Urinary bladder Health Dictionary

(UT) The kidneys and the lower urinary tract, which includes the ureters, bladder, and urethra.... urinary tract

One of a variety of procedures for collecting and diverting URINE from its customary channel of excretion following surgical removal of the bladder for disease, usually cancer. The ureters (see URETER) may be implanted in the large bowel, or a reservoir or small pouch may be fashioned using a section of small or large INTESTINE. In the latter method the pouch is emptied through a small STOMA using a catheter (see CATHETERS), thus dispensing with the need for a urinary drainage bag.... urinary diversion

Protection, Sea Spells, Wind Spells, Money, Psychic Powers... bladderwrack

See LIVER.... gall-bladder

The branch of medicine that deals with the effects of SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS) on the URINARY TRACT, REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM and other systems in the body. The specialty overlaps with GYNAECOLOGY (women’s urinary and reproductive systems) and UROLOGY (men’s urinary and reproductive system).... genito-urinary medicine

A URINARY BLADDER with complete or partial loss of sensation. As there is no sensation of fullness, the individual either develops complete retention of URINE, or the bladder empties automatically – usually every few hours. The condition predisposes affected individuals to urinary-tract infections and back pressure on the KIDNEYS, leading to renal failure. It may be caused by spinal injury, SPINA BIFIDA or any disorder which produces NEUROPATHY.... neuropathic bladder

Pertaining to the organs of fluid excretion or reproduction. Genito-Urinary astringent – Horsetail. Genito-Urinary tonics – Beth root, Saw Palmetto, Damiana. Genito-Urinary relaxant – Black Willow. ... genito-urinary

The hollow, muscular organ in the lower abdomen that acts as a reservoir for urine. It lies within, and is protected by, the pelvis. An adult bladder can hold about 0.5 litres of urine before the need to pass urine is felt.

The bladder walls consist of muscle and an inner lining.

Two ureters carry urine to the bladder from the kidneys.

At the lowest point of the bladder is the opening into the urethra, which is known as the bladder neck.

This is normally kept tightly closed by a ring of muscle (the urethral sphincter).

The function of the bladder is to collect and store urine until it can be expelled.

Defective bladder function, leading to problems such as incontinence and urinary retention, can have a variety of causes.

(See also bladder, disorders of; enuresis).... bladder

See URINARY BLADDER, DISEASES OF and GALLBLADDER, DISEASES OF; see also URINE.... bladder, diseases of

Sacs formed of muscular and ?brous tissue and lined by a mucous membrane, which is united loosely to the muscular coat so as freely to allow increase and decrease in the contained cavity. Bladders are designed to contain some secretion or excretion, and communicate with the exterior by a narrow opening through which their contents can be discharged. In humans there are two: the gall-bladder and the urinary bladder.

Gall-bladder This is situated under the liver in the upper part of the abdomen, and its function is to store the BILE, which it discharges into the intestine by the BILE DUCT. For further details, see LIVER.

Urinary bladder This is situated in the pelvis, in front of the last part of the bowel. In the full state, the bladder rises up into the abdomen and holds about 570 ml (a pint) of urine. Two ?ne tubes, called the ureters, lead into the bladder, one from each kidney; and the urethra, a tube as wide as a lead pencil when distended, leads from it to the exterior – a distance of 4 cm (1••• inches) in the female and 20 cm (8 inches) in the male. The exit from the bladder to the urethra is kept closed by a muscular ring which is relaxed every time urine is passed.... bladders

The gall-bladder rests on the underside of the LIVER and joins the common hepatic duct via the cystic duct to form the common BILE DUCT. The gall-bladder acts as a reservoir and concentrator of BILE, alterations in the composition of which may result in the formation of gallstones, the most common disease of the gallbladder.

