(American) A woman of the forest Woodey, Woodi, Woodie, Woodee, Woodea, Woodeah, Woods
Habitat: West Indies—imported from U.S.A
Features ? Rootbark is a bright, rusty brown, soft and brittle. Short, corky, layered fracture, with many oil cells. Chips of the woody root are commonly used—they are brownish-white in colour, showing concentric rings and slender medullary rays.Part used ? Root, bark of root.Action: Stimulant, diaphoretic (according to Coffin mildly antiseptic and detergent also).
Combined with alteratives for the treatment of skin eruptions and uric and other acid complaints. A decoction of 1 ounce to 1 pint (reduced) is taken in frequent wineglass doses. The decoction is sometimes used externally for ophthalmia.Powdered Sassafras root was formerly (and in some places still is) sold as a substitute for tea or coffee, under the name of salap or saloop.... sassafrasHabitat: Cultivated in gardens.
Features ? Stem woody, to a height of about two feet. Leaves opposite, small, nearly sessile, lanceolate, hairy at margins. Flowers bluish-purple, in small axillary clusters on one side. Camphor-like odour.Part used ? Herb.Action: Stimulant, pectoral, carminative, diaphoretic, febrifuge.
In cough and cold prescriptions, particularly for whooping cough, and in other troubles of infancy. The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion is given in wineglass doses, or according to age.... hyssopNutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: Moderate Fiber: Moderate Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin A, folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium, iron
About the Nutrients in This Food Asparagus has some dietary fiber, vitamin A, and vitamin C. It is an excel- lent source of the B vitamin folate. A serving of four cooked asparagus spears (½ inch wide at the base) has 1.2 g dietary fiber, 604 IU vitamin A (26 percent of the R DA for a woman, 20 percent of the R DA for a man), 4.5 mg vitamin C (6 percent of the R DA for a woman, 5 percent of the R DA for a man), and 89 mcg folate (22 percent of the R DA).
The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Fresh, boiled and drained. Canned asparagus may have less than half the nutrients found in freshly cooked spears.
Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-sodium diet (canned asparagus)
Buying This Food Look for: Bright green stalks. The tips should be purplish and tightly closed; the stalks should be firm. Asparagus is in season from March through August. Avoid: Wilted stalks and asparagus whose buds have opened.
Storing This Food Store fresh asparagus in the refrigerator. To keep it as crisp as possible, wrap it in a damp paper towel and then put the whole package into a plastic bag. Keeping asparagus cool helps it hold onto its vitamins. At 32°F, asparagus will retain all its folic acid for at least two weeks and nearly 80 percent of its vitamin C for up to five days; at room temperature, it would lose up to 75 percent of its folic acid in three days and 50 percent of the vitamin C in 24 hours.
Preparing This Food The white part of the fresh green asparagus stalk is woody and tasteless, so you can bend the stalk and snap it right at the line where the green begins to turn white. If the skin is very thick, peel it, but save the parings for soup stock.
What Happens When You Cook This Food Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes green vegetables green, is sensitive to acids. When you heat asparagus, its chlorophyll will react chemically with acids in the asparagus or in the cooking water to form pheophytin, which is brown. As a result, cooked asparagus is olive-drab. You can prevent this chemical reaction by cooking the asparagus so quickly that there is no time for the chlorophyll to react with acids, or by cooking it in lots of water (which will dilute the acids), or by leaving the lid off the pot so that the volatile acids can float off into the air. Cooking also changes the texture of asparagus: water escapes from its cells and they collapse. Adding salt to the cooking liquid slows the loss of moisture.
How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Canning. The intense heat of can ning makes asparagus soft, robs it of its bright green color, and reduces the vitamin A, B, and C content by at least half. ( White asparagus, which is bleached to remove the green color, contains about 5 percent of the vitamin A in fresh asparagus.) With its liquid, can ned asparagus, green or white, contains about 90 times the sodium in fresh asparagus ( 348 mg in 3.5 oz. can ned against 4 mg in 3.5 oz. fresh boiled asparagus).
Medical Uses and/or Benefits Lower risk of some birth defects. As many as two of every 1,000 babies born in the United States each year may have cleft palate or a neural tube (spinal cord) defect due to their moth- ers’ not having gotten adequate amounts of folate during pregnancy. The R DA for folate is 400 mcg for healthy adult men and women, 600 mcg for pregnant women, and 500 mcg for women who are nursing. Taking folate supplements before becoming pregnant and through the first two months of pregnancy reduces the risk of cleft palate; taking folate through the entire pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Lower risk of heart attack. In the spring of 1998, an analysis of data from the records for more than 80,000 women enrolled in the long-running Nurses’ Health Study at Harvard School of Public Health/Brigham and Woman’s Hospital, in Boston, demonstrated that a diet providing more than 400 mcg folate and 3 mg vitamin B6 daily, from either food or supplements, more than twice the current R DA for each, may reduce a woman’s risk of heart attack by almost 50 percent. Although men were not included in the analysis, the results are assumed to apply to them as well. However, data from a meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in December 2006 called this theory into question. Researchers at Tulane Univer- sity examined the results of 12 controlled studies in which 16,958 patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease were given either folic acid supplements or placebos (“look-alike” pills with no folic acid) for at least six months. The scientists, who found no reduction in the risk of further heart disease or overall death rates among those taking folic acid, concluded that further studies will be required to verify whether taking folic acid supplements reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease.
Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Odorous urine. After eating asparagus, we all excrete the sulfur compound methyl mercap- tan, a smelly waste product, in our urine.
Food/Drug Interactions Anticoagulants. Asparagus is high in vitamin K, a vitamin manufactured naturally by bac- teria in our intestines, an adequate supply of which enables blood to clot normally. Eating foods that contain this vitamin may interfere with the effectiveness of anticoagulants such as heparin and warfarin (Coumadin, Dicumarol, Panwarfin) whose job is to thin blood and dissolve clots.... asparagus
Habitat: Hedgerows, field borders and dry waste places.
Features ? One of our prettiest wild plants, the erect, round, hairy stem reaching a height of two feet. The numerous pinnate leaves, hairy on both sides, and 5-6 inches long, grow alternately, having 3-5 pairs of lanceolate, toothed leaflets, with intermediate smaller ones, and still smaller ones between these. The many small, star-like, bright yellow flowers are arranged in long, tapering spikes. The root is woody, and the seeds form little burs, the taste being astringent and slightly bitter.Part used ? The whole herb.Action: Acts as a mild astringent, tonic and diuretic, these qualities being useful in loose coughs and relaxed bowels.
Agrimony is an old remedy for debility, as it gives tone to the wholesystem. It is administered as a decoction of one ounce to 1 1/2 pints water, simmered down to 1 pint, in half teacupful or larger doses, and may be sweetened with honey or black treacle if desired. The herb has been recommended for dyspepsia, but is probably only useful in this disorder when carefully combined with other more directly operating agents.... agrimonyNutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: Moderate Fiber: Very high Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin A, folate, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Calcium
About the Nutrients in This Food Broccoli is very high-fiber food, an excellent source of vitamin A, the B vitamin folate, and vitamin C. It also has some vitamin E and vitamin K, the blood-clotting vitamin manufactured primarily by bacteria living in our intestinal tract. One cooked, fresh broccoli spear has five grams of dietary fiber, 2,500 IU vitamin A (108 percent of the R DA for a woman, 85 percent of the R DA for a man), 90 mcg folate (23 percent of the R DA), and 130 mg vitamin C (178 percent of the R DA for a woman, 149 percent of the R DA for a man).
The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Raw. Studies at the USDA Agricultural Research Center in Beltsville, Maryland, show that raw broccoli has up to 40 percent more vitamin C than broccoli that has been cooked or frozen.
Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Antiflatulence diet Low-fiber diet
Buying This Food Look for: Broccoli with tightly closed buds. The stalk, leaves, and florets should be fresh, firm, and brightly colored. Broccoli is usually green; some varieties are tinged with purple. Avoid: Broccoli with woody stalk or florets that are open or turning yellow. When the green chlorophyll pigments fade enough to let the yellow carotenoids underneath show through, the buds are about to bloom and the broccoli is past its prime.
Storing This Food Pack broccoli in a plastic bag and store it in the refrigerator or in the vegetable crisper to protect its vitamin C. At 32°F, fresh broccoli can hold onto its vitamin C for as long as two weeks. Keep broccoli out of the light; like heat, light destroys vitamin C.
Preparing This Food First, rinse the broccoli under cool running water to wash off any dirt and debris clinging to the florets. Then put the broccoli, florets down, into a pan of salt water (1 tsp. salt to 1 qt. water) and soak for 15 to 30 minutes to drive out insects hiding in the florets. Then cut off the leaves and trim away woody section of stalks. For fast cooking, divide the broccoli up into small florets and cut the stalk into thin slices.
What Happens When You Cook This Food The broccoli stem contains a lot of cellulose and will stay firm for a long time even through the most vigorous cooking, but the cell walls of the florets are not so strongly fortified and will soften, eventually turning to mush if you cook the broccoli long enough. Like other cruciferous vegetables, broccoli contains mustard oils (isothiocyanates), natural chemicals that break down into a variety of smelly sulfur compounds (including hydrogen sulfide and ammonia) when the broccoli is heated. The reaction is more intense in aluminum pots. The longer you cook broccoli, the more smelly compounds there will be, although broccoli will never be as odorous as cabbage or cauliflower. Keeping a lid on the pot will stop the smelly molecules from floating off into the air but will also accelerate the chemical reaction that turns green broccoli olive-drab. Chlorophyll, the pigment that makes green vegetables green, is sensitive to acids. When you heat broccoli, the chlorophyll in its florets and stalk reacts chemically with acids in the broccoli or in the cooking water to form pheophytin, which is brown. The pheophytin turns cooked broccoli olive-drab or (since broccoli contains some yellow carotenes) bronze. To keep broccoli green, you must reduce the interaction between the chlorophyll and the acids. One way to do this is to cook the broccoli in a large quantity of water, so the acids will be diluted, but this increases the loss of vitamin C.* Another alternative is to leave the lid off the pot so that the hydrogen atoms can float off into the air, but this allows the smelly sulfur compounds to escape, too. The best way is probably to steam the broccoli quickly with very little water, so it holds onto its vitamin C and cooks before there is time for reac- tion between chlorophyll and hydrogen atoms to occur.
How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Freezing. Frozen broccoli usually contains less vitamin C than fresh broccoli. The vitamin is lost when the broccoli is blanched to inactivate catalase and peroxidase, enzymes that would otherwise continue to ripen the broccoli in the freezer. On the other hand, according to researchers at Cornell University, blanching broccoli in a microwave oven—two cups of broccoli in three tablespoons of water for three minutes at 600 –700 watts—nearly doubles the amount of vitamin C retained. In experiments at Cornell, frozen broccoli blanched in a microwave kept 90 percent of its vitamin C, compared to 56 percent for broccoli blanched in a pot of boiling water on top of a stove.
Medical Uses and/or Benefits Protection against some cancers. Naturally occurring chemicals (indoles, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, dithiolethiones, and phenols) in Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cabbage, cauli- flower, and other cruciferous vegetables appear to reduce the risk of some forms of cancer, perhaps by preventing the formation of carcinogens in your body or by blocking cancer- causing substances from reaching or reacting with sensitive body tissues or by inhibiting the transformation of healthy cells to malignant ones. All cruciferous vegetables contain sulforaphane, a member of a family of chemicals known as isothiocyanates. In experiments with laboratory rats, sulforaphane appears to increase the body’s production of phase-2 enzymes, naturally occurring substances that inacti- vate and help eliminate carcinogens. At the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, 69 percent of the rats injected with a chemical known to cause mammary cancer developed tumors vs. only 26 percent of the rats given the carcinogenic chemical plus sulforaphane. To get a protective amount of sulforaphane from broccoli you would have to eat about two pounds a week. But in 1997, Johns Hopkins researchers discovered that broccoli seeds and three-day-old broccoli sprouts contain a compound converted to sulforaphane when the seed and sprout cells are crushed. Five grams of three-day-old sprouts contain as much sulphoraphane as 150 grams of mature broccoli. * Broccoli will lose large amounts of vitamin C if you cook it in water t hat is cold when you start. As it boils, water releases ox ygen t hat would ot her wise dest roy vitamin C, so you can cut t he vitamin loss dramat ically simply by lett ing t he water boil for 60 seconds before adding t he broccoli. Vision protection. In 2004, the Johns Hopkins researchers updated their findings on sulfora- phane to suggest that it may also protect cells in the eyes from damage due to ultraviolet light, thus reducing the risk of macular degeneration, the most common cause of age-related vision loss. Lower risk of some birth defects. Up to two or every 1,000 babies born in the United States each year may have cleft palate or a neural tube (spinal cord) defect due to their mothers’ not having gotten adequate amounts of folate during pregnancy. The current R DA for folate is 180 mcg for a woman, 200 mcg for a man, but the FDA now recommends 400 mcg for a woman who is or may become pregnant. Taking a folate supplement before becoming pregnant and continuing through the first two months of pregnancy reduces the risk of cleft palate; taking folate through the entire pregnancy reduces the risk of neural tube defects. Broccoli is a good source of folate. One raw broccoli spear has 107 mcg folate, more than 50 percent of the R DA for an adult. Possible lower risk of heart attack. In the spring of 1998, an analysis of data from the records for more than 80,000 women enrolled in the long-running Nurses’ Health Study at Harvard School of Public Health/Brigham and Women’s Hospital, in Boston, demonstrated that a diet providing more than 400 mcg folate and 3 mg vitamin B6 daily, either from food or supple- ments, might reduce a woman’s risk of heart attack by almost 50 percent. Although men were not included in the study, the results were assumed to apply to them as well. However, data from a meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association in December 2006 called this theory into question. Researchers at Tulane Univer- sity examined the results of 12 controlled studies in which 16,958 patients with preexisting cardiovascular disease were given either folic acid supplements or placebos (“look-alike” pills with no folic acid) for at least six months. The scientists, who found no reduction in the risk of further heart disease or overall death rates among those taking folic acid, concluded that further studies will be required to ascertain whether taking folic acid supplements reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease. Possible inhibition of the herpes virus. Indoles, another group of chemicals in broccoli, may inhibit the growth of some herpes viruses. In 2003, at the 43rd annual Interscience Confer- ence on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, in Chicago, researchers from Stockholm’s Huddinge University Hospital, the University of Virginia, and Northeastern Ohio University reported that indole-3-carbinol (I3C) in broccoli stops cells, including those of the herpes sim- plex virus, from reproducing. In tests on monkey and human cells, I3C was nearly 100 percent effective in blocking reproduction of the HSV-1 (oral and genital herpes) and HSV-2 (genital herpes), including one strain known to be resistant to the antiviral drug acyclovir (Zovirax).
Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Enlarged thyroid gland. Cruciferous vegetables, including broccoli, contain goitrin, thio- cyanate, and isothiocyanate, chemical compounds that inhibit the formation of thyroid hormones and cause the thyroid to enlarge in an attempt to produce more. These chemicals, known collectively as goitrogens, are not hazardous for healthy people who eat moderate amounts of cruciferous vegetables, but they may pose problems for people who have thyroid problems or are taking thyroid medication. False-positive test for occult blood in the stool. The guaiac slide test for hidden blood in feces relies on alphaguaiaconic acid, a chemical that turns blue in the presence of blood. Broccoli contains peroxidase, a natural chemical that also turns alphaguaiaconic acid blue and may produce a positive test in people who do not actually have blood in the stool.
Food/Drug Interactions Anticoagulants Broccoli is rich in vitamin K, the blood-clotting vitamin produced natu- rally by bacteria in the intestines. Consuming large quantities of this food may reduce the effectiveness of anticoagulants (blood thinners) such as warfarin (Coumadin). One cup of drained, boiled broccoli contains 220 mcg vitamin K, nearly four times the R DA for a healthy adult.... broccoli
Habitat: Indigenous to North America.
Features ? Root is nearly three-quarters of an inch thick, light brown, transversely- wrinkled bark, easily parting from white, woody centre ; groups of stone cells in outer bark. Whole plant gives a gelatinous, milky juice when wounded.Part used ? Root.Action: Cathartic, diuretic, detergent, emetic, tonic.
2-5 grains thrice daily as a general tonic, useful in dyspepsia. 5-15 grain doses in cardiac dropsy. Has been recommended in the treatment of Bright's disease. Large doses cause vomiting. Tendency to gripe can be eliminated by adding Peppermint, Calamus or other carminative.... bitter rootNutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: Moderate Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: Moderate Sodium: Moderate Major vitamin contribution: Vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium, phosphorus
About the Nutrients in This Food Celeriac is the starchy root of a variety of celery with moderate amounts of dietary fiber and vitamin C. One-half cup cooked celeriac has one gram dietary fiber and 4 mg vitamin C (5 percent of the R DA for a woman, 4 percent of the R DA for a man), and 134 mg potassium—about 40 percent as much potassium as one medium orange.
