated in Spain and Portugal, also Brazil, California, Russia and China. Very little of this oil now comes from its native countries.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 different species of eucalyptus, of which at least 500 produce a type of essential oil. Many have been extracted simply for experimental purposes, and research is still being carried out with regard to the different constituents of each oil. In general, they can be divided into three categories. 1. The medicinal oils containing large amounts of cineol (or eucalyptol), such as the blue gum, but increasingly the blue malee (E. polybractea), the narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. australiana) and the gully gum (E. smithii). 2. The industrial oils containing mainly piperitone and phellandrene, such as the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita), grey peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra) and increasingly the broad-leaved peppermint (E. dives var. Type). 3. The perfumery oils containing mainly citronellal, such as the lemon-scented eucalyptus (E. citriodora). See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional household remedy in Australia, the leaves and oil are especially used for respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and croup, and the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco for asthma. It is also used for feverish conditions (malaria, typhoid, cholera, etc.) and skin problems like burns, ulcers and wounds. Aqueous extracts are used for aching joints, bacterial dysentery, ringworms, tuberculosis, etc. and employed for similar reasons in western and eastern medicine. The wood is also used for timber production in Spain.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, balsamic, cicatrisant, decongestant, deodorant, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hypoglycaemic, parasiticide, prophylactic, rubefacient, stimulant, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and young twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless mobile liquid (yellows on ageing), with a somewhat harsh camphoraceous odour and woody-sweet undertone. It blends well with thyme, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, pine, cedarwood and lemon. (The narrow-leaved eucalyptus (E. radiata var. australiana) is often used in preference to the blue gum in aromatherapy work, being rich in cineol but with a sweeter and less harsh odour.)
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (70–85 per cent), pinene, limonene, cymene, phellandrene, terpinene, aromadendrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Externally non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. ‘When taken internally eucalyptus oil is toxic and as little as 3.5ml has been reported as fatal’..
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Burns, blisters, cuts, herpes, insect bites, insect repellent, lice, skin infections, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea.
Immune System: Chickenpox, colds, epidemics, ’flu, measles.
Nervous System: Debility, headaches, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: The oil and cineol are largely employed in the preparation of liniments, inhalants, cough syrups, ointments, toothpaste and as pharmaceutical flavourings also used in veterinary practise and dentistry. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents and toiletries – little used in perfumes. Used for the isolation of cineol and employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories.... eucalyptus, blue gum
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: M. viridis, common spearmint, garden spearmint, spire mint, green mint, lamb mint, pea mint, fish mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hardy branched perennial herb with bright green, lance-shaped, sharply toothed leaves, quickly spreading underground runners and pink or lilac-coloured flowers in slender cylindrical spikes.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now common throughout Europe, western Asia and the Middle East. It was introduced to the USA where it has become a very popular flavouring. The oil is produced in midwest USA, Hungary, Spain, Yugoslavia, the USSR and China.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different types of spearmint, especially in the USA, such as the curly mint (M. spicata var. crispa). In Russia the oil from M. verticellata is also sold as spearmint oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Valued all over the world as a culinary herb, as shown by its folk names. It was used by the ancient Greeks as a restorative and to scent their bathwater. The distilled water is used to relieve hiccough, colic, nausea, indigestion and flatulence. ‘Applied to the forehead and temples, it eases the pains in the head, and is good to wash the heads of young children with, against all manner of breakings out, sores or scabs ... being smelled unto, it is comforting to the head.’.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic (local), antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, decongestant, digestive, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or olive mobile liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, minty odour. It blends well with lavender, lavandin, jasmine, eucalyptus, basil and rosemary and is often used in combination with peppermint.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: L-carvone (50–70 per cent), dihydrocarvone, phellandrene, limonene, menthone, menthol, pulegone, cineol, linalol, pinenes, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE ‘The properties of spearmint oil resemble those of peppermint but its effects are less powerful ... it is better adapted to children’s maladies.’.
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, congested skin.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, sinusitis.
Digestive system: Colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatobiliary disorders, nausea, vomiting.
Immune system: Colds, fevers, ’flu.