Gall-stones affect 22 per cent of women and 11 per cent of men. The incidence increases with age, but only about 30 per cent of those with gall-stones undergo treatment as the majority of cases are asymptomatic. There are three types of stone: cholesterol, pigment and mixed, depending upon their composition; stones are usually mixed and may contain calcium deposits. The cause of most cases is not clear but sometimes gall-stones will form around a ‘foreign body’ within the bile ducts or gall-bladder, such as suture material. BILIARY COLIC Muscle ?bres in the biliary system contract around a stone in the cystic duct or common bile duct in an attempt to expel it. This causes pain in the right upper quarter of the abdomen, with nausea and occasionally vomiting. JAUNDICE Gall-stones small enough to enter the common bile duct may block the ?ow of bile and cause jaundice. ACUTE CHOLECYSTITIS Blockage of the cystic duct may lead to this. The gall-bladder wall becomes in?amed, resulting in pain in the right upper quarter of the abdomen, fever, and an increase in the white-blood-cell count. There is characteristically tenderness over the tip of the right ninth rib on deep inhalation (Murphy’s sign). Infection of the gall-bladder may accompany the acute in?ammation and occasionally an EMPYEMA of the gall-bladder may result. CHRONIC CHOLECYSTITIS A more insidious form of gall-bladder in?ammation, producing non-speci?c symptoms of abdominal pain, nausea and ?atulence which may be worse after a fatty meal.

Diagnosis Stones are usually diagnosed on the basis of the patient’s reported symptoms, although asymptomatic gall-stones are often an incidental ?nding when investigating another complaint. Con?rmatory investigations include abdominal RADIOGRAPHY – although many gall-stones are not calci?ed and thus do not show up on these images; ULTRASOUND scanning; oral CHOLECYSTOGRAPHY – which entails a patient’s swallowing a substance opaque to X-rays which is concentrated in the gall-bladder; and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) – a technique in which an ENDOSCOPE is passed into the duodenum and a contrast medium injected into the biliary duct.

Treatment Biliary colic is treated with bed rest and injection of morphine-like analgesics. Once the pain has subsided, the patient may then be referred for further treatment as outlined below. Acute cholecystitis is treated by surgical removal of the gall-bladder. There are two techniques available for this procedure: ?rstly, conventional cholecystectomy, in which the abdomen is opened and the gall-bladder cut out; and, secondly, laparoscopic cholecystectomy, in which ?breoptic instruments called endoscopes (see FIBREOPTIC ENDOSCOPY) are introduced into the abdominal cavity via several small incisions (see MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY (MIS)). Laparoscopic surgery has the advantage of reducing the patient’s recovery time. Gall-stones may be removed during ERCP; they can sometimes be dissolved using ultrasound waves (lithotripsy) or tablet therapy (dissolution chemotherapy). Pigment stones, calci?ed stones or stones larger than 15 mm in diameter are not suitable for this treatment, which is also less likely to succeed in the overweight patient. Drug treatment is prolonged but stones can disappear completely after two years. Stones may re-form on stopping therapy. The drugs used are derivatives of bile salts, particularly chenodeoxycholic acid; side-effects include diarrhoea and liver damage.... gall-bladder, diseases of

This consists of the KIDNEYS, ureters (see URETER), URINARY BLADDER and URETHRA – and, in the male, also the genital organs.... genito-urinary tract

These are rare. POLYPS may form and, if symptomatic, should be removed. Malignant change is rare. CARCINOMA of the gall-bladder is a disease of the elderly and is almost exclusively associated with gall-stones. By the time such a cancer has produced symptoms, the prognosis is bleak: 80 per cent of these patients die within one year of diagnosis. If the tumour is discovered early, 60 per cent of patients will survive ?ve years.... other disorders of the gall-bladder

Diseases of the URINARY BLADDER are diagnosed by the patient’s symptoms and signs, examination of the URINE, and using investigations such as X-RAYS and ULTRASOUND scans. The interior of the bladder can be examined using a cystoscope, which is a ?breoptic endoscope (see FIBREOPTIC ENDOSCOPY) that is passed into the bladder via the URETHRA.

Cystitis Most cases of cystitis are caused by bacteria which have spread from the bowel, especially Escherichia coli, and entered the bladder via the urethra. Females are more prone to cystitis than are males, owing to their shorter urethra which allows easier entry for bacteria. Chronic or recurrent cystitis may result in infection spreading up the ureter to the kidney (see KIDNEY, DISEASES OF).