The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Fresh sliced in salads to protect the vitamin C.
Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Low-fiber diet Low-sodium diet
Buying This Food Look for: firm, small-to-medium, sprout-free celeriac roots Avoid: large roots. Larger celeriac roots contain more cellulose and lignin, which gives them a “woody” texture.
Storing This Food Do remove green tops from celeriac before storing the root. Do refrigerate celeriac in plastic bags or in the vegetable crisper; it will keep fresh for about a week.
Preparing This Food Scrub celeriac under cold running water. Cut off leaves, and extra root buds. Peel the root, slice it and either use it raw in salads or boil it to serve as a vegetable side dish. When you cut into the celeriac, you tear its cell walls, releasing polyphenoloxidase, an enzyme that will turn the vegetable brown. You can slow the reaction (but not stop it completely) by dipping peeled, sliced raw celeriac in an acid such as lemon juice or a solution of vinegar and water.
What Happens When You Cook This Food When celeriac is heated, the soluble fibers in its cell walls dissolves; the cooked vegetable is softer.
Medical Uses and/or Benefits Lower risk of stroke. Potassium lowers blood pressure. According to new data from the Harvard University Health Professionals Study, a long-running survey of male doctors, a diet rich in high-potassium foods such as bananas may also reduce the risk of stroke. The men who ate the most potassium-rich foods (an average nine servings a day) had 38 percent fewer strokes than men who ate the least (less than four servings a day).... celeriac
Habitat: Waysides, field borders, waste land.
Features ? Stem grows to three feet, upstanding, rigid, tough, many branches at obtuse angles. Lower leaves large, margins coarsely notched, projecting lobes ; upper, small,sessile, less divided. Flowers, delicate greyish-blue, many strap-like petals, stalkless, two or three together between leaves and stem. Root brownish ; reticulated white layers surround radiate, woody column.Part used ? Root.Action: Hepatic, laxative, diuretic.
Jaundice and other liver disorders, gout and rheumatism. This root, when roasted and ground, is mixed with coffee, to the benefit of drinkers of that beverage.... chicoryNutritional Profile Energy value (calories per serving): Low Protein: High Fat: Low Saturated fat: Low Cholesterol: None Carbohydrates: High Fiber: High Sodium: Low Major vitamin contribution: B vitamins, vitamin C Major mineral contribution: Potassium
About the Nutrients in This Food Cauliflower is an excellent source of vitamin C and a moderately good source of folate, a member of the B vitamin family. One-half cup cooked fresh cauliflower florets (the top of the plant) has one gram dietary fiber, 13.5 mcg folate (3 percent of the R DA), and 35 mg vitamin C (50 percent of the R DA for a woman, 39 percent of the R DA for a man).
The Most Nutritious Way to Serve This Food Raw or lightly steamed to protect the vitamin C. Cooked or frozen cauli-flower may have up to 50 percent less vitamin C than raw cauliflower.
Diets That May Restrict or Exclude This Food Antiflatulence diet Low-fiber diet
Buying This Food Look for: Creamy white heads with tight, compact florets and fresh green leaves. The size of the cauliflower has no bearing on its nutritional value or its taste. Avoid: Cauliflower with brown spots or patches.
Storing This Food Keep cauliflower in a cool, humid place to safeguard its vitamin C content.
Preparing This Food Pull off and discard any green leaves still attached to the cauliflower and slice off the woody stem and core. Then plunge the cauliflower, head down, into a bowl of salted ice water to flush out any insects hiding in the head. To keep the cauliflower crisp when cooked, add a teaspoon of vinegar to the water. You can steam or bake the cauliflower head whole or break it up into florets for faster cooking.
What Happens When You Cook This Food Cauliflower contains mustard oils (isothiocyanates), natural chemicals that give the vegeta- ble its taste but break down into a variety of smelly sulfur compounds (including hydrogen sulfide and ammonia) when the cauliflower is heated. The longer you cook the cauliflower, the better it will taste but the worse it will smell. Adding a slice of bread to the cooking water may lessen the odor; keeping a lid on the pot will stop the smelly molecules from floating off into the air. Cooking cauliflower in an aluminum pot will intensif y its odor and turn its creamy white anthoxanthin pigments yellow; iron pots will turn anthoxanthins blue green or brown. Like red and blue anthocyanin pigments (see beets, black ber r ies, blueber r ies), antho- xanthins hold their color best in acids. To keep cauliflower white, add a tablespoon of lemon juice, lime juice, vinegar, or milk to the cooking water. Steaming or stir-frying cauliflower preserves the vitamin C that would be lost if the vegetable were cooked for a long time or in a lot of water.
How Other Kinds of Processing Affect This Food Freezing. Before it is frozen, cauliflower must be blanched to inactivate catalase and per- oxidase, enzymes that would otherwise continue to ripen and eventually deteriorate the vegetable. According to researchers at Cornell University, cauliflower will lose less vitamin C if it is blanched in very little water (two cups cauliflower in two tbsp. water) in a microwave- safe plastic bag in a microwave oven for four minutes at 600 –700 watts. Leave the bag open an inch at the top so steam can escape and the bag does not explode.
Medical Uses and/or Benefits Protection against certain cancers. Naturally occurring chemicals (indoles, isothiocyanates, glucosinolates, dithiolethiones, and phenols) in cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cab- bage, and other cruciferous vegetables appear to reduce the risk of some cancers, perhaps by preventing the formation of carcinogens in your body or by blocking cancer-causing substances from reaching or reacting with sensitive body tissues or by inhibiting the trans- formation of healthy cells to malignant ones. All cruciferous vegetables contain sulforaphane, a member of a family of chemicals known as isothiocyanates. In experiments with laboratory rats, sulforaphane appears to increase the body’s production of phase-2 enzymes, naturally occurring substances that inacti- vate and help eliminate carcinogens. At the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, 69 percent of the rats injected with a chemical known to cause mammary cancer developed tumors vs. only 26 percent of the rats given the carcinogenic chemical plus sulforaphane. In 1997, Johns Hopkins researchers discovered that broccoli seeds and three-day-old broccoli sprouts contain a compound converted to sulforaphane when the seed and sprout cells are crushed. Five grams of three-day-old broccoli sprouts contain as much sulforaphane as 150 grams of mature broccoli. The sulforaphane levels in other cruciferous vegetables have not yet been calculated. Vision protection. In 2004, the Johns Hopkins researchers updated their findings on sul- foraphane to suggest that it may also protect cells in the eyes from damage due to UV (ultraviolet) light, thus reducing the risk of macular degeneration, the most common cause of age-related vision loss.
Adverse Effects Associated with This Food Enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). Cruciferous vegetables, including cauliflower, contain goi- trin, thiocyanate, and isothiocyanate. These chemicals, known collectively as goitrogens, inhibit the formation of thyroid hormones and cause the thyroid to enlarge in an attempt to produce more. Goitrogens are not hazardous for healthy people who eat moderate amounts of cruciferous vegetables, but they may pose problems for people who have a thyroid condi- tion or are taking thyroid medication. Intestinal gas. Bacteria that live naturally in the gut degrade the indigestible carbohydrates (food fiber) in cauliflower, producing intestinal gas that some people find distressing.
Food/Drug Interactions Anticoagulants (blood thinners). All cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, brussels sprouts, cab- bages, cauliflower, greens, radishes, and turnips) are high in vitamin K, a nutrient that decreases the anticoagulant effect of medicine such as warfarin (Coumadin). Multiple serv- ings of this vegetable, i.e., several days a week, may interfere with the anticoagulant effect of the drug. False-positive test for occult blood in the stool. The active ingredient in the guaiac slide test for hid- den blood in feces is alphaguaiaconic acid, a chemical that turns blue in the presence of blood. Cauliflower contains peroxidase, a natural chemical that also turns alphaguaiaconic acid blue and may produce a positive test in people who do not actually have blood in the stool.... cauliflower
Habitat: Deccan Peninsula; common in the forest areas of Western Ghats.
Unani: Desi Ushbaa.Siddha/Tamil: Mahali kizhangu.Action: Root—appetizer, blood purifier, bacteriostatic. Used as a substitute for Shveta Saarivaa (Hemidesmus indicus). Sold as Saarivaa in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The root powder is given to diabetics.
The root contains quercetin, kaempferol, coumarin and rutin. It has a sweet sarsaparilla-like taste; contains 92% fleshy matter and 8% woody core.The root can be stored for longer periods and remains unaffected by microorganisms and insects, apparently due to the presence of the volatile principle which possesses bacteriostat- ic and toxic properties.The root, on steam distillation, gave 4-O-methyl-resorcylaldehyde in a concentration of 0.8%. (The growth of E. coli was arrested by the aldehyde in 0.041% concentration; fish died within 4 min in 0.02% solution.) The sterols consists mainly of stagma and brassica sterols. Alpha-amyrin and lupeol, both free and as esters are also present in the root.The plant contains lupeol, beta- amyrin 2-hydroxy, 4-methoxy benzaldehyde, and ferulic acid.... decalepis hamiltoniiHabitat: Low-lying meadows, sides of ditches.
Features ? Stem strong, woody, reddish hue, three or four feet high. Leaves in large and small pairs, alternate, serrate ; end leaf has three leaflets with longer one in middle ; dark green on top surface, white and downy underneath. Flowers small, creamy white, clustered in large, dense cymes.Part used ? Herb.Action: Astringent, diuretic, aromatic, tonic.
The 1 ounce to 1 pint infusion is taken in wineglassful doses for stranguryand dropsy. It is especially useful in infantile diarrhea.Meadowsweet is included in recipes for many herb beers, its pleasantly aromatic, tonic and diuretic qualities making it particularly suitable for this purpose.... meadowsweetBen: Dalim;
Tam: Madalai, Madalam;Mal: Urumampazham, Matalam, Talimatala m, Matalanarakam; Kan :Dalimbe;Tel: Dadima; Mar: Dalimba;Guj: Dadam; Ass: DalinImportance: Pomegranate has long been esteemed as food and medicine and as a diet in convalescence after diarrhoea. The rind of the fruit is highly effective in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery, dyspepsia, colitis, piles and uterine disorders. The powdered drug boiled with buttermilk is an efficacious reme dy for infantile diarrohoea. The root and stem bark are good for tapeworm and for strengthening the gums. The flowers are useful in vomiting, vitiated conditions of pitta, ophthalmodynia, ulcers, pharyngodynia and hydrocele. An extract of the flowers is very specific for epistaxis. The fruits are useful in anaemia, hyperdipsia, pharyngodynia, ophthalmodynia, pectoral diseases, splenopathy, bronchitis and otalgia. The fruit rind is good for dysentery, diarrhoea and gastralgia. Seeds are good for scabies, hepatopathy and splenopathy. The important preparations using the drug are Dadimadighrtam, Dadimastaka churnam, Hinguvacadi churnam, Hingvadi gulika, etc (Sivarajan et al, 1994, Warrier et al, 1995).Distribution: Pomegranate is a native of Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. It is found growing wild in the warm valleys and outer hills of the Himalaya between 900m and 1800m altitude. It is cultivated throughout India, the largest area being in Maharastra.Botany: Punica granatum Linn. belongs to the family Punicaceace. It is a large deciduous shrub up to 10m in height with smooth dark grey bark and often spinescent branchlets. Leaves are opposite, glabrous, minutely pellucid-punctuate, shining above and bright green beneath. Flowers are scarlet red or sometime yellow, mostly solitary, sometimes 2-4 held together. Stamens are numerous and inserted on the calyx below the petals at various levels. Fruits are globose, crowned by the persistent calyx. Rind is coriaceous and woody, interior septate with membraneous walls containing numerous seeds. Seeds are angular with red, pink or whitish, fleshy testa (Warrier et al, 1995).Agrotechnology: Pomegranate is of deciduous nature in areas where winters are cold, but on the plains it is evergreen. A hot dry summer aids in the production of best fruits. Plants are grown from seeds as well as cuttings. Mature wood pieces cut into lengths of about 30cm are planted for rooting. The rooted plants are planted 4.5-6m apart. When planted close, they form a hedge which also yields fruits. Normal cultivation and irrigation practices are satisfactory for the pomegranate. An application of 30-45kg of FYM annually to each tree helps to produce superior quality fruits. The pomegranate may be trained as a tree with a single stem for 30-45cm or as a bush with 3 or 4 main stems. In either case suckers arising from the roots and similar growths from the trunk and main branches are removed once a year. Shortening of long slender branches and occasional thinning of branches should be done. The fruit has a tough rind and hence transportation loss is minimum (ICAR, 1966).Properties and activity: Pomegranate fruit rind gives an ellagitannin named granatin B, punicalagin, punicalin and ellagic acid. Bark contains the alkaloids such as iso-pelletierine, pseudopelletierine, methyl isopelletierine, methyl pelletierine, pelletierine as well as iso-quercetin, friedelin, D- mannitol and estrone. Flowers give pelargonidin-3, 5-diglucoside apart from sitosterol, ursolic acid, maslinic acid, asiatic acid, sitosterol- -D-glucoside and gallic acid. Seeds give malvidin pentose glycoside. Rind gives pentose glycosides of malvidin and pentunidin. Fluoride, calcium, magnesium, vitamin C and phosphate are also reported from fruits. Leaves give elligatannins-granatins A and B and punicafolin.Rind of fruit is astringent, fruit is laxative. Bark of stem and root is anthelmintic, and febrifuge. Rind of fruit and bark of stem and root is antidiarrhoeal. Pericarp possesses antifertility effect. Fixed oil from seeds are antibacterial. Bark, fruit pulp, flower and leaf are antifungal. Aerial part is CNS depressant, diuretic and hypothermic. The flower buds of pomegranate in combination with other plants showed excellent response to the patients of Giardiasis (Mayer et al, 1977; Singhal et al, 1983).... pomegranateHabitat: By waterways; luxuriantly on river islands and banks.
Features ? Stem four- (sometimes six-) sided, up to four feet high. Leaves in pairs, threes or fours, nearly sessile, lanceolate, margins entire, two to five inches long. Flowers (July to September) large, reddish-purple, six to eight in rings round the stalk. Root woody.Part used ? Herb.Action: Febrifuge, astringent, alterative.
Chiefly in feverish conditions with other herbs. Sometimes as an astringent in diarrhea. Used alone, simmer 1 ounce in 1 1/2 pints water for ten minutes. Dose, wineglassful as required.... purple loose-strifeHabitat: Introduced to Kashmir for experimental cultivation.
Ayurvedic: Kantakaari (related species).Action: An important source of solasodine, a nitrogen analogue of diosgenin and one of the starting materials for the synthesis of corticosteroids and other steroidal hormones.
See S. xanthocarpum. The leaves, stems, flowers and green fruits contain the glycoalkaloid, solaso- nine, of which solasodine is the agly- cone. Besides solasonine, the plantFamily: Solanaceae.Habitat: The temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of 1,200-2,400 m.
English: Woody Night Shade, Bittersweet, Bitter Nightshade, Felonwort.Ayurvedic: Kaakamaachi-vishesha, Valli-kantakaarikaa.Unani: Mako (red var.).Action: Twigs and root bark— stimulating, expectorant, hepatic, astringent, antirheumatic, alterative, antifungal. Dried branches— sedative and analgesic. Used for chronic bronchitis, chronic eczema and rheumatism.
Key application: As a supportive therapy for chronic eczema. (German Commission E.)The plant is rich in alkaloidal glyco- sides. Alpha-, beta-, gamma-solamari- ne were isolated from the fruits. Toma- tidenol I existed in the plant as alpha- and beta-solamarine. Solasodine was obtained in traces as secondary alkaloid; it existed as solasonine and sola- margine. Aerial parts gave alpha-and beta-soladulcine, the glycoalkaloids. The sterols were present in free form and as esters, glucosides and palmitic esters of glucosides.Beta-solamarine shows significant tumour-inhibiting activity. Steroidal saponins are antifungal; alkaloids are anticholinergic; solasodine exhibit antiphlogistic activity.... solanum dulcamaraHabitat: Hedges and woods.
Features ? The upright, woody but slender stem, branching from the upper part only, attains a height of between one and two feet. The leaves are stalkless and elliptical in shape, about half an inch long, grow in pairs on opposite sides of the stem and branches and, in addition to the transparent dots noticed above, are sometimes marked with black spots on the under side. Numerous bright yellow flowers, dotted and streaked with dark purple, cluster, in June and July, at the ends of side branches and stem. A bitter, astringent taste is remarked.Action: Expectorant, diuretic and astringent.