Nervous system: Fatigue, headache, migraine, nervous strain, neurasthenia, stress.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance component, mainly in soaps and colognes. Primarily used as a flavour ingredient in a wide range of products, including toothpaste, chewing gum, sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks.... mint, spearmint
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Brandy mint, balm mint.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial herb up to 1 metre high with underground runners by which it is easily propagated. The ‘white’ peppermint has green stems and leaves; the ‘black’ peppermint has dark green serrated leaves, purplish stems and reddish-violet flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Originally a cultivated hybrid between M. viridis and M. aquatica, known to have been propagated from before the seventeenth century in England. Naturalized throughout Europe and America, it is cultivated worldwide. The oil is produced mainly in France, England, America, Russia, Bulgaria, Italy, Hungary, Morocco and China.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different strains or chemotypes of peppermint. In addition there are numerous other species of mint, such as spearmint, apple mint, pennyroyal, water mint and pineapple mint – some of which are used to produce essential oils (see Botanical Classification section). Peppermints grown in northern regions, including the Mitcham peppermint, are considered of superior quality.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Mints have been cultivated since ancient times in China and Japan. In Egypt evidence of a type of peppermint has been found in tombs dating from 1000 BC. It has been used extensively in Eastern and Western medicine for a variety of complaints, including indigestion, nausea, sore throat, diarrhoea, headaches, toothaches and cramp.
It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for intestinal colic, flatulence, common cold, vomiting in pregnancy and dysmenorrhoea.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antipruritic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, cordial, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, hepatic, nervine, stomachic, sudorific, vasoconstrictor, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering herb (approx. 3–4 per cent yield).
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or greenish liquid with a highly penetrating, grassy-minty camphoraceous odour. It blends well with benzoin, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, lemon, eucalyptus and other mints.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Menthol (29–48 per cent), menthane (20–31 per cent), menthyl acetate, menthofuran, limonene, pulegone, cineol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in concentration), possible sensitization due to menthol. Use in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, ringworm, scabies, toothache.
Circulation muscles and joints: Neuralgia, muscular pain, palpitations.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, halitosis, sinusitis, spasmodic cough – ‘When inhaled (in steam) it checks catarrh temporarily, and will provide relief from head colds and bronchitis: its antispasmodic action combines well with this to make it a most useful inhalation in asthma.’.
Digestive system: Colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, fevers.
Nervous system: Fainting, headache, mental fatigue, migraine, nervous stress, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Flavouring agent in pharmaceuticals, and ingredient in cough, cold and digestive remedies. Flavouring agent in many foods, especially chewing gum and sweets, alcoholic and soft drinks; also widely used to flavour tobacco. Fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics, colognes and perfumes.... mint, peppermint
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: M. quinquenervia, ‘gomenol’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen tree with a flexible trunk and spongy bark, pointed linear leaves and bearing spikes of sessile yellowish flowers. The leaves have a strong aromatic scent when they are crushed.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia, New Caledonia, and the French Pacific Islands. The majority of the oil is produced in Australia and Tasmania.
OTHER SPECIES: A typical member of the ‘tea tree’ group of oils; the oil is similar to cajeput. There is another physiological form of M. viridiflora called ‘Variety A’, which was originally developed to provide a natural source of nerolidol, the main constituent of its essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is used locally for a wide variety of ailments, such as aches and pains, respiratory conditions, cuts and infections; it is also used to purify the water. The name ‘gomenol’ derives from the fact that it used to be shipped from Gomen in the French East Indies.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anthelmintic, anticatarrhal, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, regulator, stimulant, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and young twigs. (Usually rectified to remove irritant aldehydes.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless, pale yellow or greenish liquid with a sweet, fresh, camphoraceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (50–65 per cent), terpineol, pinene, limonene, citrene, terebenthene, valeric ester, acetic ester, butyric ester.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Often subject to adulteration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, boils, burns, cuts, insect bites, oily skin, spots, ulcers, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrhal conditions, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat, whooping cough.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urinary infection.
Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical preparations such as gargles, cough drops, toothpastes, mouth sprays, etc.... niaouli
FAMILY: Burseraceae
SYNONYMS: Balsamodendron myrrha, gum myrrh, common myrrh, hirabol myrrh, myrrha.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The Commiphora species which yield myrrh are shrubs or small trees up to 10 metres high. They have sturdy knotted branches, trifoliate aromatic leaves and small white flowers. The trunk exudes a natural oleoresin, a pale yellow liquid which hardens into reddish-brown tears, known as myrrh. The native collectors make incisions in the bark of the tree to increase the yield.
DISTRIBUTION: The Commiphora species are native to north east Africa and south west Asia, especially the Red Sea region (Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia).
OTHER SPECIES: There are several C. species which yield myrrh oleoresin: African or Somali myrrh (C. molmol) and Arabian or Yemen myrrh (C. abyssinica). Bisabol myrrh or opopanax (C. erthraea) also belongs to the same family.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Myrrh has been employed since the earliest times in Eastern and Western medicine; its use is mentioned some 3700 years ago. The ancient Egyptians used it for embalming purposes and in their perfumes and cosmetics. In China it is used for arthritis, menstrual problems, sores and haemorrhoids. In the West it is considered to have an ‘opening, heating, drying nature’ (Joseph Miller), good for asthma, coughs, common cold, catarrh, sore throat, weak gums and teeth, ulcers and sores. It has also been used to treat leprosy.
Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for mouth ulcers, gingivitis and pharyngitis.
ACTIONS: Anticatarrhal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiphlogistic, antiseptic, astringent, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, revitalizing, sedative, stimulant (digestive, pulmonary), stomachic, tonic, uterine, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. Resinoid (and resin absolute) by solvent extraction of the crude myrrh. 2. Essential oil by steam distillation of the crude myrrh.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The resinoid is a dark reddish-brown viscous mass, with a warm, rich, spicy-balsamic odour. It is not pourable at room temperature so a solvent, such as diethyl phthalate, is sometimes added. 2. The essential oil is a pale yellow to amber oily liquid with a warm, sweet-balsamic, slightly spicy-medicinal odour. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, benzoin, oakmoss, cypress, juniper, mandarin, geranium, patchouli, thyme, mints, lavender, pine and spices.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude contains resins, gum and about 8 per cent essential oil composed mainly of heerabolene, limonene, dipentene, pinene, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, cuminaldehyde, cadinene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing, possibly toxic in high concentration. Not to be used during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Athlete’s foot, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, mature complexions, ringworm, wounds, wrinkles.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, gum infections, gingivitis, mouth ulcers, sore throat, voice loss.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, haemorrhoids, loss of appetite.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, pruritis, thrush.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES: The oil, resinoid and tincture are used in pharmaceutical products, including mouthwashes, gargles and toothpaste; also used in dentistry. The oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types and heavy florals. Used as flavour ingredients in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... myrrh
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Garden sage, true sage, Dalmatian sage.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen, shrubby, perennial herb up to 80 cms high with a woody base, soft, silver, oval leaves and a mass of deep blue or violet flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region; cultivated worldwide especially in Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, Turkey, France, China and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different species and cultivars which have been developed, such as the Mexican sage (S. azurea grandiflora) and the red sage (S. colorata) both of which are used medicinally. Essential oils are also produced from other species including the Spanish sage (S. lavendulaefolia) and clary sage (S. selarea) – see separate entries and Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient repute, valued as a culinary and medicinal plant – called herba sacra or ‘sacred herb’ by the Romans. It has been used for a variety of disorders including respiratory infections, menstrual difficulties and digestive complaints. It was also believed to strengthen the senses and the memory.
It is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for inflammations of the mouth, tongue and throat.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hypertensive, insecticidal, laxative, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaves. (A so-called ‘oleoresin’ is also produced from the exhausted plant material.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, warm-spicy, herbaceous, somewhat camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, rosemary, rosewood, lavender, hyssop, lemon and other citrus oils. The common sage oil is preferred in perfumery work to the Spanish sage oil which, although safer, has a less refined fragrance.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (about 42 per cent), cineol, borneol, caryophyllene and other terpenes.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin (due to thujone). Abortifacient; avoid in pregnancy. Avoid in epilepsy. Use with care or avoid in therapeutic work altogether – Spanish sage or clary sage are good alternatives.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical preparations such as mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes, etc. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, shampoos, detergents, anti-perspirants, colognes and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are extensively used for flavouring foods (mainly meat products), soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, especially vermouth. It also serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.... sage, common
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Narrow-leaved paperbark tea tree, ti-tree, ti-trol, melasol.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small tree or shrub (smallest of the tea tree family), with needle-like leaves similar to cypress, with heads of sessile yellow or purplish flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia. Other varieties have been cultivated elsewhere, but M. alternifolia is not produced outside Australia, mainly in New South Wales.