Symptoms Typically there is frequency and urgency of MICTURITION, with stinging and burning on passing urine (dysuria), which is often smelly or bloodstained. In severe infection patients develop fever and rigors, or loin pain. Before starting treatment a urine sample should be obtained for laboratory testing, including identi?cation of the invading bacteria.

Treatment This includes an increased ?uid intake, ANALGESICS, doses of potassium citrate to make the urine alkaline to discourage bacterial growth, and an appropriate course of ANTIBIOTICS once a urine sample has been ana-lysed in the laboratory to con?rm the diagnosis and determine what antibiotics the causative organism is likely to respond to.

Stone or calculus The usual reason for the formation of a bladder stone is an obstruction to the bladder out?ow, which results in stagnant residual urine – ideal conditions for the crystallisation of the chemicals that form stones – or from long-term indwelling CATHETERS which weaken the natural mechanical protection against bacterial entry and, by bruising the lining tissues, encourage infection.

Symptoms The classic symptom is a stoppage in the ?ow of urine during urination, associated with severe pain and the passage of blood.

Treatment This involves surgical removal of the stone either endoscopically (litholapaxy); by passing a cystoscope into the bladder via the urethra and breaking the stone; or by LITHOTRIPSY in which the stone (or stones) is destroyed by applying ultrasonic shock waves. If the stone cannot be destroyed by these methods, the bladder is opened and the stone removed (cystolithotomy).

Cancer Cancer of the bladder accounts for 7 per cent of all cancers in men and 2·5 per cent in women. The incidence increases with age, with smoking and with exposure to the industrial chemicals, beta-napththylamine and benzidine. In 2003, 2,884 men and 1,507 women died of bladder cancer in England and Wales.

Symptoms The classical presenting symptom of a bladder cancer is the painless passing of blood in the urine – haematuria. All patients with haematuria must be investigated with an X-ray of their kidneys, an INTRAVENOUS PYELOGRAM (UROGRAM) and a cystoscopy.

Treatment Super?cial bladder tumours on the lining of the bladder can be treated by local removal via the cystoscope using DIATHERMY (cystodiathermy). Invasive cancers into the bladder muscle are usually treated with RADIOTHERAPY, systemic CHEMOTHERAPY or surgical removal of the bladder (cystectomy). Local chemotherapy may be useful in some patients with multiple small tumours.... urinary bladder, diseases of

The bladder is a hollow muscular organ with a wall of smooth muscle. It stores urine received from the kidneys which is released via the urethra in an action known as micturition. Common disorders, see: ENEURESIS. FREQUENCY OF URINE. GRAVEL. HAEMATURIA. INCONTINENCE. STONE IN THE BLADDER. STRANGURY. STRICTURE. URETHRITIS. URINE – PAIN ON PASSING. ... bladder disorders

Neoplasm of bladder. One third of patients are over 70 years. Most cases today arise from exposure to injurious chemicals only partly eliminated from the body, as from food additives, analine dyes, etc. Evidence also links the disease to excessive coffee-drinking, the general consensus being that caffeine blocks the action of a compound named adenosine – one of the building blocks of DNA – involved in cellular energy. In this way it interferes with natural metabolic processes.

Symptoms: Blood in the urine with absence of pain on passing water in early stages. Then, burning frequency, especially at night. Kidneys become involved. Growths range from papilloma to tumour which may ulcerate in later stages.

The lesion is confirmed by cystoscopy (examination of the bladder by insertion of an instrument to illuminate inner surfaces and makes possible a direct view of the affected tissues). Even when the condition is healed this examination is repeatedly necessary to detect recurrence.

Two kinds: (1) papillary epithelioma (2) squamous cell epithelioma.

Tea. Formula. Equal parts: Marshmallow root, Clivers, Horsetail, Shepherd’s purse. 1-2 teaspoons to each cup boiling water; infuse 10-15 minutes. 2 cups or more daily.