Indicated in coughs, colds, and disorders of the urinary system. It was prescribed more often by the English herbal school of a hundred years ago than it is to-day, and was noticed as far back as Culpeper for "wounds, hurts and bruises." Indeed, an infusion of the fresh flowers in Olive oil, to make the "Oil of St. John's Wort," is still used as an application to wounds, swellings, and ulcers. Internally, the infusion of 1 ounce of the herb to 1 pint of boiling water is taken in wineglass doses.In America St. John's Wort grows freely in the cornfields, which proximity was held by Tilke to operate beneficially upon both herb and grain. Discussing American wheat which has grown among quantities of St. John's Wort he tells us ? "It is well known, by almost every baker who works in his business, that this flour improves the quality of the bread, byhaving a small quantity of it in every batch, particularly in seasons when the English flour is of inferior quality. A clever author informs us that it contains one-fourth more gluten than our famous wheats grown in Gloucestershire, known by the name of 'rivets.' " Tilke was himself a baker in his early days.... st. john's wortHabitat: A woody, shrubby vine, cultivated in Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu for edible fruits.
English: Wine Grape, European Grape. (Chinese: P'u-t'ao.)Ayurvedic: Draakshaa, Go-stani, Mrdvikaa. Dehydrated fruit— Daakh, Munnakaa, Kishmish.Unani: Angoor. Dehydrated fruit—Daakh, Maweez, Zabeeb, Munaqqaa, Kishmish.Siddha: Draksha.Action: Dried fruits, seedless— nourishing and invigorating. Used in prescriptions for cough, respiratory tract catarrh, subacute cases of enlarged liver and spleen; and in alcohol-based tonics (Aasavs).
The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIn- dia recommends dried mature fruits (5-10 g) in anaemia, jaundice, dyspepsia, constipation, haemorrhagic diseases, gout, cough, dyspnoea, and alcoholism.Grape vine contains flavonoids, tannins, tartrates, inositol, carotenes, cho- line and sugars. The fruit contains tar- taric and malic acids, sugars, pectin, tannin, flavone glycosides, vitamins A, B1, B2, C and minerals; anthocyanins in red leaves and red grapes. Antho- cyanins reduce capillary permeability. Red leaves are astringent and anti- inflammatory; an infusion is used for diarrhoea, heavy menstrual bleeding and uterine haemorrhage; also in the treatment of varicose veins and haemorrhoids.Oligomeric proanthocyanidin extract of the seed is used in atherosclerosis due to its free radical scavenging ability, also in venous insufficiency, night vision, oedema due to injury and post surgery oedema.Proanthocyanidin extract decreased hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen in mice. Grape polyphenols, extracted from skin and seeds decreased hepatic injury from alcohol, but had no effect on ethanol-induced lipid changes in rats. (Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage: Dried mature fruits—5-10 g. (API, Vol. III.)... vitis viniferaFAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS: Copahu balsam, copaiba, copaiva, Jesuit’s balsam, Maracaibo balsam, para balsam.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Wild-growing tropical tree up to 18 metres high, with thick foliage and many branches. The natural oleoresin occurs as a physiological product from various Copaifera species. Not a ‘true’ balsam.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to north east and central South America. Mainly produced in Brazil; also Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and Colombia.
OTHER SPECIES: Several Copaifera speices yield an oleoresin: the Venezuelan type ‘Maracaibo balsam’ has a low oil content, the Brazilian type ‘para balsam’ has a high oil content. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used for centuries in Europe in the treatment of chronic cystitis and bronchitis; also for treating piles, chronic diarrhoea and intestinal problems.
ACTIONS: Batericidal, balsamic, disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: 1. The crude balsam is collected by drilling holes into the tree trunks; it is one of the most plentiful naturally occurring perfume materials. 2. An essential oil is obtained by dry distillation from the crude balsam. It is mainly the ‘para balsams’ with a high oil content (60–80 per cent), which are used for distillation.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The crude balsam is a viscous, yellowy-brown or greenish-grey liquid which hardens upon exposure to air with a mild, woody, slightly spicy odour. It blends well with styrax, amyris, lavandin, cedarwood, lavender, oakmoss, woods and spices. 2. The oil is a pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a mild, sweet, balsamic-peppery odour. It blends well with cananga, ylang ylang, vanilla, jasmine, violet and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly caryophyllene.
SAFETY DATA: Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Large doses cause vomiting and diarrhoea.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE:
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Intestinal infections, piles.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, colds, coughs, etc.
Genito-Rinary System: Cystitis.
Nervous System: Stress-related conditons.
OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in pharmaceutical products especially cough medicines and iuretics. The oil and crude balsam are extensively used as a fixative and fragrance component in all types of perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and detergents. The crude is also used in porcelain painting.
BALSAM, PERU... balsam, copaiba
FAMILY: Betulaceae
SYNONYMS: B. capinefolia, cherry birch, southern birch, mahogany birch, mountain mahogany.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful tree about 25 metres high which has a pyramidal shape while young. It has bright green leaves and a dark reddish-brown aromatic bark, which is broken into plates or patches.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Canada and southeastern USA; produced mainly in Pennsylvania.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous species of birch, spanning several continents, such as black birch (B. nigra) found in North America. Not to be confused with the European white birch (B. alba), which produces birch tar oil used in chronic skin diseases.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The cambium (the layer directly under the bark) is eaten in the spring, cut into strips like vermicelli. The bark, in the form of an infusion, is used as a general stimulant and to promote sweating. As a decoction or syrup, it is used as a tonic for dysentery and is said to be useful in genito-urinary irritation. The flavour of wintergreen and birch bark, in the form of a tea, was popular with the American Indians and European settlers. More recently, this has been translated into a preference for ‘root beer’ flavourings.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, depurative, diuretic, rubefacient, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the bark macerated in warm water.
CHARACTERISTICS: Colourless, pale yellow or reddish tinted liquid with an intense, sweet-woody, wintergreen-like scent.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Almost entirely methyl salicylate (98 per cent), produced during the maceration process. It is almost identical in composition to wintergreen oil.
SAFETY DATA: Methyl salicylate, the major constituent, is not exactly toxic but very harmful in concentration.’ It can be absorbed through the skin, and fatal poisoning via this route has been reported.’. ’ It is also classed as an enviromental hazard or marine pollutant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Limited use as a counter-irritant in anti-arthritic and antineuralgic ointments and analgesic balms. Limited use as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes; extensively used as a flavouring agent, especially ‘root beer’, chewing gum, toothpaste, etc. (usually very low-level use).... birch, sweet
Perhaps the simplest base is lard or butter, as used by Maria Treben. 2 handfuls (4oz or 120g) finely chopped herbs are digested in 500g lard or butter. Heat gently one hour. Stand overnight. Should be sufficiently fluid next morning to filter through muslin or a wire-mesh strainer. Pour into jars. Very effective but its life is not more than a few weeks.
((a) Vaseline base. Dissolve vaseline. Place 1oz (handful) fresh herb (say . . . Chickweed) or tablespoon dried herb (or 2 teaspoons powder) in 7oz (100g) vaseline melted in low heat. Simmer gently 15 minutes, stirring all the time. Strain through a wire-mesh strainer while hot and pour into air-tight containers.
(b) Vaseline base. To incorporate essential oils; i.e. Oil of Eucalyptus 2ml; Oil of Pine 1ml; Oil of Peppermint 2ml; vaseline to 30 gram. Melt the vaseline. Add oils. Stir until cold. Makes a useful inhalant ointment applied directly to the frontal sinus areas, or inhaled from boiling water. (Fred Fletcher Hyde) (c) Mixed base, suitable for holding liquid extracts, tinctures. Ingredients: parts, Almond oil 12; Liquid Extract (say . . . Comfrey) 5; powdered gum Acacia 3; water (preferably distilled) to 100.
Method: Rub together a small equal amount of well-sieved Acacia powder and water to form a paste – best performed in a pestle and mortar. Add the Almond oil. Mix. Add liquid extract, tincture or oil slowly until a good consistency is reached. Slowly add remaining water and stir. Store in airtight glass jars.
(d) Olive and Beeswax base. Ingredients: 2oz beeswax; 16oz Olive oil.
Method: cut beeswax into slices and dissolve in the Olive oil on a low heat. Stir until all beeswax is dissolved. Place in a stone jar or pyrex vessel 12oz aerial parts of fresh herb material (Marigold, Plantain, Chickweed etc) or 4oz hard woody parts, roots or barks (Comfrey, Marshmallow, etc). Pour on the Olive oil and beeswax. Place in a warm oven for 3 hours; give an occasional stir. While still hot, strain through a wire-mesh strainer into pots. Store in a refrigerator. Where powders are used, the proportion is 2oz for every 16oz Olive oil.
((e) Coconut oil base. Dissolve 7 parts Coconut oil. Add 5 parts powdered herbs and 6 parts beeswax. Simmer gently 1 and a half hours. Strain through warm wire mesh strainer or muslin. Filter if necessary. Pour into jars.
(f) Pile ointment. Prepare, vaseline base. Add, Liquid Extract Pilewort 5 per cent, Liquid Extract Witch Hazel 5 per cent; Tincture Benzoin 5 per cent; Menthol 2 and a half per cent.
((g) Pain Reliever. Prepare, vaseline base. Add Menthol 2 per cent; Eucalyptus 2 per cent; Camphor 2 per cent; Oil of Mustard 0.2 per cent.
(h) Russian traditional. It is still common in country practice to simmer popular herbs (Marigold, Arnica, St John’s Wort) in butter, as above.
Preservatives. Length of life of above ointments is increased by addition of Benzoic acid, Nipagen, etc. Benzoinated lard was once a popular base used in pharmacy. Ointments containing volatile oils should be kept in porcelain or glass pots in preference to synthetic containers. All ointments should be stored out of the light and in a cool place.
Marshmallow and Slippery Elm ointment has a long traditional reputation as a general purposes ointment. ... ointment bases
FAMILY: Betulaceae
SYNONYMS: B. alba var. pubescens, B. odorata, B. pendula, European white birch, silver birch.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Decorative tree, up to 15–20 metres high, with slender branches, silvery-white bark broken into scales, and light green oval leaves. The male catkins are 2–5 cms long, the female up to 15 cms long.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere; found throughout Eastern Europe, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic coast, northern China and Japan.
OTHER SPECIES: Many cultivars exist of this species of birch. The paper birch (B. papyrifera) and B. verrucosa are also used for the production of birch bud oil and/or birch tar. NB Should not be confused with the oil from the sweet birch (B. lenta) which is potentially toxic.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Birch buds were formerly used as a tonic in hair preparations. Birch tar is used in Europe for all types of chronic skin complaints: psoriasis, eczema, etc. In Scandinavia the young birch leaflets and twigs are bound into bundles and used in the sauna to tone the skin and promote the circulation. The sap is also tapped in the spring and drunk as a tonic. Buds, leaves and bark are used for ‘rheumatic and arthritic conditions, especially where kidney functions appear to need support … oedematous states; urinary infections and calculi.’.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, cholagogue, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge, tonic.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaf-buds. 2. Crude birch tar is extracted by slow destructive distillation from the bark; this is subsequently steam distilled to yield a rectified birch tar oil.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Pale yellow, viscous oil with a woody-green balsamic scent. It crystallizes at low temperatures. 2. The crude tar is an almost black, thick oily mass. The rectified oil is a brownish-yellow, clear oily liquid with a smoky, tar-like, ‘Russian leather’ odour. It blends well with other woody and balsamic oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Mainly betulenol and other sesquiterpenes. 2. In the tar oil: phenol, cresol, xylenol, guaiacol, creosol, pyrocatechol, pyrobetulin (which gives the ‘leather’ scent).
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Dermatitis, dull or congested skin, eczema, hair care, psoriasis etc.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, cellulitis, muscular pain, obesity, oedema, poor circulation, rheumatism.
OTHER USES: Birch bud oil is used primarily in hair tonics and shampoos, and in some cosmetics for its potential skin-healing effects. The crude tar is used in pharmaceutical preparations, ointments, lotions, etc. for dermatological diseases. It is also used in soap and leather manufacture – rectified birch tar oil provides the heart for many ‘leather’ type perfumes and aftershaves.... birch, white
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYM: Brown boronia.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A bushy evergreen shrub, up to 2 metres high, which bears an abundance of fragrant, nodding flowers with an unusual colouring – the petals are brown on the outside, yellow on the inside. Often grown as an ornamental shrub in gardens.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Western Australia; grows wild all over west and south west Australia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over fifteen species of boronia found in Western Australia; B. megastigma is one of the most common and the only one used for its perfume; other types smell of sarsaparilla, lemons or roses! Boronia is botanically related to the citrus tree.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: ‘A botanist in the Victorian era suggested this species would be suitable for graveyard planting because of its dark flowers!’.
ACTIONS: Aromatic.
EXTRACTION: A concrete and absolute by the enfleurage method or petroleum-ether extraction, from the flowers. An essential oil is also produced in small quantities by steam distillation.
CHARACTERISTICS: The concrete is a dark green butterlike mass with a beautiful warm, woody-sweet fragrance; the absolute is a green viscous liquid with a fresh, fruity-spicy scent and a rich, tenacious, floral undertone. It blends well with clary sage, sandalwood, bergamot, violet, immortelle, costus, mimosa and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Notably ionone; also eugenol, triacontane, phenols, ethyl alcohol and ethyl formate, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Prohibitively expensive and therefore often adulterated.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Perfume
OTHER USES: The absolute is used in high-class perfumery work, especially florals. Used in specialized flavour work, especially rich fruit products.... boronia
FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae).
SYNONYMS: Genista juncea, genista, weavers broom, broom (absolute), genet (absolute).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A decorative plant, often cultivated as an ornamental shrub, up to 3 metres high with upright woody branches and tough flexible stems. It has bright green leaves and large, yellow, pea-like fragrant flowers, also bearing its seeds in pods or legumes.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Europe, especially southern Spain and southern France; mainly cultivated in Spain, France, Italy and USA (as a garden shrub). The absolute is produced in Southern France.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to dyer’s greenweed (Genista tinctoria) and the common or green broom (Sarothamnus scoparius or Cytisus scoparius). There are also several other related species of broom, which are rich in their folk tradition.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The twigs and bark have been used since ancient times to produce a strong fibre which can be made into cord or a coarse cloth. The branches were also used for thatching, basketwork, fencing and, of course, for making brooms. Spanish broom has similar therapeutic properties to the common broom, which is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for cardiac dropsy, myocardial weakness, tachycardia and profuse menstruation. However, the Spanish broom is said to be five to six times more active than the common broom, and even that must be used with caution by professional herbalists due to the strength of the active ingredients: ‘A number of cases of poisoning have occurred from the substitution of the dried flowers of Spartium for those of true Broom.’.
ACTIONS: Antihaemorrhagic, cardioactive, diuretic, cathartic, emmenagogue, narcotic, vasoconstrictor.
EXTRACTION: An absolute is obtained by solvent extraction from the dried flowers.
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brown, viscous liquid with an intensely sweet, floral, hay-like scent with a herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rose, tuberose, cassie, mimosa, violet, vetiver and herbaceous-type fragrances.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The absolute contains capryllic acid, phenols, aliphatics, terpenes, esters, scoparin and sparteine, as well as wax, etc.
SAFETY DATA: Sparteine, which is contained in the flowers as the main active constituent, is toxic. In large doses, it causes vomiting, renal irritation, weakens the heart, depresses the nerve cells and lowers the blood pressure, and in extreme cases causes death.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Used in soaps, cosmetics and high-class perfumery; also as a flavour ingredient in sweet rich ‘preserves’, alcoholic and soft drinks.... broom, spanish
FAMILY: Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
SYNONYMS: Cabureicica, ‘Baume de Perou brun’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A graceful, tall tropical tree, 12–15 metres high, with a very hard wood, extremely resistant to moisture and mould growth. It yields a balsam when the trunk is damaged, like many other South American trees.
DISTRIBUTION: Found in Brazil, Paraguay, Chile and north Argentina.
OTHER SPECIES: Many varieties of Myrocarpus yield cabreuva oil, such as M. frondosus. It is also botanically related to the trees which yield copaiba, Peru and Tolu balsam.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The wood is highly appreciated for carving and furniture making. It is used by the natives to heal wounds, ulcers and obviate scars. It was once listed in old European pharmocopoeias for its antiseptic qualities.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, balsamic, cicatrisant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from wood chippings (waste from the timber mills).
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, viscous liquid with a sweet, woody-floral scent, very delicate but having great tenacity. It blends well with rose, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, rich woody and oriental bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly nerolidol (80 per cent approx.), farnesol, bisabolol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, scars, wounds.
Respiratory System: Chills, coughs.
Immune System: Colds.