OTHER SPECIES: Tea tree is a general name for members of the Melaleuca family which exists in many physiological forms including cajeput (M. cajeputi) and niaouli (M. viridiflora), and many others such as M. bracteata and M. linariifolia – see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name derives from its local usage as a type of herbal tea, prepared from the leaves. Our present knowledge of the properties and uses of tea tree is based on a very long history of use by the aboriginal people of Australia. It has been extensively researched recently by scientific methods with the following results: ‘1. This oil is unusual in that it is active against all three varieties of infectious organisms: bacteria, fungi and viruses. 2. It is a very powerful immuno-stimulant, so when the body is threatened by any of these organisms ti-tree increases its ability to respond.’ .
ACTIONS: Anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, balsamic, cicatrisant, diaphoretic, expectorant, fungicidal, immuno-stimulant, parasiticide, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam or water distillation from the leaves and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellowy-green or water-white mobile liquid with a warm, fresh, spicy-camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, lavender, clary sage, rosemary, oakmoss, pine, cananga, geranium, marjoram, and spice oils, especially clove and nutmeg.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinene-4-ol (up to 30 per cent), cineol, pinene, terpinenes, cymene, sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpene alcohols, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, athlete’s foot, blisters, burns, cold sores, dandruff, herpes, insect bites, oily skin, rashes (nappy rash), spots, verrucae, warts, wounds (infected).
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, tuberculosis, whooping cough.
Genito-urinary system: Thrush, vaginitis, cystitis, pruritis.
Immune system: Colds, fever, ’flu, infectious illnesses such as chickenpox.
OTHER USES: Employed in soaps, toothpastes, deodorants, disinfectants, gargles, germicides and, increasingly, in aftershaves and spicy colognes.... tea tree
FAMILY: Ericaceae
SYNONYMS: Aromatic wintergreen, checkerberry, teaberry, gaultheria (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small evergreen herb up to 15 cm high with slender creeping stems shooting forth erect twigs with leathery serrated leaves and drooping white flowers, which are followed by fleshy scarlet berries.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, especially the north eastern region and Canada. The oil is produced in the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other Gaultheria species which are also used for oil production, sharing similar properties.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The plant has been used for respiratory conditions such as chronic mucous discharge, but is mainly employed for joint and muscular problems such as lumbago, sciatica, neuralgia, myalgia, etc. The dried leaf and stem are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for rheumatoid arthritis.
The essential oil has been used interchangeably with sweet birch oil, both being made up almost exclusively of methyl salicylate.
ACTIONS: Analgesic (mild), anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic, antitussive, astringent, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, galactagogue, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the leaf, previously macerated in warm water. The essential oil does not occur crudely in the plant, but is only produced during the process of decomposition in warm water.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or pinkish liquid with an intense sweet-woody, almost fruity odour. It blends well with oregano, mints, thyme, ylang ylang, narcissus and vanilla.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Almost exclusively methyl salicylate (up to 98 per cent), with formaldehyde and gaultheriline.
SAFETY DATA: Toxic, irritant and sensitizing – an environmental hazard or marine pollutant. The true oil is almost obsolete, having been replaced by synthetic methyl salicylate. See also sweet birch oil.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Avoid both internally and externally.’.
OTHER USES: Some pharmaceutical use, such as ‘Olbas’ oil. Some perfumery applications especially in forest-type fragrances. Extensively used as a flavouring agent in the USA for toothpaste, chewing gum, root beer, Coca-Cola, and other soft drinks.... wintergreen
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: T. aestivus, T. ilerdensis, T. webbianus, T. valentianus, French thyme, garden thyme, red thyme (oil), white thyme (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial evergreen subshrub up to 45 cms high with a woody root and much-branched upright stem. It has small, grey-green, oval, aromatic leaves and pale purple or white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Spain and the Mediterranean region; now found throughout Asia Minor, Algeria, Turkey, Tunisia, Israel, the USA, Russia, China and central Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Spain but also in France, Israel, Greece, Morocco, Algeria, Germany and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous varieties of thyme – the common thyme is believed to have derived from the wild thyme or mother-of-thyme (T. serpyllum), which is also used to produce an essential oil called serpolet, similar in effect to the common thyme oil.