Decoction. Barberry bark cold infusion. 1 teaspoon to each cup cold water. Steep over night. 2 cups or more daily.

Tinctures. Formula. Horsetail 1; Clivers 2; Barberry 1. Mix. 1-2 teaspoons (5-10ml) 2 or more times daily. If inflammation is present add Meadowsweet 1.

Dr William Boericke, physician, advised Dandelion to lessen symptoms.

Diet. See: DIET – CANCER.

Supplements. Emphasis on Vitamins A and C. (Vitamin A in epithelial tumours, ‘New Scientist’ (1975) 303)

Treatment offered as a supportive to specific modern hospital techniques. Treatment by or in liaison with a general medical practitioner. ... cancer – bladder

See bladder tumours.... bladder cancer

Cholecystitis

Acute or chronic. One of the commonest acute abdominal emergencies. An impressive rise in incidence in the young female population has been linked with the use of oral contraceptives. Other causes: heavy consumption of animal fats, sugars.

Symptoms. Severe upper abdominal pain, often radiating to the shoulder and right midback. Constancy of the pain contrasts with the repeated brief attacks of gall-stone (biliary) colic. Sweating, shallow erratic breathing, tenderness upper right abdomen, distension, flatulence, nausea, intolerance of fatty foods.

In cases of suspected cholecystitis, bitter herbs help liquefy bile and prevent consolidation. Prevention: Blue Flag, or Wild Yam, 2 tablets at night.

For infection: Echinacea.

Alternatives. BHP (1983) selection: Barberry, Mountain Grape, Balmony, Fringe Tree, Wild Yam, Wahoo, Chiretta, Dandelion, Black root; according to individual case. Milk Thistle.

Teas. Agrimony, Milk Thistle, Fumitory, Black Horehound, Wormwood. 1 heaped teaspoon to each cup boiling water, infuse 15 minutes. Half-1 cup freely.

Cold tea. One teaspoon Barberry bark to each cup cold water. Steep overnight. Half-1 cup freely. Tablets/capsules. Blue Flag. Echinacea, Wild Yam, Milk Thistle.

Powders. Equal parts: Echinacea, Wild Yam, Milk Thistle. Dose: 500mg (two 00 capsules, or one-third teaspoon) thrice daily.

Tinctures. Equal parts: Wild Yam, Blue Flag, Milk Thistle. 1 teaspoon thrice daily in water.

Topical. Castor oil pack over painful area.

Diet. Low fat. Avoid dairy products.

Supplementation. Vitamins A, B-complex, C. Bromelain, Zinc. Note. See entry: COURVOISER’S LAW. ... gall bladder, inflammation

A group of disorders affecting the bladder, including inflammation (cystitis) usually caused by a bacterial infection; calculi (stones); impairment of the nerve supply; and tumours. In men, obstruction to urine flow from the bladder by an enlarged prostate gland may cause urinary retention. Tumours of, or injury to, the spinal cord may affect the nerves controlling the bladder, leading either to retention or incontinence. Bladder stones are caused by the precipitation of substances that are present in the urine. Injury to the bladder is uncommon but may occur if the pelvis is fractured when the bladder is full.

Disturbed bladder control can also result from nerve degeneration in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, multiple sclerosis, or dementia. An unstable or irritable bladder is a common condition and is sometimes associated with a urinary tract infection or prolapse of the uterus. Tension or anxiety can cause frequent urination. In children, delayed bladder control (see enuresis) most often results from delayed maturation of the nervous system.... bladder, disorders of

Growths originating in the inner lining of the bladder. Many are papillomas (small wart-like growths), which tend to recur and will eventually become cancerous. Other, more malignant, growths may extend not only into the bladder cavity but may also spread through the bladder wall to involve nearby organs such as the colon, rectum, prostate gland, or uterus.

Bladder cancer is more common in smokers and workers in the dye and rubber industries. Haematuria (blood in the urine) is the main symptom of bladder cancer. A tumour may obstruct the entry of a ureter into the bladder, causing back pressure and pain in the kidney region, or may obstruct the urethral exit, causing difficulty in passing, or retention of, urine.