OTHER USES: Fragrance component and fixative in soaps and high-class perfumes, especially floral, woody or oriental types. Previously used for the isolation of nerolidol, now produced synthetically.... cabreuva
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYMS: Juniper tar, prickly cedar, medlar tree, prickly juniper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large evergreen shrub up to 4 metres high, with long dark needles and brownish-black berries about the size of hazelnuts.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern France; now common throughout Europe and North Africa. The tar is produced mainly in Spain and Yugoslavia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of juniper which are used commercially apart from the prickly juniper: J. communis produces juniper oil, J. virginiana produces Virginian cedarwood oil, and in Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruits and twigs of J. smreka.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used in the treatment of cutaneous diseases, such as chronic eczema, parasites, scalp disease, hair loss, etc. especially in France and other continental countries. It is also used as an antiseptic wound dressing and for toothache.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antipruritic, antiseptic, disinfectant, parasiticide, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: The crude oil or tar is obtained by destructive distillation from the branches and heartwood (usually in the form of shavings or chips). A rectified oil is produced from the crude by steam or vacuum distillation. In addition, an oil is occasionally produced from the berries by steam distillation.
CHARACTERISTICS: The rectified oil is an orange-brown, oily liquid with a woody, smoky, leatherlike odour. It blends well with thyme, origanum, clove, cassia, tea tree, pine and medicinal-type bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cadinene, cadinol, p-cresol, guaiacol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization problems. Use with care, especially when treating inflammatory or allergic skin conditions. Turpentine (terebinth) oil makes a useful alternative, with less possibility of an allergic reaction.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Cuts, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, spots, etc.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in pharmaceutical work as a solvent for chemical drugs, in dermatological creams and ointments, as well as in veterinary medicine. Rectified cade is used in fragrance work, in soaps, lotions, creams and perfumes (especially leather and spice).... cade
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: C. clinopodium, Melissa calaminta, calamint, common calamint, mill mountain, mountain balm, mountain mint, basil thyme, nepeta (oil), French marjoram (oil), wild basil (oil), catnip (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect, bushy, perennial plant not more than one metre high, with square stems, soft oval serrated leaves, greyish-green beneath, and rather inconspicuous pale purple flowers. The whole plant has a strong aromatic scent which is attractive to cats.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and parts of Asia (Himalayas), naturalized throughout North America and South Africa. Cultivated for its oil in the Mediterranean region, Yugoslavia, Poland and in the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous similar species found throughout the world, such as the lesser calamintha (C. nepeta) which has a stronger odour and is often used interchangeably with common calamint. It is also closely related to catmint or catnip (Nepeta cataria) also known as calamint, with which it shares similar properties. Not to be confused with winter and summer savory (Satureja montana and S. hortensis).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It has a long history of use as a herbal remedy mainly for nervous and digestive complaints, also menstrual pain, colds, chills and cramp. Catmint is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent colic in children and for the common cold.
ACTIONS: Anaesthetic (local), antirheumatic, antispasmodic, astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, nervine, sedative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a herbaceous-woody, pungent odour, somewhat resembling pennyroyal.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Citral, nerol, citronellol, limonene and geraniol, among others. The active ingredient that attracts cats is metatabilacetone (3–5 percent). Constituents vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing; possible toxic effects in concentration. (The Chinese shrub Actinidia polygama also contains metatabilacetone, which is responsible for its hallucinogenic and narcotic effects.) Use in moderation. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Chills, cold in the joints, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Digestive System: Colic, flatulence, nervous dyspepsia.
Nervous System: Insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Used as a wild cat lure in the USA. Occasionally used in perfumery work.... calamintha
FAMILY: Araceae
SYNONYMS: Calamus aromaticus, sweet flag, sweet sedge, sweet root, sweet rush, sweet cane, sweet myrtle, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, cinnamon sedge.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A reed-like aquatic plant about 1 metre high, with sword-shaped leaves and small greenish-yellow flowers. It grows on the margins of lakes and streams with the long-branched rhizome immersed in the mud. The whole plant is aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to India; the oil is mainly produced in India and Russia and to a lesser extent in Europe (except Spain), Siberia, China, Yugoslavia and Poland (Polish and Yugoslavian oils have a uniform lasting scent).
OTHER SPECIES: Not to be confused with the yellow flag iris which it resembles in appearance; they are botanically unrelated. There are several other varieties of aromatic sedge, mostly in the east, for example Calamus odoratus used in India as a medicine and perfume.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The name derives from the Greek calamos meaning ‘reed’. The properties of the herb are mainly due to the aromatic oil, contained largely in the root. It used to be highly esteemed as an aromatic stimulant and tonic for fever (typhoid), nervous complaints, vertigo, headaches, dysentery, etc. It is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, for ‘acute and chronic dyspepsia, gastritis, intestinal colic, anorexia, gastric ulcer.’. In Turkey and especially in India (where it is valued as a traditional medicine), it is sold as a candied rhizome for dyspepsia, bronchitis and coughs.
ACTIONS: Anticonvulsant, antiseptic, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, hypotensive, insecticide, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the rhizomes (and sometimes the leaves).
CHARACTERISTICS: A thick, pale yellow liquid with a strong, warm, woody-spicy fragrance; poor quality oils have a camphoraceous note. It blends well with cananga, cinnamon, labdanum, olibanum, patchouli, cedarwood, amyris, spice and oriental bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Beta-asarone (amounts vary depending on source: the Indian oil contains up to 80 per cent, the Russian oil a maximum of 6 per cent), also calamene, calamol, calamenene, eugenol and shyobunones.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin. The oil of calamus is reported to have carcinogenic properties.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy, whether internally or externally.’.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in cosmetic and perfumery work, in woody/oriental/leather perfumes and to scent hair powders and tooth powders in the same way as orris. Calamus and its derivatives (oil, extracts, etc.) are banned from use in foods.... calamus
FAMILY: Zingiberaceae
SYNONYMS: Elettaria cardomomum var. cardomomum, cardamom, cardamomi, cardamum, mysore cardamom.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial, reed-like herb up to 4 metres high, with long, silky blade-shaped leaves. Its long sheathing stems bear small yellowish flowers with purple tips, followed by oblong red-brown seeds.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially southern India; cultivated extensively in India, Sri Lanka, Laos, Guatemala and El Salvador. The oil is produced principally in India, Europe, Sri Lanka and Guatemala.
OTHER SPECIES: There are numerous related species found in the east, used as local spices and for medicinal purposes, such as round or Siam cardamon (Amomum cardamomum) found in India and China. An oil is also produced from wild cardamon (E. cardamomum var. major).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used extensively as a domestic spice, especially in India, Europe, Latin America and Middle Eastern countries. It has been used in traditional Chinese and Indian medicine for over 3000 years, especially for pulmonary disease, fever, digestive and urinary complaints. Hippocrates recommended it for sciatica, coughs, abdominal pains, spasms, nervous disorders, retention of urine and also for bites of venomous creatures. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, cephalic, digestive, diuretic, sialogogue, stimulant, stomachic, tonic (nerve).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam, distillation from the dried ripe fruit (seeds). An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet-spicy, warming fragrance and a woody-balsamic undertone. It blends well with rose, olibanum, orange, bergamot, cinnamon, cloves, caraway, ylang ylang, labdanum, cedarwood, neroli and oriental bases in general.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinyl acetate and cineol (each may be present at up to 50 per cent), limonene, sabinene, linalol, linalyl acetate, pinene, zingiberene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, cramp, dyspepsia, flatulence, griping pains, halitosis heartburn, indigestion, vomiting.
Nervous System: Mental fatigue, nervous strain.
OTHER USES: Employed in some carminative, stomachic and laxative preparations; also in the form of compound cardamon spirit to flavour pharmaceuticals. Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental types. Important flavour ingredient, particularly in curry and spice products.... cardamon
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Wild carrot, Queen Anne’s lace, bird’s nest.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Annual or biennial herb, with a small, inedible, tough whitish root. It has a much-branched stem up to 1.5 metres high with hairy leaves and umbels of white lacy flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe, Asia and North Africa; naturalized in North America. The essential oil is mainly produced in France.
OTHER SPECIES: An oil is also produced by solvent extraction from the red fleshy root of the common edible carrot (D. carota subspecies sativus) mainly for use as a food colouring.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A highly nutritious plant, containing substantial amounts of Vitamins A, C, B1 and B2. The roots have a strong tonic action on the liver and gall bladder, good for the treatment of jaundice and other complaints. The seeds are used for the retention of urine, colic, kidney and digestive disorders, and to promote menstruation. In the Chinese tradition it is used to treat dysentery and to expel worms.
The dried leaves are current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for calculus, gout, cystitis and lithuria.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antiseptic, carminative, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, hepatic, stimulant, tonic, vasodilatory and smooth muscle relaxant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried fruit (seeds).
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow or amber-coloured liquid with a warm, dry, woody-earthy odour. It blends well with costus, cassie, mimosa, cedarwood, geranium, citrus and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, carotol, daucol, limonene, bisabolene, elemene, geraniol, geranyl acetate, caryophyllene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Dermatitis, eczema, psoriasis, rashes, revitalizing and toning, mature complexions, wrinkles.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, gout, oedema, rheumatism.
Digestive System: Anaemia, anorexia, colic, indigestion, liver congestion.
Genito-Urinary And Endocrine Systems: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, glandular problems, PMT.
OTHER USES: Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Flavour ingredient in most major food categories, especially seasonings.... carrot seed
FAMILY: Euphorbiaceae
SYNONYMS: Cascarilla, sweetwood bark, sweet bark, Bahama cascarilla, aromatic quinquina, false quinquina.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large shrub or small tree up to 12 metres high, with ovate silver-bronze leaves, pale yellowish-brown bark and small white fragrant flowers. It bears fruits and flowers all year round.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the West Indies, probably the Bahama Islands; found growing wild in Mexico, Colombia and Ecuador. The oil is mainly produced in the Bahamas and Cuba; some distillation takes place in America, France and England from the imported bark.
OTHER SPECIES: An essential oil is also distilled locally from other Croton species. White, red and black cascarillas are also found in commerce.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The bark is used as an aromatic bitter and tonic for dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, fever, debility, nausea, flatulence, vomiting and chronic bronchitis. The leaves are used as a digestive tea, and for flavouring tobacco. The bark also yields a good black dye.
ACTIONS: Astringent, antimicrobial, antiseptic, carminative, digestive, expectorant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried bark. (1.5–3 per cent yield).
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, greenish or dark amber liquid with a spicy, aromatic, warm-woody odour. It blends well with nutmeg, pepper, pimento, sage, oakmoss, oriental and spicy bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cymene, diterpene, limonene, caryophyllene, terpineol and eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-irritant, non-sensitizing, relatively non-toxic (possibly narcotic in large doses).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs
Digestive System: Dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Immune System: ’Flu.
OTHER USES: Fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. Flavour ingredient in most major food categories, soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, especially vermouths and bitters.... cascarilla bark
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: C. aromaticum, Laurus cassia, Chinese cinnamon, false cinnamon, cassia cinnamon, cassia lignea.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A slender, evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with leathery leaves and small white flowers. It is usually cut back to form bushes for commercial production.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the south eastern parts of China; found to a lesser extent in Vietnam and India (Cochin).
OTHER SPECIES: Not to be confused with the Ceylon Cinnamon bark (C. verum) which is from a related species. There are also several other varieties from different regions used for essential oil production – see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Extensively used as local domestic spice. It is used medicinally in much the same way as Ceylon cinnamon, mainly for digestive complaints such as flatulent dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea and nausea, as well as the common cold, rheumatism, kidney and reproductive complaints.
The powdered bark is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia or colic with nausea.
ACTIONS: Antidiarrhoeal, anti-emetic, antimicrobial, astringent, carminative, spasmolytic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil 1. by steam distillation from the leaves, and 2. by water distillation from the bark, leaves, twigs and stalks.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Leaf oil is brownish yellow (the rectified oil is pale yellow), with a sweet woody-spicy tenacious odour. 2. Bark oil is a dark brown liquid with a strong, spicy warm, resinous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Leaf and Bark oil contain mainly cinnamic aldehyde (75–90 per cent) with some methyl eugenol, salicylaldehyde and methylsalicylaldehyde.
SAFETY DATA: Dermal toxin, dermal irritant, dermal sensitizer, mucous membrane irritant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should never be used on the skin (one of the most hazardous oils).’.
OTHER USES: Some pharmaceutical applications due to bactericidal properties, such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, gargles; also tonic and carminative preparations. Extensively used in food flavouring, including alcoholic and soft drinks. Little used in perfumes and cosmetics, due to its dark colour.
CASSIE... cassia
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: Atlantic cedar, Atlas cedar, African cedar, Moroccan cedarwood (oil), libanol (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Pyramid-shaped evergreen tree with a majestic stature, up to 40 metres high. The wood itself is hard and strongly aromatic, due to the high percentage of essential oil which it contains.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Atlas mountains of Algeria; the oil is mainly produced in Morocco.
OTHER SPECIES: Believed to have originated from the famous Lebanon cedars (C. libani), which grow wild in Lebanon and on the island of Cyprus. It is also a close botanical relation to the Himalayan deodar cedarwood (C. deodora), which produces a very similar essential oil. (NB the oil is quite different from the Texas or Virginia cedarwood.)
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The oil from the Lebanon cedar was possibly the first to be extracted, it was used by the ancient Egyptians for embalming purposes, cosmetics and perfumery. The oil was one of the ingredients of ‘mithridat’, a renowned poison antidote that was used for centuries. The Lebanon cedar was prized as a building wood; its odour repelled ants, moths and other harmful insects, as does the oil from the Atlas cedar.
Traditionally, the oil was used in the East for bronchial and urinary tract infections, as a preservative and as an incense. It is still used as a temple incense by the Tibetans, and is employed in their traditional medicine.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antiputrescent, antiseborrheic, aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, mucolytic, sedative (nervous), stimulant (circulatory), tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the wood, stumps and sawdust. A resinoid and absolute are also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow, orange or deep amber viscous oil with a warm, camphoraceous top note and sweet tenacious, woody-balsamic undertone. It blends well with rosewood, bergamot, boronia, cypress, calamus, cassie, costus, jasmine, juniper, neroli, mimosa, labdanum, olibanum, clary sage, vetiver, rosemary, ylang ylang, oriental and floral bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Atlantone, caryophyllene, cedrol, cadinene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Best avoided during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, fungal infections, greasy skin, hair loss, skin eruptions, ulcers.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, catarrh, congestion, coughs.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, pruritis.
Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Fragrance component and fixative in cosmetics and household products, soaps, detergents, etc, as well as in perfumes, especially men’s fragrances.... cedarwood, atlas
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYMS: J. mexicana, mountain cedar, Mexican cedar, rock cedar, Mexican juniper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, alpine evergreen tree up to 7 metres high with stiff green needles and an irregular shaped trunk and branches, which tend to be crooked or twisted, The wood also tends to crack easily, so it is not used for timber.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south western USA, Mexico and Central America; the oil is produced mainly in Texas.
OTHER SPECIES: The name J. mexicana has erroneously been applied to many species; botanically related to the so-called Virginian cedarwood (J. virginiana) and the East African cedarwood (J. procera).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In New Mexico the native Indians use cedarwood oil for skin rashes. It is also used for arthritis and rheumatism.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, sedative (nervous), stimulant (circulatory).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the heartwood and wood shavings, etc. (Unlike the Virginian cedar, the tree is felled especially for its essential oil.)
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude – a dark orange to brownish viscous liquid with a smoky-woody, sweet tar-like odour. Rectified – a colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sweet, balsamic, ‘pencil wood’ scent, similar to Virginian cedarwood but harsher. It blends well with patchouli, spruce, vetiver, pine and leather-type scents.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cedrene, cedrol (higher than the Virginian oil), thujopsene and sabinene, among others. Otherwise similar to Virginian cedarwood.
SAFETY DATA: See Virginian cedarwood.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See Virginian cedarwood.
OTHER USES: See Virginian cedarwood.... cedarwood, texas
FAMILY: Poaceae (Gramineae)
SYNONYMS: Andropogon nardus, Sri Lanka citronella, Lenabatu citronella.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, aromatic, perennial grass, which has derived from the wild-growing ‘managrass’ found in Sri Lanka.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Sri Lanka, now extensively cultivated on the southernmost tip of the country.
OTHER SPECIES: An important essential oil is also produced on a large scale from the Java or Maha Pengiri citronella (C. winterianus). This variety is cultivated in the tropics worldwide, especially in Java, Vietnam, Africa, Argentina and Central America. There are many other related species of scented grasses.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The leaves of citronella are used for their aromatic and medicinal value in many cultures, for fever, intestinal parasites, digestive and menstrual problems, as a stimulant and an insect repellent. It is used in Chinese traditional medicine for rheumatic pain.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, deodorant, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, fungicidal, insecticide, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh, part-dried or dried grass. (The Java citronella yields twice as much oil as the Sri Lanka type.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellowy-brown, mobile liquid with a fresh, powerful, lemony scent. The Java oil is colourless to pale yellow with a fresh, woody-sweet fragrance; it is considered of superior quality in perfumery work. It blends well with geranium, lemon, bergamot, orange, cedarwood and pine.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly geraniol (up to 45 per cent in the Java oil), citronella (up to 50 per cent in the Java oil) with geranyl acetate, limonene and camphene, among others. The Sri Lanka variety contains more monoterpene hydrocarbons.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; may cause dermatitis in some individuals. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Excessive perspiration, oily skin, insect repellant. ‘Mixed with cedarwood oil Virginia, it has been a popular remedy against mosquito attacks for many years prior to the appearance of DDT and other modern insecticides.’.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, minor infections.