Another species used for the production of the so-called red thyme oil is particularly the Spanish sauce thyme (T. zygis), a highly penetrating oil good for cellulitis, sports injuries, etc. (although, like the common thyme, it is a skin irritant). Other species used for essential oil production include lemon thyme (T. citriodorus), a fresh scented oil good for asthma and other respiratory conditions, safe for children. Spanish marjoram (T. Mastichina) is actually botanically classified as a variety of thyme, with which it shares many common properties, despite its common name. Spanish marjoram contains mainly 1,8-cineole (up to 75 per cent) and linalool (up to 20 per cent), so therapeutically has much in common with eucalyptus, being well suited to treating viral and bacterial respiratory infections. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest medicinal plants employed throughout the Mediterranean region, well known to both Hippocrates and Dioscorides. It was used by the ancient Egyptians in the embalming process, and by the ancient Greeks to fumigate against infectious illness; the name derives from the Greek thymos meaning ‘to perfume’. It is also a long-established culinary herb, especially used for the preservation of meat.
It has a wide range of uses, though in Western herbal medicine its main areas of application are respiratory problems, digestive complaints and the prevention and treatment of infection. In the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is indicated for dyspepsia, chronic gastritis, bronchitis, pertussis, asthma, children’s diarrhoea, laryngitis, tonsillitis and enuresis in children.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiputrescent, antirheumatic, antiseptic (intestinal, pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antitussive, antitoxic, aperitif, astringent, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypertensive, nervine, revulsive, rubefacient, parasiticide, stimulant (immune system, circulation), sudorific, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and flowering tops. 1. ‘Red thyme oil’ is the crude distillate. 2. ‘White thyme oil’ is produced by further redistillation or rectification. (An absolute is also produced in France by solvent extraction for perfumery use.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A red, brown or orange liquid with a warm, spicy-herbaceous, powerful odour. 2. A clear, pale yellow liquid with a sweet, green-fresh, milder scent. It blends well with bergamot, lemon, rosemary, melissa, lavender, lavandin, marjoram, Peru balsam, pine, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thymol and carvacrol (up to 60 per cent), cymene, terpinene, camphene, borneol, linalol; depending on the source it can also contain geraniol, citral and thuyanol, etc.
There are many chemotypes of thyme oil: notably the ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ types (warming and active); the ‘thuyanol’ type (penetrating and antiviral); and the milder ‘linalol’ or ‘citral’ types (sweet-scented, non-irritant).
SAFETY DATA: Red thyme oil, serpolet (from wild thyme), ‘thymol’ and ‘carvacrol’ type oils all contain quite large amounts of toxic phenols (carvacrol and thymol). They can irritate mucous membranes, cause dermal irritation and may cause sensitization in some individuals. Use in moderation, in low dilution only. They are best avoided during pregnancy.
White thyme is not a ‘complete’ oil and is often adulterated. Lemon thyme and ‘linalol’types are in general less toxic, non-irritant, with less possibility of sensitization – safe for use on the skin and with children.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Abscess, acne, bruises, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, insect bites, lice, gum infections, oily skin, scabies.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, cellulitis, gout, muscular aches and pains, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, sports injuries.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, laryngitis, sinusitis, sore throat, tonsillitis.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, urethritis.
Immune system: Chills, colds, ’flu, infectious diseases.
Nervous system: Headaches, insomnia, nervous debility and stress-related complaints – ‘helps to revive and strengthen both body and mind’..
OTHER USES: The oil is used in mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes and cough lozenges. ‘Thymol’ is isolated for pharmaceutical use in surgical dressings, disinfectants etc. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries, aftershaves, perfumes, colognes, etc. Extensively employed by the food and drink industry, especially in meat products.... thyme, common
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