Bladder tumours are diagnosed using cystoscopy and biopsy of the abnormal area. If small, they can be treated by heat or surgically during cystoscopy. They tend to recur at the same or other sites within the bladder, so that regular follow-up cystoscopy is needed. Bladder tumours that have spread through the bladder wall may be treated by radiotherapy or by surgical removal of part or all of the bladder.... bladder tumours

Insertion of a sterile catheter into the bladder to drain urine. The procedure is used when a person is unable to empty the bladder normally or is incontinent (see incontinence, urinary). Urinary catheterization is also used during operations, in bladder function tests such as cystometry and cystourethrography, and to monitor urine production in the critically ill.... catheterization, urinary

A rare birth defect in which the bladder is turned inside out and is open to the outside of the body through a space in the lower abdominal wall.

Usually, there are also other defects, such as epispadias in males and failure of the pubic bones to join at the front.

Surgical treatment involves reconstructing the bladder and closing the abdominal wall.

If the bladder is very small, it is removed and the urine diverted (see urinary diversion).... exstrophy of the bladder

Intermittent, uncontrolled contractions of the muscles in the bladder wall that may cause urge incontinence (see incontinence, urinary). It can occur temporarily if there is a urinary tract infection (see cystitis); a catheter present within the bladder; a bladder stone (see calculus, urinary tract); or an obstruction to the outflow of urine by an enlarged prostate gland. In some cases, symptoms may be relieved by antispasmodic drugs; other treatment is directed at any underlying cause. Bladder training may also be used.... irritable bladder

Another name for irritable bladder.... unstable bladder

See urinary tract.... urinary system

A stone in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder formed from substances in urine.

Most urinary tract stones are composed of calcium oxalate or other salts crystallized from the urine. These may be associated with a diet rich in oxalic acid (found in leafy vegetables and coffee); high levels of calcium in the blood as a result of hyperparathyroidism; or chronic dehydration. Other types of stone are associated with gout and some cancers. An infective stone is usually a result of chronic urinary tract infection.

In developing countries, bladder stones usually occur as a result of dietary deficiencies. In developed countries, they are usually caused by an obstruction to urine flow from the bladder and/or a longstanding urinary tract infection.

The most common symptom of a stone in the kidney or ureter is renal colic (a severe pain in the loin) that may cause nausea and vomiting. There may be haematuria (blood in the urine). A bladder stone is usually indicated by difficulty in passing urine. The site of the stone can usually be confirmed by intravenous or retrograde urography.

Renal colic is treated with bed rest and an opioid analgesic (painkiller).

With an adequate fluid intake, small stones are usually passed in the urine without problems.

The first line of treatment for larger stones is lithotripsy, which uses ultrasonic or shock waves to disintegrate the stones.

Alternatively, cytoscopy can be used to crush and remove stones in the bladder and lower ureter.

In some cases, surgery may be needed.... calculus, urinary tract

Involuntary passing of urine, often due to injury or disease of the urinary tract. There are several types. Stress incontinence refers to the involuntary escape of urine when a person coughs, picks up a heavy package, or moves excessively. It is common in women, particularly after childbirth, when the urethral sphincter muscles are stretched. In urge incontinence, also known as irritable bladder, an urgent desire to pass urine is accompanied by inability to control the bladder as it contracts. Once urination starts, it cannot be stopped. Total incontinence is a complete lack of bladder control due to an absence of sphincter activity, which may be associated with spinal cord damage. Overflow incontinence occurs in longterm urinary retention, often because of an obstruction such as an enlarged prostate gland. The bladder is always full, leading to constant dribbling of urine.Incontinence may also be due to urinary tract disorders (including infections, bladder stones, or tumours) or prolapse of the uterus or vagina. Incontinence due to lack of control by the brain commonly occurs in the young (see enuresis) or elderly and those with learning difficulties.