Nervous System: Fatigue, headaches, migraine, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, detergents, household goods and industrial perfumes. Employed in insect repellent formulations against moths, ants, fleas, etc, for use in the home and in the garden The Sri Lanka oil is used in most major food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks. The Java oil is used as the starting material for the isolation of natural geraniol and citronellal.... citronella
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: Coriander seed, Chinese parsley.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic annual herb about 1 metre high with bright green delicate leaves, umbels of lacelike white flowers, followed by a mass of green (turning brown) round seeds.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and western Asia; naturalized in North America. Cultivated throughout the world, the oil is mainly produced in the USSR, Yugoslavia and Romania.
OTHER SPECIES: Various chemotypes of the same species are found according to geographical location.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb with a long history of use the seeds were found in the ancient Egyptian tomb of Rameses 11. The seeds and leaves are widely used as a garnish and domestic spice, especially in curries. It has been used therapeutically, mainly in the form of an infusion for children’s diarrhoea, digestive upsets, griping pains, anorexia and flatulence.
In Chinese medicine the whole herb is used for dysentery, piles, measles, nausea, toothache and for painful hernia.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, depurative, digestive, carminative, cytotoxic, fungicidal, larvicidal, lipolytic, revitalizing, stimulant (cardiac, circulatory, nervous system), stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the crushed ripe seeds. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the fresh and dried leaves, which contains a high proportion of decylaldehyde.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, woody-spicy, slightly musky fragrance. It blends well with clary sage, bergamot, jasmine, olibanum, neroli, petitgrain, citronella, sandalwood, cypress, pine, ginger, cinnamon and other spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly linalol (55–75 per cent), decylaldehyde, borneol, geraniol, carvone, anethole, among others; constituents; vary according to source.
SAFETY DATA: Generally non-toxic, non irritant, non-sensitizing. Stupefying in large doses – use in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation, Muscles And Joints:
Accumulation of fluids or toxins, arthritis, gout, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, stiffness.
Digestive System: Anorexia, colic, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea, piles, spasm.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, infections (general), measles.
Nervous System: Debility, migraine, neuralgia, nervous exhaustion.
OTHER USES: Used as a flavouring agent in pharmaceutical preparations, especially digestive remedies. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. Employed by the food industry especially in meat products and to flavour liqueurs such as Chartreuse and Benedictine; also used for flavouring tobacco.... coriander
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Eugenia aromatica, E. caryophyllata, E. caryophyllus.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A slender evergreen tree with a smooth grey trunk, up to 12 metres high. It has large bright green leaves standing in pairs on short stalks. At the start of the rainy season long buds appear with a rosy pink corolla at the tip; as the corolla fades the calyx slowly turns deep red. These are beaten from the tree and, when dried provide the cloves of commerce.
DISTRIBUTION: Believed to be native to Indonesia; now cultivated worldwide, especially in the Philippines, the Molucca Islands and Madagascar. The main oil-producing countries are Madagascar, and Indonesia.
OTHER SPECIES: The clove tree has been cultivated in plantations for over 2000 years. The original wild trees found in the Moluccas, produce an essential oil that contains no eugenol at all.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Extensively used as a domestic spice worldwide. Tincture of cloves has been used for skin infections (scabies, athlete’s foot); for digestive upsets; to dress the umbilical cord; for intestinal parasites; to ease the pain of childbirth (steeped in wine); and notably for toothache. The tea is used to relieve nausea.
In Chinese medicine the oil is used for diarrhoea, hernia, bad breath and bronchitis as well as for those conditions mentioned above. In Indonesia, the ‘Kretak’ cigarette is popular, made from two parts tobacco and one part cloves.
ACTIONS: Anthelmintic, antibiotic, antiemetic, antihistaminic, antirheumatic, antineuralgic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antiviral, aphrodisiac, carminative, counter-irritant, expectorant, larvicidal, spasmolytic, stimulant, stomachic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water distillation from the 1. buds and 2. leaves, and by steam distillation from the 3. stalks or stems. A concrete, absolute and oleoresin are also produced from the buds in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Clove bud is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet-spicy odour and a fruity-fresh top note. The bud oil is favoured in perfumery work. It blends well with rose, lavender, vanillin, clary sage, bergamot, bay leaf, lavandin, allspice, ylang ylang and cananga. 2. Clove leaf is a dark brown oil with a crude, burnt-woody odour. 3. Clove stem oil is a pale yellow liquid with a strong spicy-woody odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Bud: 60-90 per cent eugenol, eugenyl acetate, caryophyllene and other minor constituents. 2. Leaf: 82–88 per cent eugenol with little or no eugenyl acetate, and other minor constituents. 3. Stem: 90–95 per cent eugenol, with other minor constituents.
SAFETY DATA: All clove oils can cause skin and mucous membrane irritation; clove bud and stem oil may cause dermatitis in some individuals. Clove bud is the least toxic of the three oils due to the lower eugenol percentage. Use in moderation only in low dilution (less than 1 per cent).
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Only use clove bud oil, not the leaf or stem oil.
Skin Care: Acne, athlete’s foot, bruises, burns, cuts, insect repellent (mosquito), toothache, ulcers, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis.
Digestive System: Colic, dyspepsia, nausea.
Immune System: Colds, ’flu, minor infections.
OTHER USES: Used in dental preparations, and as a fragrance component in toothpastes, soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Extensively employed as a flavour ingredient in major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks. Used in the production of printing ink, glue and varnish; clove leaf oil is used as the starting material for the isolation of eugenol.... clove
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: S. lappa, Aucklandia costus, Aplotaxis lappa, A. auriculata.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large, erect, perennial plant up to 2 metres high with a thick tapering root and numerous almost black flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to northern India; cultivated in India and south west China. The oil is mainly produced in India.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to elecampane (lnula helenium), whose roots are also used to produce an essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The root has been used for millennia in India and China for digestive complaints, respiratory conditions, as a stimulant and for infection including typhoid and cholera. It is also used as an incense.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, digestive, expectorant, febrifuge, hypotensive, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: The dried roots are macerated in warm water, then subjected to steam distillation followed by solvent extraction of the distilled water. (A concrete and absolute are also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or brownish viscous liquid of soft, woody-musty, extremely tenacious odour. It blends well with patchouli, opopanax, ylang ylang, oriental and floral fragrances.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, including dihydrocostus lactone and costunolide (together up to 50 per cent), other sesquiterpenes such as costols, caryophyllene and selinene, as well as costic and oleic acids, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization in some individuals. Subject to frequent adulteration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Perfume.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, spasmodic cough.
Digestive System: Flatulence, indigestion, spasm.
Nervous system: Debility, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Fixative and fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient by the food industry, especially in confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.... costus
FAMILY: Piperaceae
SYNONYMS: Cubeba officinalis, cubeba, tailed pepper, cubeb berry, false pepper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen climbing vine up to 6 metres high with heart-shaped leaves. Altogether similar to the black pepper plant, except that the fruit or seeds of the cubeb retain their peduncle or stem – thus the name, tailed pepper.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Indonesia, cultivated throughout south east Africa, usually together with coffee crops. The oil is mainly produced at source in Indonesia.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the black pepper plant (P. nigrum) and to the South American matico (P. augustifolium). There are also many other related species grown in Indonesia which are, often used for adulteration, such as false cubebs (P. crassipes).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The seeds are used locally as a domestic spice. It has been traditionally used for treating genito-urinary infections, such as gonorrhoea, cystitis, urethritis, abscess of the prostate gland and leucorrhoea. It is also used for digestive upsets and respiratory problems such as chronic bronchitis. The seeds have a local stimulating effect on the mucous membrane of the urinary and respiratory tracts, and the powder was found ‘90 per cent clinically effective in treating amoebic dysentery’..
ACTIONS: Antiseptic (pulmonary, genito-urinary), antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the unripe but fully grown fruits or berries. (An oleoresin is also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale greenish or bluish yellow viscous liquid with a warm woody-spicy, slightly camphoraceous odour. It blends well with cananga, galbanum, lavender, rosemary, black pepper, allspice and other spices.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly sesquiterpenes and monoterpenes which include caryophyllene, cadinene, cubebene, sabinene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Frequently subject to adulteration.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, catarrh, congestion, chronic coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.
Digestive System: Flatulence, indigestion, piles, sluggish digestion.
Genito-Urinary Systems: Cystitis, leucorrhoea, urethritis.
OTHER USES: Employed in diuretic and urinary antiseptic preparations and as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavouring agent in most major food categories; also used for flavouring tobacco.... cubebs
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: F. gummosa, galbanum gum, galbanum resin, ‘bubonion’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A large perennial herb with a smooth stem, shiny leaflets and small flowers. It contains resin ducts which exude a milky juice, a natural oleoresin. The dried resinous exudation is collected by making incisions at the base of the stem.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Middle East and western Asia; cultivated in Iran, Turkey, Afghanistan and Lebanon. Distillation usually takes place in Europe or the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are two distinct types: Levant galbanum which is liquid or soft, and Persian galbanum which is solid or hard. Other Ferula species also yield galbanum gum, such as the muskroot; see also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was used by the ancient civilizations as an incense, and in Egypt for cosmetics and in the embalming process. It is generally used in the east in a similar way to asafetida: for treating wounds, inflammations and skin disorders and also for respiratory, digestive and nervous complaints. Zalou root (F. hermonic) is used in Beirut as an aphrodisiac.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, balsamic, carminative, cicatrisant, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, hypotensive, restorative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the oleoresin or gum – only the Levant or soft type is used for oil production. A partially deterpenized oil is produced, known as ‘galbanol’. (A resinoid is also produced, mainly for use as a fixative.)
CHARACTERISTICS: Crude – A dark amber or brown viscous liquid with a green-woody scent and a soft balsamic undertone. Oil – A colourless, or pale yellow or olive liquid with a fresh green topnote and woody-dry balsamic undertone. It blends well with hyacinth, violet, narcissus, lavender, geranium, oakmoss, opopanax, pine, fir, styrax and oriental bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, cadinol, cadinene and myrcene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Abscesses, acne, boils, cuts, heals scar tissue, inflammations, tones the skin, mature skin, wrinkles, wounds – ‘signifies drying and preservation’..
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Poor circulation, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs.
Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion.
Nervous System: Nervous tension and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: The Persian gum used to be employed in pharmaceutical products. Both oil and resinoid are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes. Also used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... galbanum
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Helenium grandiflorum, Aster officinalis, A. helenium, inula, scabwort, alant, horseheal, yellow starwort, elf dock, wild sunflower, velvet dock, ‘essence d’aunée’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A handsome perennial herb up to 1.5 metres high, with a stout stem covered in soft hairs. It has oval pointed leaves which are velvety underneath, large, yellow, daisy-like flowers and large, fleshy rhizome roots.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Europe and Asia, naturalized in North America. Cultivated in Europe (Belgium, France, Germany) and Asia (China, India). The oil is mainly produced from imported roots in southern France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties of Inula; the European and Asian species are slightly different having a harsher scent. Other varieties include golden samphire (I. crithmoides) and sweet inula (I. graveolens or I. odora), which share similar properties.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient medical repute, which used to be candied and sold as a sweetmeat. It is used as an important spice, incense and medicine in the east. It is used in both western and eastern herbalism, mainly in the form of a tea for respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis and whooping cough, disorders of the digestion, intestines and gall bladder and for skin disorders.
Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for irritating cough or bronchitis. Elecampane root is the richest source of inulin.
ACTIONS: Alterative, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, astringent, bactericidal, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hyperglycaemic, hypotensive, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried roots and rhizomes. (An absolute and concrete are also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A semi-solid or viscous dark yellow or brownish liquid with a dry, soft, woody, honey-like odour, often containing crystals. It blends well with cananga, cinnamon, labdanum, lavender, mimosa, frankincense, orris, tuberose, violet, cedarwood, patchouli, sandalwood, cypress, bergamot and oriental fragrances.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly sesquiterpene lactones, including alantolactone (or helenin), isolactone, dihydroisalantolactone, dihydralantolactone, alantic acid and azulene.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant; however it is a severe dermal sensitizer. In clinical tests it caused ‘extremely severe allergic reactions’ in twenty-three out of twenty-five volunteers. On the basis of these results it is recommended that the oil ‘should not be used on the skin at all’..
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
NB In Phytoguide I, sweet inula (I. odora or I. graveolens), a deep green oil, is described as ‘queen of mucolytic essential oils’, having properties as diverse as: ‘anti-inflammatory, hyperthermic, sedative, cardia-regulative, diuretic and depurative’.. It is described as being an excellent oil for the cardiopulmonary zone including asthma, chronic bronchitis and unproductive coughs. This variety of Inula seems to avoid the sensitization problems of elecampane, at least when it is used as an inhalation or by aerosol treatment.
OTHER USES: Alantolactone is used as an anthelmintic in Europe (it is also an excellent bactericide). The oil and absolute are used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient in alcoholic beverages, soft drinks and foodstuffs, especially desserts.... elecampane
FAMILY: Zygophyllaceae
SYNONYMS: Champaca wood (oil), ‘palo santo’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, wild tropical tree up to 4 metres high, with a decorative hard wood.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America, especially Paraguay and Argentina. Some oil is distilled in Europe and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: Distinct from guaiac gum and guaiac resin, known as guaiacum, obtained from related trees Guaiacum officinale and G. sanctum. However, they are somewhat similar products and share common properties.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The wood is much used for ornamental carving. It was formerly used for treating rheumatism and gout; guaiacum is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis. Valnet includes guaiacum in his ‘elixirs’ for gout, venereal disease and in mouthwashes.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic, diaphoretic, diuretic, laxative.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the broken wood and sawdust.
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow, amber or greenish, soft or semi-solid mass with a pleasant, tearose type fragrance and sometimes an unpleasant smoky undertone. It blends well with geranium, neroli, oakmoss, rose, costus, sandalwood, amyris, spice and woody-floral bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Guaiol (42–72 per cent), bulnesol, bulnesene, guaiene, patchoulene, guaioxide, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulationl muscles and joints: Arthritis, gout, rheumatoid arthritis.
OTHER USES: The fluid extract and tincture are used in pharmacology, mainly as a diagnostic reagent in blood tests. Used as a fixative and fragrance component in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes.... guaiacwood
FAMILY: Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS: Gum tree, southern blue gum, Tasmanian blue gum, fever tree, stringy bark.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A beautiful, tall, evergreen tree, up to 90 metres high. The young trees have bluish-green oval leaves while the mature trees develop long, narrow, yellowish leaves, creamy-white flowers and a smooth, pale grey bark often covered in a white powder.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Tasmania and Australia. Mainly cultivated in Spain and Portugal, also Brazil, California, Russia and China. Very little of this oil now comes from its native countries.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over 700 different species of eucalyptus, of which at least 500 produce a type of essential oil. Many have been extracted simply for experimental purposes, and research is still being carried out with regard to the different constituents of each oil. In general, they can be divided into three categories. 1. The medicinal oils containing large amounts of cineol (or eucalyptol), such as the blue gum, but increasingly the blue malee (E. polybractea), the narrow-leaved peppermint (E. radiata var. australiana) and the gully gum (E. smithii). 2. The industrial oils containing mainly piperitone and phellandrene, such as the peppermint eucalyptus (E. piperita), grey peppermint (E. radiata var. phellandra) and increasingly the broad-leaved peppermint (E. dives var. Type). 3. The perfumery oils containing mainly citronellal, such as the lemon-scented eucalyptus (E. citriodora). See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional household remedy in Australia, the leaves and oil are especially used for respiratory ailments such as bronchitis and croup, and the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco for asthma. It is also used for feverish conditions (malaria, typhoid, cholera, etc.) and skin problems like burns, ulcers and wounds. Aqueous extracts are used for aching joints, bacterial dysentery, ringworms, tuberculosis, etc. and employed for similar reasons in western and eastern medicine. The wood is also used for timber production in Spain.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, balsamic, cicatrisant, decongestant, deodorant, depurative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, hypoglycaemic, parasiticide, prophylactic, rubefacient, stimulant, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh or partially dried leaves and young twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless mobile liquid (yellows on ageing), with a somewhat harsh camphoraceous odour and woody-sweet undertone. It blends well with thyme, rosemary, lavender, marjoram, pine, cedarwood and lemon. (The narrow-leaved eucalyptus (E. radiata var. australiana) is often used in preference to the blue gum in aromatherapy work, being rich in cineol but with a sweeter and less harsh odour.)
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Cineol (70–85 per cent), pinene, limonene, cymene, phellandrene, terpinene, aromadendrene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Externally non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution), non-sensitizing. ‘When taken internally eucalyptus oil is toxic and as little as 3.5ml has been reported as fatal’..
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Burns, blisters, cuts, herpes, insect bites, insect repellent, lice, skin infections, wounds.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, etc.
Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, sinusitis, throat infections.
Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, leucorrhoea.
Immune System: Chickenpox, colds, epidemics, ’flu, measles.
Nervous System: Debility, headaches, neuralgia.
OTHER USES: The oil and cineol are largely employed in the preparation of liniments, inhalants, cough syrups, ointments, toothpaste and as pharmaceutical flavourings also used in veterinary practise and dentistry. Used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents and toiletries – little used in perfumes. Used for the isolation of cineol and employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories.... eucalyptus, blue gum
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Helichrysum, everlasting, St John’s herb.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A strongly aromatic herb, up to 0.6 metres high with a much-branched stem, woody at the base. The brightly coloured, daisy-like flowers become dry as the plant matures, yet retain their colour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, especially the eastern part and North Africa. It is cultivated mainly in Italy, Yugoslavia, Spain and France.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several other Helichrysum species such as H. arenarium found in florist shops and H. stoechas which is also used to produce an absolute. H. orientale is grown for its oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Europe it is used for respiratory complaints such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and whooping cough; also for headaches, migraine, liver ailments and skin conditions including burns, allergies and psoriasis. Usually taken in the form of a decoction or infusion.
ACTIONS: Anti-allergenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antitussive, antiseptic, astringent, cholagogue, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, hepatic, nervine.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowers and flowering tops. 2. An absolute (and concrete) are also produced by solvent extraction.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow to red oily liquid with a powerful, rich honeylike scent with a delicate tealike undertone. 2. A yellowy-brown viscous liquid with a rich, floral, tealike scent. It blends well with chamomile, boronia, labdanum, lavender, mimosa, oakmoss, geranium, clary sage, rose, Peru balsam, clove and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Nerol and neryl acetate (30–50 per cent), geraniol, pinene, linalol, isovaleric aldehyde, sesquiterpenes, furfurol and eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
Skin care: Abscess, acne, allergic conditions, boils, burns, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, inflammation, spots, wounds etc.
Circulation muscles and joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains, strained muscles.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, chronic coughs, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Liver congestion, spleen congestion.
Immune system: Bacterial infections, colds, ’flu, fever.
Nervous system: Depression, debility, lethargy, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Used as fixatives and fragrance components in soaps, cosmetics and perfumes. The absolute is used to flavour certain tobaccos; used for the isolation of natural anethole.... immortelle
FAMILY: Zingiberaceae
SYNONYMS: Common ginger, Jamaica ginger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An erect perennial herb up to 1 metre high with a thick, spreading, tuberous rhizome root, which is very pungent. Each year it sends up a green reedlike stalk with narrow spear-shaped leaves and white or yellow flowers on a spike direct from the root.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern Asia, extensively cultivated all over the tropics in Nigeria, the West Indies, India, China, Jamaica and Japan. Most oil is distilled in the UK, China and India.
OTHER SPECIES: Several varieties according to location which are all used to produce oils with slight variations in their constitiuents; for example the African oil is generally darker. Another member of the same family, galangal (Alpinia officinarum), is also known as ginger root or Chinese ginger.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ginger has been used as a domestic spice and as a remedy for thousands of years, especially in the East. Fresh ginger is used in China for many complaints including rheumatism, bacterial dysentery, toothache, malaria, and for cold and moist conditions such as excess mucus and diarrhoea.
It is best known as a digestive aid, especially in the West: in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia it is specifically indicated for flatulent intestinal colic. Preserved and crystallized ginger is a popular sweet, in the East and West.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitussive, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the unpeeled, dried, ground root. (An absolute and oleoresin are also produced for use in perfumery.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, amber or greenish liquid with a warm, slightly green, fresh, woody-spicy scent. It blends well with sandalwood, vetiver, patchouli, frankincense, rosewood, cedarwood, coriander, rose, lime, neroli, orange and other citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Gingerin, gingenol, gingerone, zingiberine, linalol, camphene, phellandrene, citral, cineol, borneol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (except in high concentration), slightly phototoxic; may cause sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation, rheumatism, sprains, strains etc.
Respiratory System: Catarrh, congestion, coughs, sinusitis, sore throat.
Digestive System: Diarrhoea, colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion, loss of appitite, nausea, travel sickness.
Immune System: Chills, colds, ’flu, fever, infectious disease.
Nervous System: Debility, nervous exhaustion.
OTHER USES: The oleoresin is used in digestive, carminative and laxative preparations; used as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially oriental and men’s fragrances; extensively employed in all major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... ginger
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: Pernambuco jaborandi, P. pennatifolius, iaborandi, jamborandi, arrudo do mato, arruda brava, jamguaraddi, juarandi.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A woody shrub up to 2 metres high with a smooth, greyish bark, large brownish-green leathery leaves containing big oil glands and reddish-purple flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Brazil; other species are found in Paraguay, Cuba, the West Indies and Central America.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many members of the Rutaceae and Piperaceae family known simply as jaborandi, such as Piper jaborandi. Others include maranham jaborandi (P. microphyllus), ceara jaborandi (P. trachylophus) and aracti jaborandi (P. spicatus).There is consequently some confusion about the exact botanical source of the oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Jaborandi induces salivation and most gland secretions; it was also used at one time to promote hair growth. ‘Useful in psoriasis, prurigo, deafness ... chronic catarrh, tonsillitis and particularly dropsy.’ .
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, galactagogue, stimulant (nerve).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaflets.
CHARACTERISTICS: An orange or yellow liquid with a sweet-herbaceous fruity odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pilocarpine is the main active constituent; also isopilocarpine, pilocarpidine, methyl nonyl ketone, dipentene and other hydrocarbons.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin, skin irritant, abortifacient.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Various hypodermic solutions are prepared from pilocarpine: the crude oil is rarely used. Little used in perfumery or flavour work due to toxicity.... jaborandi
FAMILY: Asteraceae
SYNONYMS: S. canadensis var. gilvocanescens, S. altissima, S. canadensis var. salebrosa, Canadian goldenrod, meadow goldenrod, common goldenrod, giant goldenrod, tall goldenrod, rough goldenrod.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Solidago canadensis is a herbaceous, perennial plant of the daisy family often found growing as a wildflower, commonly forming colonies. The stem is stiff and erect, growing up to 7 feet high with numerous branches and lance-shaped leaves. The attractive small yellow or golden flowers are held above the foliage in clusters, which bloom late in the season. Goldenrod is often unfairly blamed for causing hay fever in humans although the pollen causing these allergy problems is mainly produced by ragweed, another wild plant which blooms at the same time. Goldenrods have a reputation of being difficult to control due to their aggressive rhizomatous growth, which enables them to rapidly colonize large areas.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, the herb occurs in most US states and Canadian provinces. It is found in a variety of habitats, and it typically is one of the first plants to colonize an area after disturbance (such as fire) but rarely persists once shrubs and trees become established and is found neither in very dry locations nor in waterlogged ones. In many parts of Europe, Japan and China, it is considered an invasive weed, often endangering local fauna.
OTHER SPECIES: The genus Solidago comprises over 140 varieties, many of which are very similar; it can even crossbreed with other plants! Nearly all are known simply as goldenrod, though some have specific folk names such as woundwort, Aaron’s rod and Blue Mountain tea. Most of the goldenrod species are native to North America although a few are native to Europe, Asia, North Africa and South America. The European goldenrod (S. virgaurea), was known as woundwort in England as it was used as an astringent remedy for treating wounds and bleeding. The sweet goldenrod (S. odora), a native of the US and Canada, is the species most frequently seen in herb gardens and is also used to produce an essential oil used by the perfumery industry. Sweet goldenrod also has a long history of medicinal use by Native Americans and was exported for tea in the nineteenth century.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The genus name Solidago derives from the Latin soldare, which means ‘to make whole’. Goldenrod has a long history of medicinal use especially by the Native Americans who used the plant for a wide range of conditions: infusions and compounds of the flowers and roots were used as emetics, sedatives and to counteract love potions, treat diarrhoea, fevers and the ’flu. The Shuswap used the plant in baths for women giving birth and the Zunis chewed crushed flowers to treat sore throats and drank infusions of the flowers for body pain. People of the Gosiute tribe ate the seeds and the Navajo people ate the roots. The Navajo also smoked the root with other plants and used the plant as a charm for success in gambling. The ground flowers were used on bee stings and a tea made to treat snakebite. During the Boston Tea Party, colonists drank goldenrod tea instead of English tea, which gave it the nick-name ‘Liberty Tea’. The tea is aromatic with a pleasing anise-like flavour as well as being a mildly astringent, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, febrifuge and stimulant.
Traditionally the herb has also been used for respiratory conditions and urinary tract infections. In the Swiss Pharmacopoeia, Goldenrod essential oil is indicated for supporting the circulatory system including cardiovascular problems like tachycardia as well as urinary tract and liver function. Goldenrod has also been approved by the German Commission as a natural anti-inflammatory, diuretic and antispasmodic in the treatment of urinary tract conditions. It is also reputed to be a lymphatic system conditioner, a regulator of the autonomic nervous system, with relaxing and calming effects valuable for hypertension.
According to the University of Montreal in Canada, goldenrod shows great potential in dealing with impotence. Although a little-known aromatherapy essential oil, it may have value due to its anti-allergy properties, for conditions like hay fever, allergic reactions, coughs and respiratory infections.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-allergenic, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antihypertensive, antispasmodic, antiviral, astringent, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, immuno-stimulant, liver support/stimulant, mucolytic, sedative.
EXTRACTION: The essential oil is steam distilled from the goldenrod flower.
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellowish liquid with a strong fresh, balsamic-peppery and slightly bitter aroma with a woody undertone. It blends well with ravintsara, peru balsam, rosemary, pine, ginger, spruce and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinene, bornyl acetate, benzoates, myrcene, methyl chavicol, borneol and limonene. NB: Essential oil from a sample of S. odora contained up to 75 per cent methyl chavicol (estragole), which is known to be moderately toxic
SAFETY DATA: Generally considered non-toxic, non-irritating and non-sensitizing: possible skin sensitivity. Avoid during pregnancy and for children due to high levels of estragole in some chemotypes.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, cuts, inflammations of the skin, insect bites, sores, wounds.
Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills, coughs and colds, hay fever, allergies, laryngitis (as a gargle) and respiratory congestion, sinus infection, sore throat, ’flu.
Digestive system: Liver congestion, hepatitis and fatty liver.
Genito-urinary system: Urinary tract and bladder conditions.
Immune system: Boosts vitality.
Nervous system: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension, stress.
OTHER USES: The essential oil is used in pharmaceutical and in perfumery products, especially for scenting soaps. Mustard, orange and brown dyes can be obtained from the whole plant.... goldenrod
FAMILY: Ericaceae
SYNONYMS: Ledum, Labrador tea, marsh tea, swamp tea, bog Labrador tea, rusty Labrador tea, Hudson’s Bay tea (formerly Ledum groenlandicum).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: This beautiful, hardy plant is a shrub belonging to the heather family, which can reach one metre in height. It is recognizable by its thick, leathery evergreen leaves whose edges coil under and are quite unique, being deep green on top with a downy-fuzz beneath. New leaves have a woolly mat of white hairs underneath; mature leaves have reddish hairs. All leaves are dotted with resinous glands and are fragrant, with a pungent scent, when crushed. The fluffy white flowers, which are borne in spring, are also strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: The plant is native to North America, from Greenland and Labrador across to Alaska, as far north as the treeline. It is absent from the far North and the dry prairies. The Latin name groenlandicum refers to the fact that it grows in Greenland where it is still widespread, often growing in dense colonies.
OTHER SPECIES: Ledum is a genus name, which includes 8 species of evergreen shrubs native to cool temperate and sub-arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere, commonly known as Labrador tea. The common name Ledum is also applied to Rhododendron tomentsum subsp. subarcticum (formerly L. decumbens) which is known as Northern Labrador tea. This species, which is similar but slightly smaller, grows farther north on tundra at up to 1,800 metres and contains toxic alkaloids known to be poisonous to livestock. It lacks the characteristic fuzz on the underside of the mature leaves and the flowers of L. groenlandicum.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This strongly aromatic herb has been used in folk medicine for centuries. Brewed as a medicinal beverage known as Labrador tea, it was used by practically all Canada’s First Nations peoples as a tonic and to treat certain respiratory, digestive and kidney ailments; as a remedy for headaches and various types of rheumatism; and to facilitate childbirth. The herbal tea also served to clean wounds and was applied to insect bites. It is said that the plant was used for over 5,000 years by the native people of North America, to protect themselves from scurvy, and the Cree used it for fevers and colds: indeed it was regarded as a ‘cure-all’ by the indigenous people. In the fur-trading era, the French Canadian coureurs-de-bois used Labrador tea to extend their supplies of black tea: it thus became a substitute for unaffordable Chinese tea during times of economic crisis. However, like other plants in the heather family, Greenland moss contains an andromedo-toxin that can cause poisoning if used in excess.
According to recent clinical trials, Greenland moss essential oil has a natural affinity for the immune system and can be an effective immune system supporter. The oil also helps counteract blood toxicity and aids liver regeneration, valuable in cases of liver intoxication originating from circulation disorders, viral hepatitis, enteritis and cirrhosis (fatty liver). Clinical research suggests that the essential oil functions like an enzyme in the liver, digesting toxic waste and fat molecules. It is also indicated for obesity, oedema, water retention and thyroid regulation. The oil has also been studied at the University of Quebec, and was found to be a strong antioxidant and natural anti-inflammatory: it also showed anticancer activity against colon carcinoma and lung carcinoma cells.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antibacterial, anticancerous, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumoral, antispasmodic, antioxidant, anti-infectious, antiseptic, carminative, cicatrizing, decongestant, digestive tonic, immune support, liver support, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Greenland moss oil is extracted by steam distillation from the leaves.
CHARACTERISTICS: A clear, pale-yellow liquid, with a fresh-herbaceous, medicinal and slightly sweet aroma and earthy-woody undertones.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The main chemical constituents are limonene (up to 35 per cent), sabinene, selinene, bornyl acetate with other monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes.
SAFETY DATA: Possible skin sensitization: always dilute for topical use. Avoid during pregnancy and by children. NB: Abusive consumption of the tea derived from its leaves may cause indigestion, and may even have a toxic effect due to the high level of tannins that it contains.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Allergies, skin problems.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Aching muscles and joints.
Respiratory System: Colds, coughs, bronchitis, hoarseness, influenza, laryngitis.
Digestive System: Addictions, alcoholism, allergies, cellulite, fatty liver, hepatitis (viral), hypothyroid, liver problems (toxic liver, support and detoxifier), lymph nodes (inflamed), obesity, thyroid regulation and water retention.
Immune System: Tonic and immune support.
Nervous System: Anxiety, nervous debility tension.
OTHER USES: The plant is still used as a local ‘tea plant’ in parts of the Northern Hemisphere.... greenland moss
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNOYNMS Ho oil, ho-wood il, shiu oil, ho-leaf oil.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, tropical evergreen tree, quite dense with small white flowers and black berries, which grows up to 30 metres in height. This is the same tree that produces camphor comes from the wood of the tree.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to China, Japan, Taiwan and south-east Asia. It is now cultivated in many tropical and sub-tropical countries including India, Australia, Madagascar and parts of the USA where it has naturalized.
OTHER SPECIES: Cinnamomum camphora is a large genus with many subspecies which yield a volatile oil on distillation, including ho oil (wood and leaf), camphor, apopin, sassafras and ravintsara. All these essential oils, although derived from the same principal botanical species, differ in their chemical profile enormously depending on their country of origin as well as the part of the plant used to extract the oil. There are thus many different subvarieties of the camphor tree found throughout Asia, for example the Yu-sho in China and the Sho-guy variety found in Taiwan. Ho (wood and leaf) oil is derived both from the Hon-sho and Ho-sho varieties growing mainly in Japan and Taiwan. This variety has linalool as its major constituent.
Rosewood (Aniba rosaedora), a native tree of the Amazon, also yields an oil very rich in linalool. However, rosewood became endangered due to over-harvesting and although plantations have since been planted, it will take time for the trees to mature. Rosewood oil and ho wood oil are very similar in nature, and since ho wood is more renewable, it is increasingly used as a replacement for the former. However, ho leaf oil, distilled from the leaves of C. camphora, is gradually beginning to replace ho wood oil in aromatherapy usage, because its scent is smoother, containing hardly any camphor-like notes.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Ho wood has traditionally been used for making the handles of Japanese swords and knives because it is soft and will not scratch the blades. It is also used nowadays for ornamental parts of houses, carpentry and cabinet making, as it is of a very similar beauty to rosewood. Ho wood oil became very popular in Taiwan during the 1900s as a linalool-rich product, locally referred to as shiu oil. C. camphora was also heavily exploited as a source of camphor in Japan and Taiwan until World War II.