If weak pelvic muscles are causing stress incontinence, pelvic floor exercises may help. Sometimes, surgery may be needed to tighten the pelvic muscles or correct a prolapse. Anticholinergic drugs may be used to relax the bladder muscle if irritable bladder is the cause.

If normal bladder function cannot be restored, incontinence pants can be worn; men can wear a penile sheath leading into a tube connected to a urine bag. Some people can avoid incontinence by self-catheterization (see catheterization, urinary). Permanent catheterization is necessary in some cases.... incontinence, urinary

Inability to empty the bladder or difficulty in doing so. Urinary retention may be complete (urine cannot be passed voluntarily at all) or incomplete (the bladder fails to empty completely). In males, causes include phimosis, urethral stricture, prostatitis, a stone in the bladder (see calculus, urinary tract), and enlargement or tumour of the prostate (see prostate, enlarged; prostate, cancer of). In females, causes include pressure on the urethra from uterine fibroids or from a fetus. In either sex, the cause may be a bladder tumour. Retention may also be due to defective functioning of the nerve pathways supplying the bladder as a result of general or spinal anaesthesia, drugs affecting the bladder, surgery, injury to the nerve pathways, or disease of the spinal cord.

Complete retention causes discomfort and lower abdominal pain, except when nerve pathways are defective. The full bladder can be felt above the pubic bone. However, chronic or partial retention may not cause any serious symptoms. Retention can lead to kidney damage and, often, a urinary tract infection.Treatment of retention is by catheterization (see catheterization, urinary).

The cause is then investigated.

Obstruction can usually be treated; if nerve damage is the cause, permanent or intermittent catheterization is sometimes necessary.... urinary retention

(bladder enhancement) a surgical method of increasing the capacity of the bladder to provide a safe, functional, and low-pressure storage reservoir for urine. This is usually achieved by ileocystoplasty or ileocaecocystoplasty (see cystoplasty).... bladder augmentation

an operation that involves an incision through the bladder neck that is extended into the prostate to relieve *lower urinary tract symptoms. This procedure is usually performed under a general or spinal anaesthetic through a cystoscope. It is not as extensive as a transurethral resection of the prostate and is therefore associated with a comparatively lower incidence of side-effects.... bladder neck incision

a combined X-ray and manometry examination of the bladder to look for abnormal function. The bladder is filled slowly with contrast medium using a small urinary catheter and the pressure is monitored during filling and voiding (micturition). X-ray images of the bladder and urethra (see urethrography) are taken. The test is used to differentiate between obstruction to bladder outflow and abnormal involuntary contractions of the muscle in the bladder wall.... bladder pressure study

see cystectomy.... bladder replacement

n. see cysticercus.... bladderworm

(LUTS) symptoms occurring during urine storage, voiding, or immediately after. These include *frequency, *urgency, *nocturia, *incontinence, *hesitation, *intermittency, *terminal dribble, *dysuria, and *postmicturition dribble. These symptoms used to be known as prostatism. Sometimes they are due to benign prostatic hyperplasia (see prostate gland), but they may be due to *detrusor overactivity, excessive drinking, diuresis due to poorly controlled diabetes, or a urethral stricture.... lower urinary tract symptoms

An infection anywhere in the urinary tract. It has differing symptoms, depending on the area affected. Urethritis causes a burning sensation when urine is being passed. Cystitis causes a frequent urge to pass urine, lower abdominal pain, haematuria, and, often, general malaise with a mild fever. Pyelonephritis causes fever and pain in the back under the ribs. Cystitis and pyelonephritis are almost always the result of a bacterial infection. Urethritis is often due to a sexually transmitted infection, such as gonorrhoea, but may have other causes. Urethral infections are more common in men. Infections further up the urinary tract are more common in women. In men, there is often a predisposing factor, such as an enlarged prostate gland (see prostate, enlarged). In women, pregnancy is a risk factor.

In both sexes, causes of urinary tract infections include stones (see calculus, urinary tract), bladder tumours, congenital abnormalities of the urinary tract, or defective bladder emptying as a result of spina bifida or a spinal injury. The risks of developing a urinary tract infection can be reduced by strict personal hygiene, drinking lots of fluids, and regularly emptying the bladder.