The high ‘linalool’ content makes Ho oil a potent immune system stimulant (good for infections such as cold or ’flu) as well as a powerful relaxant or sedative … soothing yet uplifting in effect. Recent studies also suggest that the oil may play a role as a cellular stimulant and tissue regenerator, being beneficial for complaints associated with the skin.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anti-fungal, anti-infectious, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, bactericidal, immune support, sedative, tonic. It is also believed to be a mild aphrodisiac.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves (ho leaf oil) and wood (ho wood oil)
CHARACTERISTICS: Ho wood oil is a pale yellow liquid with a soft, warm, floral, spicy-woody scent with a slightly camphor-like undertone. The leaf oil has a sweet-fresh, green-floral and woody scent. It blends well with basil, bergamot, cedarwood, chamomile, lavender, lime, geranium, juniper, neroli, petitgrain, myrtle, sandalwood, ylang ylang and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ho (wood and leaf) oil contains up to 99 per cent linalool, with traces of limonene, myrcene, gamma-terpinene and other components. Ho wood oil generally contains higher levels of cineol. Japanese ho oil ‘A’ quality has a linalool content of 94 per cent or more; a ‘B’ grade has 85–90 per cent linalool.
SAFETY DATA: It is non-toxic and non-irritant but with possible sensitization in some individuals.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin Care: Acne, cuts, dermatitis, stretch marks, scars, wounds & general skin care: dry, oily, mature and sensitive skin.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Aches and pains caused by inflammation.
Respiratory System: Chills, coughs and colds, ’flu.
Immune System: Low libido and frigidity: boosts vitality.
Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, insomnia, nervous tension, stress.
OTHER USES: The use of C. camphora as a source of ho leaf and wood oil has expanded in recent years and it is now an important source of natural linalool (which is still preferred over the synthetic form) for some fragrance applications in the perfumery industry. Indeed, ho leaf and wood oil has largely displaced the use of rosewood as a source of natural linalool. It is also an effective insect repellent.... ho wood
FAMILY: Cupressaceae
SYNONYM: Common juniper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen shrub or tree up to 6 metres high, with bluish green narrow stiff needles. It has small flowers and little round berries, which are green in the first year, turning black in the second and third.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the northern hemisphere: Scandinavia, Siberia, Canada, northern Europe and northern Asia. The oil is mainly produced in Italy, France, Yugoslavia, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Spain, Germany and Canada.
OTHER SPECIES: In Yugoslavia an oil is produced from the fruit and twigs of J. smerka, less rich and sweet than that of common juniper. There are various other species of juniper such as J. oxycedrus which produces cade oil, J. virginiana which produces the so-called Virginian cedarwood oil, and J. sabina which produces savin oil. See also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The needles and berries have a long traditional history of use. It is used medicinally for urinary infections such as cystitis and urethritis; for respiratory problems such as bronchitis, colic and coughs; as well as gastro-intestinal infections and worms. It helps expel the build-up of uric acid in the joints, and is employed in gout, rheumatism and arthritis. Current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia for rheumatic pain and cystitis.
ACTIONS: Antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cicatrisant, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stomachic, sudorific, tonic, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the berries (sometimes fermented first as a by-product of juniper – brandy manufacture – the oil is considered an inferior product), and 2. the needles and wood. A resinoid, concrete and absolute are also produced on a small scale.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet, fresh, woody-balsamic odour. It blends well with vetiver, sandalwood, cedarwood, mastic, oakmoss, galbanum, elemi, cypress, clary sage, pine, lavender, lavandin, labdanum, fir needle, rosemary, benzoin, balsam tolu, geranium and citrus oils. 2. A water-white or pale yellow mobile liquid with a sweet-balsamic, fresh, turpentine-like odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes: pinene, myrcene, sabinene with limonene, cymene, terpinene, thujene and camphene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-sensitizing, may be slightly irritating, generally non-toxic. However, it stimulates the uterine muscle (an abortifacient) and must not be used during pregnancy. Neither should it be used by those with kidney disease due to its nephrotoxic effect. The wood oil is usually adulterated with turpentine oil. It is best to use only juniper berry oil, in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, eczema, hair loss, haemorrhoids, oily complexions, as a skin toner, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Accumulation of toxins, arteriosclerosis, cellulitis, gout, obesity, rheumatism.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Berries and extracts are used in diuretic and laxative preparations; also veterinary preventatives of ticks and fleas. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially spicy fragrances and aftershaves. Extensively used in many food products but especially alcoholic and soft drinks: the berries are used to flavour gin.... juniper
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: L. hybrida, L. hortensis, bastard lavender.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A hybrid plant developed by crossing true lavender (L. angustifolia) with spike lavender or aspic (L. latifolia). Due to its hybrid nature, lavandin has a variety of forms: in general, it is a larger plant than true lavender, with woody stems. Its flowers may be blue like true lavender, or greyish like aspic.
DISTRIBUTION: A natural lavandin occurs in the mountainous regions of southern France where both parent plants grow wild, though at different altitudes. Still mainly cultivated in France, but also Spain, Hungary, Yugoslavia and Argentina.
OTHER SPECIES: There are cultivars of lavender, such as ‘Dwarf Blue’, ‘Hidcote Pink’ and ‘Bowles Early’; there are also many cultivars of lavandin such as ‘Grey Hedge’, ‘Silver Grey’ and ‘Alba’. For further information see entries on true lavender and spike lavender; also the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Sixty years ago, when A Modern Herbal was written by Mrs Grieve, lavandin was still unknown, so it does not have a long history of therapeutic use. Its properties seem to combine those of the true lavender and aspic.
ACTIONS: See true lavender.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops; it has a higher yield of oil than either true lavender or aspic. (A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a fresh camphoraceous topnote (which should not be too strong in a good quality oil), and a woody herbaceous undertone. It blends well with clove, bay leaf, cinnamon, citronella, cypress, pine, clary sage, geranium, thyme, patchouli, rosemary and citrus oils, especially bergamot and lime.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Linalyl acetate (30–32 per cent), linalol, cineol, camphene, pinene and other trace constituents.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Similar uses to true lavender, but it is more penetrating and rubefacient with a sharper scent – good for respiratory, circulatory or muscular conditions.
OTHER USES: Extensively employed in soaps, detergents, room sprays, hair preparations and industrial perfumes. Used as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, and also as a natural source of linalol and linalyl acetate.... lavandin
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: L. vera, L. officinalis, garden lavender, common lavender
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen woody shrub, up to 1 metre tall, with pale green, narrow, linear leaves and flowers on blunt spikes of a beautiful violet-blue colour. The whole plant is highly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Indigenous to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated all over the world. The oil is produced mainly in France, also Spain, Italy, England, Australia, Tasmania, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Russia, Bulgaria, Greece, etc.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of lavender; L. angustifolia is divided into two subspecies – L. delphinensis and L. fragrans. French lavender (L. stoechas) is a smaller shrub with dark violet flowers; see also entries on spike lavender, lavandin and the Botanical Classification section. The so-called cotton lavender (Santolina chamaecyparissus) and the sea lavender (Statice caroliniana) belong to different botanical families.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Lavender has a well-established tradition as a folk remedy, and its scent is still familiar to almost everyone. It was used to ‘comfort the stomach’ but above all as a cosmetic water, an insect repellent, to scent linen, and as a reviving yet soothing oil ‘The essential oil, or a spirit of lavender made from it, proves admirably restorative and tonic against faintness, palpitations of a nervous sort, weak giddiness, spasms and colic ... A few drops of lavender in a hot footbath has a marked influence in relieving fatigue. Outwardly applied, it relieves toothache, neuralgia, sprains and rheumatism. In hysteria, palsy and similar disorders of debility and lack of nerve power, lavender will act as a powerful stimulant.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, carminative, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, deodorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, hypotensive, insecticide, nervine, parasiticide, rubefacient, sedative, stimulant, sudorific, tonic, vermifuge, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh flowering tops. 2. An absolute and concrete are also produced by solvent extraction in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a sweet, floral herbaceous scent and balsamic-woody undertone; it has a more fragrant floral scent compared to spike lavender. It blends well with most oils, especially citrus and florals; also cedarwood, clove, clary sage, pine, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, vetiver, patchouli, etc. 2. The absolute is a dark green viscous liquid with a very sweet herbaceous, somewhat floral odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Over 100 constituents including linalyl acetate (up to 40 per cent), linalol, lavandulol, lavandulyl acetate, terpineol, cineol, limonene, ocimene, caryophyllene, among others. Constituents vary according to source: high altitudes generally produce more esters.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Generally regarded as the most versatile essence therapeutically:
Skin care: Abscesses, acne, allergies, athlete’s foot, boils, bruises, burns, dandruff, dermatitis, earache, eczema, inflammations, insect bites and stings, insect repellent, lice, psoriasis, ringworm, scabies, sores, spots, all skin types, sunburn, wounds.
Circulation muscles and joints: Lumbago, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism, sprains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, halitosis, laryngitis, throat infections, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Abdominal cramps, colic, dyspepsia, flatulence, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune system: ’Flu.
Nervous system: Depression, headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions, PMT, sciatica, shock, vertigo.
OTHER USES: Used in pharmaceutical antiseptic ointments and as a fragrance. Extensively employed in all types of soaps, lotions, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, etc, especially toilet waters and colognes. Employed as a flavouring agent in most categories of food as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... lavender, true
FAMILY: Burseraceae
SYNONYMS: B. delpechiana, Mexican linaloe, ‘copallimon’.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall, bushy tropical shrub or tree, with a smooth bark and bearing fleshy fruit. The wood is only used for distillation purposes when the tree is twenty or thirty years old. The oil is partially a pathological product since its production is stimulated by lacerating the trunk – which apparently must be wounded on the night of the full moon for the tree to produce any oil!
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Central and South America, especially Mexico. It is cultivated in the Far East particularly in India (Mysore). The wood oil is mainly produced in Mexico, the seed (and husk) oil in India.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several species which are all known simply as linaloe: see Botanical Classification section. West Indian elemi (B. simaruba) is a close relative, as are myrrh and frankincense.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The seed oil is known in India as ‘Indian lavender oil’ and used chiefly as a local perfume ingredient and in soaps by the cosmetics industry of Mysore state. It is not much found outside India. In Mexico the wood oil is used in a similar fashion to rosewood, which contains similar constituents.
ACTIONS: Anticonvulsant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, bactericidal, deodorant, gentle tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the 1. Wood, and 2. Seed and husk. (An essential oil is also occasionally produced from the leaves and twigs.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A pale yellow liquid with a sweet-woody, floral scent, similar to rosewood. It blends well with rose, sandalwood, cedarwood, rosewood, frankincense, floral and woody fragrances. 2. A colourless liquid with a terpene-like odour, harsher than the wood oil.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Mainly linalol, some linalyl acetate. 2. Mainly linalyl acetate, some linalol.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, cuts, dermatitis, wounds, etc., all skin types.
Nervous system: Nervous tension and stressrelated conditions.
OTHER USES: The wood oil is used in soaps, toiletries and perfumes. It is also used for the production of natural linalol, although this is increasingly being replaced by synthetic linalol.... linaloe
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Marjorana hortensis, knotted marjoram.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender bushy perennial plant (cultivated as an annual in colder climates), up to 60 cms high with a hairy stem, dark green oval leaves and small greyish white flowers in clusters or ‘knots’. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, Egypt and North Africa. Major oil-producing countries include France, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, anaphrodisiac, antioxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, cephalic, cordial, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, fungicidal, hypotensive, laxative, nervine, sedative, stomachic, tonic, vasodilator, vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the dried flowering herb. An oleoresin is also produced in smaller quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or amber coloured mobile liquid with a warm, woody, spicy camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavender, rosemary, bergamot, chamomile, cypress, cedarwood, tea tree and eucalyptus.
OTHER SPECIES: There is a great deal of confusion regarding the various species of marjoram or oregano. The most common types are the pot or French marjoram (Origanum onites or Marjorana onites), which is a hardier plant than the sweet marjoram and of a spreading nature; the Spanish marjoram or oregano (Thymus mastichina) and the wild or common marjoram or oregano (Origanum vulgare) which is used to produce the so-called ‘oregano oil’. See entries on common oregano, Spanish oregano and also the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A traditional culinary herb and folk remedy. It was used by the ancient Greeks in their fragrances, cosmetics and medicines; the name oregano derives from a Greek word meaning ‘joy of the mountains’. lt is a versatile herb which has a soothing, fortifying and warming effect; it aids digestive and menstrual problems, as well as nervous and respiratory complaints.
It is ‘comforting in cold diseases of the head, stomach, sinews and other parts, taken inwardly or outwardly applied ... helps diseases of the chest, obstructions of the liver and spleen.’. It is also very helpful for muscular and rheumatic pain, sprains, strains, stiff joints, bruises, etc.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Terpinenes, terpineol, sabinenes, linalol, carvacrol, linalyl acetate, ocimene, cadinene, geranyl acetate, citral, eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. Not to be used during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains, bruises, ticks.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arthritis, lumbago, muscular aches and stiffness, rheumatism, sprains, strains.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, dyspepsia, flatulence.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, PMT.
Immune system: Colds.
Nervous system: Headache, hypertension, insomnia, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: The oil and oleoresin are used as fragrance components in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes. Employed in most major food categories, especially meats, seasonings and sauces, as well as soft drinks and alcoholic beverages such as vermouths and bitters.... marjoram, sweet
FAMILY: Mimosaceae
SYNONYMS: A. decurrens var. dealbata, Sydney black wattle.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An attractive small tree up to 12 metres high, having a greyish-brown bark with irregular longitudinal ridges, delicate foliage and clusters of ball-shaped fragrant yellow flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Australia; naturalized in North and Central Africa. It was brought to Europe as an ornamental plant in the early nineteenth century, but it now grows wild. The concrete (and absolute) is mainly produced in southern France, and also Italy.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many varieties of Acacia, such as the East African type (A. arabica) which is very similar; the mimosa of the florist shop (A. floribunda); and the Brazilian mimosa or sensitive plant (Mimosa humilis), the homoeopathic tincture of which is used for swelling of the ankles. It is also closely related to cassie.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The bark of mimosa which is known as ‘wattle bark’, has a leather-like odour and astringent taste. It contains up to 42 per cent tannins (also gallic acid) and is used extensively by the tanning industry. It is employed medicinally in similar ways to oak bark, as a specific for diarrhoea, and as an astringent gargle and ointment.
The extract of black catechu (A. catechu) is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for chronic diarrhoea with colitis.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, astringent. Extraction a concrete and absolute by solvent extraction from the flowers and twig ends.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. Concrete – a hard wax-like yellow mass with a sweet-woody, deep floral fragrance. 2. Absolute – an amber-coloured viscous liquid with a slightly green, woody-floral scent. It blends well with lavandin, lavender, ylang ylang, violet, styrax, citronella, Peru balsam, cassie, floral and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly hydrocarbons; palmic aldehyde, enanthic acid, anisic acid, acetic acid and phenols.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Oily, sensitive, general skin care.
Nervous system: Anxiety, nervous tension, over-sensitivity, stress.
OTHER USES: Employed largely in soaps, due to its good fixative properties. Also in high-class perfumes, especially colognes, floral and oriental types.... mimosa
FAMILY: Burseraceae
SYNONYMS: C. erythraea var. glabrascens, bisabol myrrh, sweet myrrh.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tall tropical tree, similar to myrrh (to which it is closely related), which contains a natural oleogum resin in tubular vessels between the bark and wood of the trunk. The natives make incisions in the trunk of the tree to increase the yield. The crude gum dries to form dark reddish-brown tear-shaped lumps with a sweet-woody, rootlike odour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to East Africa (Somalia) and eastern Ethiopia (Harrar Province) where it grows wild. The essential oil production is generally carried out in the USA and Europe from the crude oleogum resin.
OTHER SPECIES: The original or ‘true’ opopanax used in perfumery was derived from a large plant Opopanax chironium or Pastinaca opopanax, a plant similar to the parsnip of the Umbelliferae family and native to the Levant region, Sudan and Arabia. The oleogum resin was obtained by cutting into the stem at the base, which then produces reddish-yellow tears of a strong rootlike, parsnip or celery-type smell. This type of opopanax is now unavailable, and has been replaced by a similar type of oil known as ‘bisabol myrrh’.
Not to be confused with cassie (Acacia farnesiana), which is also known as ‘opopanax’.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Opopanax derived from O. chironium is described as having antispasmodic, expectorant, emmenagogue and antiseptic properties, which used to be employed in asthma, hysteria and visceral afflictions. In the Far East the bisabol myrrh is used extensively as an ingredient in incense.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, balsamic, expectorant.