Urethritis can lead to the formation of a urethral stricture. Cystitis usually only causes complications if the infection spreads to the kidneys. Pyelonephritis, if it is left untreated, can lead to permanent kidney damage, septicaemia, and septic shock.

The infection is diagnosed by the examination of a urine culture. Further investigations using urography or ultrasound scanning may be necessary. Most infections of the urinary tract are treated with antibiotic drugs.... urinary tract infection

see detrusor.... overactive bladder syndrome

Amenorrhoea/lack of menstruation (M,B):

French basil, carrot seed, celery seed, cinnamon leaf, dill, sweet fennel, hops, hyssop, juniper, laurel, lovage, sweet marjoram, myrrh, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Dysmenorrhoea/cramp, painful or difficult menstruation (M,C,B):

Melissa, French basil, carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, frankincense, hops, jasmine, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, sweet marjoram, rose (cabbage & damask), rosemary, sage (clary & Spanish), tarragon, yarrow.

Cystitis (C,B,D):

Canadian balsam, copaiba balsam, bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), celery seed, chamomile (German & Roman), cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, juniper, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), lovage, mastic, niaouli, parsley, Scotch pine, sandalwood, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Frigidity (M,S,B,V):

Cassie, cinnamon leaf, jasmine, neroli, nutmeg, parsley, patchouli, black pepper, cabbage rose, rosewood, clary sage, sandalwood, ylang ylang.

Lack of nursing milk (M):

Celery seed, dill, sweet fennel, hops.

Labour pain & childbirth aid (M,C,B):

Cinnamon leaf, jasmine, true lavender, nutmeg, parsley, rose (cabbage & damask), clary sage.

Leucorrhoea/white discharge from the vagina (B,D):

Bergamot, cedarwood (Atlas, Texas & Virginian), cinnamon leaf, cubebs, eucalyptus blue gum, frankincense, hyssop, lavandin, lavender (spike & true), sweet marjoram, mastic, myrrh, rosemary, clary sage, sandalwood, tea tree, turpentine.

Menopausal problems (M,B,V):

Cypress, sweet fennel, geranium, jasmine, rose (cabbage & damask).

Menorrhagia/excessive menstruation (M,B):

Chamomile (German & Roman), cypress, rose (cabbage & damask).

Premenstrual tension/PMT (M,B,V):

Carrot seed, chamomile (German & Roman), geranium, true lavender, sweet marjoram, neroli, tarragon.

Pruritis/itching (D):

Bergamot, Atlas cedarwood, juniper, lavender, myrrh, tea tree.

Sexual overactivity (M,B):

Hops, sweet marjoram.

Thrush/candida (B,D):

Bergamot, geranium, myrrh, tea tree.

Urethritis (B,D):

Bergamot, cubebs, mastic, tea tree, turpentine.

Immune System

Chickenpox (C,S,B):

Bergamot, chamomile (German & Roman), eucalyptus (blue gum & lemon), true lavender, tea tree.

Colds/’flu (M,B,V,I):

Angelica, star anise, aniseed, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam, French basil, West Indian bay, bergamot, borneol, cabreuva, cajeput, camphor (white), caraway, cinnamon leaf, citronella, clove bud, coriander, eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, frankincense, ginger, grapefruit, immortelle, juniper, laurel, lemon, lime, sweet marjoram, mastic, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, orange (bitter & sweet), pine (longleaf & Scotch), rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, turpentine, yarrow.

Fever (C,B):

French basil, bergamot, borneol, camphor (white), eucalyptus (blue gum, lemon & peppermint), silver fir, ginger, immortelle, juniper, lemon, lemongrass, lime, mint (peppermint & spearmint), myrtle, niaouli, rosemary, rosewood, Spanish sage, hemlock spruce, tea tree, thyme, yarrow.

Measles (S,B,I,V):

Bergamot, eucalyptus blue gum, lavender (spike & true), tea tree.... genito-urinary and endocrine systems