EXTRACTION: 1. Essential oil by steam (or water) distillation from the crude oleogum resin. 2. A resinoid by solvent extraction from the crude oleogum resin.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. An orange, yellow or olive liquid with a sweet-balsamic, spicy, warm, animal-like odour (it does not contain a medicinal note like myrrh). It resinifies on exposure to air. 2. A solid dark mass with a warm, powdery, sweet-balsamic, rooty odour. It blends well with clary sage, coriander, labdanum, bergamot, myrrh, frankincense, vetiver, sandalwood, patchouli, mimosa, fir needle and neroli.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: The crude contains resins, gums (50–80 per cent) and essential oils (10–20 per cent), notably the sesquiterpene ‘bisabolene’ and sesquiterpene alcohols.
SAFETY DATA: Frequently adulterated – it is more expensive than the ‘hirabol myrrh’. The commercial resinoid is also usually mixed with a solvent such as myristate, because it is otherwise unpourable at room temperatures.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE Possibly similar uses to myrrh.
OTHER USES: Used as a fixative and fragrance component in high-class perfumery. Used in liqueurs to lend body and add winelike notes.... opopanax
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: T. capitans, Coridothymus capitatus, Satureja capitata, Thymbra capitata, oreganum (oil), Israeli oreganum (oil), Cretan thyme, corido thyme, conehead thyme, headed savory, thyme of the ancients.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial creeping herb with a woody stem, small dark green leaves and pink or white flowers borne in clusters.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Middle East and Asia Minor; grows wild in Spain. The oil is produced mainly in Spain, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Turkey.
OTHER SPECIES: Although this herb is strictly a thyme, it serves as the source for most so-called ‘oregano oil’. For other related species see entries on common thyme, common oregano and sweet marjoram; see also Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: According to Mrs Grieve the properties and oil of Spanish oregano (Thymus capitatus) are similar to the common thyme (T. vulgaris); it also shares many qualities with the common oregano or wild marjoram (Origanum vulgare).
ACTIONS: See common oregano.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried flowering tops.
CHARACTERISTICS: A dark brownish-red or purple oil with a strong tarlike, herbaceous, refreshing odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Carvacrol, thymol, cymene, caryophyllene, pinene, limonene, linalol, borneol, myrcene, thujone, terpinene.
SAFETY DATA: Dermal toxin, skin irritant, mucous membrane irritant.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used on the skin at all.’.
OTHER USES: See common oregano.... oregano, spanish
FAMILY: Iridaceae
SYNONYMS: Orris root, iris, flag iris, pale iris, orris butter (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A decorative perennial plant up to 1.5 metres high, with sword-shaped leaves, a creeping fleshy rootstock and delicate, highly scented, pale blue flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the eastern Mediterranean region; also found in northern India and North Africa. Most commercial orris is produced in Italy where it grows wild. The oil is mainly produced in France and Morocco and to lesser extent in Italy and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are many species of iris; cultivation has also produced further types. In Italy the pale iris (I. pallida) is collected indiscriminately with the Florentine orris (I. florentina) which has white flowers tinged with pale blue, and the common or German iris (I. germanica) which has deep purple flowers with a yellow beard. Other species which have been used medicinally include the American blue flag (I. versicolor), and the yellow flag iris (I. pseudacorus).
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In ancient Greece and Rome orris root was used extensively in perfumery, and its medicinal qualities were held in high esteem by Dioscorides. The juice of the root was used for cosmetic purposes, and the root bruised in wine was employed for dropsy, bronchitis, coughs, hoarseness, chronic diarrhoea and congested headaches. In Russia the root was used to make a tonic drink with honey and ginger.
Iris is little used medicinally these days, but it still appears in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as being formerly used in upper respiratory catarrh, coughs, and for diarrhoea in infants.
ACTIONS: Dried Root – antidiarrhoeal, demulcent, expectorant. Fresh Root – diuretic, cathartic, emetic.
EXTRACTION: 1. An essential oil (often called a ‘concrete’) by steam distillation from the rhizomes which have been peeled, washed, dried and pulverized. The rhizomes must be stored for a minimum of three years prior to extraction otherwise they have virtually no scent! 2. An absolute produced by alkali washing in ethyl ether solution to remove the myristic acid from the ‘concrete’ oil. 3. A resin or resinoid by alcohol extraction from the peeled rhizomes.
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. The oil solidifies at room temperature to a cream-coloured mass with a woody, violet-like scent and a soft, floral-fruity undertone. 2. The absolute is a water-white or pale yellow oily liquid with a delicate, sweet, floral-woody odour. 3. The resin is a brown or dark orange viscous mass with a deep, woody sweet, tobacco-like scent – very tenacious.
Orris blends well with cedarwood, sandalwood, vetiver, cypress, mimosa, labdanum, bergamot, clary sage, rose, violet and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Myristic acid, an odourless substance which makes the ‘oil’ solid (85–90 per cent), alpha-irone and oleic acid.
SAFETY DATA: The fresh root causes nausea and vomiting in large doses. The oil and absolute are much adulterated or synthetic – ‘true’ orris absolute is three times the price of jasmine.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. However, the powdered orris, which is a common article, may be used as a dry shampoo, a body powder, a fixative for pot pourris, and to scent linen.
OTHER USES: The powder is used to scent dentifrices, toothpowders, etc. The resin is used in soaps, colognes and perfumes; the absolute and ‘concrete’ oil are reserved for high-class perfumery work. Occasionally used on the Continent for confectionery and fruit flavours.... orris
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: C. bigaradia, petitgrain bigarade (oil), petitgrain Paraguay (oil). See also bitter orange.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: The oil of petitgrain is produced from the leaves and twigs of the same tree that produces bitter orange oil and neroli oil: see bitter orange and neroli.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to southern China and north east India. The best quality petitgrain oil comes from France but a good-quality oil is also produced in North Africa, Paraguay and Haiti from semi-wild trees.
OTHER SPECIES: A type of petitgrain is also produced in small quantities from the leaves, twigs and small unripe fruit of the lemon, sweet orange, mandarin and bergamot trees.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: At one time the oil used to be extracted from the green unripe oranges when they were still the size of a cherry – hence the name petitgrains or ‘little grains’. One of the classic ingredients of eau-de-cologne.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antispasmodic, deodorant, digestive, nervine, stimulant (digestive, nervous), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and twigs. An orange ‘leaf and flower’ water absolute is also produced, known as petitgrain sur fleurs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow to amber liquid with a fresh-floral citrus scent and a woody-herbaceous undertone. It blends well with rosemary, lavender, geranium, bergamot, bitter orange, labdanum, neroli, oakmoss, clary sage, jasmine, benzoin, palmarosa, clove and balsams.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 40–80 per cent esters: mainly linalyl acetate and geranyl acetate, as well as linalol, nerol, terpineol, geraniol, nerolidol, farnesol, limonene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing, non-phototoxic.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, excessive perspiration, greasy skin and hair, toning.
Digestive system: Dyspepsia, flatulence.
Nervous system: Convalescence, insomnia, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Extensively used as a fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, especially colognes (sometimes used to replace neroli). Employed as a flavour component in many foods, especially confectionery, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... petitgrain
FAMILY: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS: P. hortense, Apium petroselinum, Carum petroselinum, common parsley, garden parsley.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A biennial or shortlived perennial herb up to 70 cms high with crinkly bright green foliage, small greenish-yellow flowers and producing small brown seeds.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, especially Greece. It is cultivated extensively, mainly in California, Germany, France, Belgium, Hungary and parts of Asia. The principal oil-producing countries are France, Germany, Holland and Hungary.
OTHER SPECIES: There are over thirty-seven different varieties of parsley, such as the curly leaved type (P. crispum), which is used in herbal medicine.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It is used extensively as a culinary herb, both fresh and dried. It is a very nutritious plant, high in vitamins A and C; also used to freshen the breath. The herb and seed are used medicinally, principally for kidney and bladder problems, but it has also been employed for menstrual difficulties, digestive complaints and for arthritis, rheumatism, rickets and sciatica. It is said to stimulate hair growth, and help eliminate head lice.
The root is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for flatulent dyspepsia with intestinal colic.
ACTIONS: Antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, diuretic, depurative, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hypotensive, laxative, stimulant (mild), stomachic, tonic (uterine).
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the seed, and 2. the herb. (An essential oil is occasionally extracted from the roots; an oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction from the seeds.)
CHARACTERISTICS: 1. A yellow, amber or brownish liquid with a warm woody-spicy herbaceous odour. 2. A pale yellow or greenish liquid with a heavy, warm, spicy-sweet odour, reminiscent of the herb. It blends well with rose, neroli, cananga, tea tree, oakmoss, clary sage and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: 1. Mainly apiol, with myristicin, tetramethoxyally benzene, pinene and volatile fatty acids. 2. Mainly myristicin (up to 85 per cent), with phellandrene, myrcene, apiol, terpinolene, menthatriene, pinene and carotel, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Both oils are moderately toxic and irritant – myristicin has been shown to have toxic properties, and apiol has been shown to have irritant properties; otherwise non sensitizing. Use in moderation. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Circulation muscles and joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, broken blood vessels, cellulitis, rheumatism, sciatica.
Digestive system: Colic, flatulence, indigestion, haemorrhoids.
Genito-urinary system: Amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, to aid labour, cystitis, urinary infection.
OTHER USES: Used in some carminative and digestive remedies, such as ‘gripe waters’. The seed oil is used in soaps, detergents, colognes, cosmetics and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. The herb and seed oil as well as the oleoresin are used extensively in many types of food flavourings, especially meats, pickles and sauces, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.... parsley
FAMILY: Pinaceae
SYNONYMS: P. mugo, P. montana, P. pumilio, mountain pine, Swiss mountain pine, pine needle (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A pyramidal shrub or small tree up to 12 metres high with a black bark, stiff and twisted needles borne in clusters, and brown cones, initially of a bluish hue.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of central and southern Europe. The oil is mainly produced in Austria (Tirol), Yugoslavia, Denmark and Italy.
OTHER SPECIES: There are very many species of pine used to produce essential oil from their needles and wood or employed in the production of turpentine. NB: The so-called huon pine (Dacrydium franklinii), the essential oil of which is also a skin irritant, belongs to a different family, the Podcarpaceae. For further details see Scotch pine and the Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A preparation made from the needles has been used internally for bladder, kidney and rheumatic complaints, as a liniment for rheumatism and muscular pain, and as an inhalant for bronchitis, catarrh, colds, etc.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antitussive, antiviral, balsamic, diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the needles and twigs.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white liquid with a very pleasant, balsamic-sweet, spicy-woody scent of good tenacity. This is the favoured pine fragrance for perfumery use due to its unique delicate odour, which blends well with cedarwood, lavandin, rosemary, sage, cananga, labdanum, juniper and other coniferous oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpene hydrocarbons; limonene, pinenes, phellandrene, dipentene, camphene, myrcene and bornyl acetate among others. The unusual scent is believed to be due to its aldehyde content.
SAFETY DATA: Dermal irritant, common sensitizing agent; otherwise non-toxic. It is best avoided therapeutically due to irritant hazards.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Used as a fragrance and flavour component in pharmaceutical preparations for coughs and colds, nasal congestion and externally in analgesic ointments and liniments. Extensively employed in soaps, bath preparations, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes, especially ‘leather’ and ‘woody’ type fragrances. It is also used in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... pine, dwarf
FAMILY: Piperaceae
SYNONYMS: Piper, pepper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A perennial woody vine up to 5 metres high with heart-shaped leaves and small white flowers. The berries turn from red to black as they mature – black pepper is the dried fully grown unripe fruit.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to south west India; cultivated extensively in tropical countries. Major producers are India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China and Madagascar. It is also distilled in Europe and America from the imported dried fruits.
OTHER SPECIES: The so-called white pepper is the dried ripe fruit with the outer pericarp removed. Not to be confused with cayenne pepper or paprika from the capsicum species, which are used to make an oleoresin.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Both black and white pepper have been used in the East for over 4000 years for medicinal and culinary purposes. In Chinese medicine, white pepper is used to treat malaria, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea, stomach ache and other digestive problems. In Greece it is used for intermittent fever and to fortify the stomach. ‘The mendicant monks of India who cover daily considerable distances on foot, swallow 7–9 grains of pepper a day. This gives them remarkable endurance.’.
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aperitif, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, carminative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient, stimulant (nervous, circulatory, digestive), stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the black peppercorns, dried and crushed. (‘Light’ and ‘heavy’ oils are produced by the extraction of the low or high boiling fractions respectively.) An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction, mainly for flavour use.
CHARACTERISTICS: A water-white to pale olive mobile liquid with a fresh, dry-woody, warm, spicy scent. It blends well with frankincense, sandalwood, lavender, rosemary, marjoram, spices and florals (in minute quantities).
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly monoterpenes (70–80 per cent): thujene, pinene, camphene, sabinene, carene, myrcene, limonene, phellandrene, and sesquiterpenes (20–30 per cent) and oxygenated compounds.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-sensitizing, irritant in high concentration due to rubefacient properties. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Chilblains.
Circulation muscles and joints: Anaemia, arthritis, muscular aches and pains, neuralgia, poor circulation, poor muscle tone (muscular atonia), rheumatic pain, sprains, stiffness.
Respiratory system: Catarrh, chills.
Digestive system: Colic, constipation, diarrhoea, flatulence, heartburn, loss of appetite, nausea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections and viruses.
OTHER USES: Used in certain tonic and rubefacient preparations. Used for unusual effects in perfumery work; for example, with rose or carnation in oriental or floral fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are used extensively in the food industry, as well as in alcoholic drinks.... pepper, black
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: A. rosaeodora var. amazonica, bois de rose, Brazilian rosewood.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Medium-sized, tropical, evergreen tree with a reddish bark and heartwood, bearing yellow flowers. Used extensively for timber. NB: This is one of the trees that is being extensively felled in the clearing of the South American rainforests; the continual production of rosewood oil is consequently enviromentally damaging.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Amazon region; Brazil and Peru are the main producers.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several species of timber all known as rosewood; however, the essential oil is only distilled from the above species. French Guiana used to produce the cayenne rosewood (Ocotea caudata), which is superior in quality to the Peruvian or Brazilian type.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Used for building, carving and French cabinet making. Nowadays, most rosewood goes to Japan for the production of chopsticks.
ACTIONS: Mildly analgesic, anticonvulsant, antidepressant, antimicrobial, antiseptic, aphrodisiac, bactericidal, cellular stimulant, cephalic, deodorant, stimulant (immune system), tissue regenerator, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the wood chippings.
CHARACTERISTICS: Colourless to pale yellow liquid with a very sweet, woody-floral fragrance with a spicy hint. Blends well with most oils, especially citrus, woods and florals. It helps give body and rounds off sharp edges.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Linalol (90–97 per cent) in cayenne rosewood; in the Brazilian oil slightly less (80–90 per cent). Also cineol, terpineol, geraniol, citronella!, limonene, pinene, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dermatitis, scars, wounds, wrinkles and general skin care: sensitive, dry, dull, combination oily/dry, etc. ‘Although it does not have any dramatic curative power ... I find it very useful especially for skin care. It is very mild and safe to use.’.
Immune system: Colds, coughs, fever, infections, stimulates the immune system.
Nervous system: Frigidity, headaches, nausea, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES: Once extensively used as a source of naturallinalol, now increasingly replaced by the synthetic form. Acetylated rosewood oil is used extensively in perfumery work – soaps, toiletries, cosmetics and perfumes. The oil is employed in most major food categories, alcoholic and soft drinks.... rosewood
FAMILY: Lauraceae
SYNONYMS: Cinnamomum camphora ct. 1,8-cineole.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cinnamomum camphora is a tall evergreen tropical tree characteristic of the Laurel family that grows up to 20–30 metres tall. The foliage is bright green and the leaves have a glossy, waxy appearance bearing masses of small white flowers in spring. It produces clusters of shiny black berries and has a pale bark that is very rough and fissured vertically.
DISTRIBUTION: C. camphora is native to China, Japan, and Taiwan but has been introduced to many countries throughout the world including India, Australia and the USA, where in places such as Florida it is becoming increasingly invasive and a danger to the native flora. This species is not indigenous to Madagascar and was introduced onto the island during the middle of the nineteenth century. As the plant became accustomed to the Malagasy climate it became a distinct subspecies, which in time adapted so well to the new environment, naturalizing in the central-eastern regions, that it became a very sustainable species for producing an essential oil, now called ravintsara oil. However, since it is clear there are many different sub-varieties of C. camphora in various parts of the world, it is possible that there also existed another native aromatic tree already growing in Madagascar originally known as ravintsara by the local people. According to Georges M. Halpern in The Healing Trail: Essential Oils of Madagascar, an indigenous tree of this name had been part of the Malagasy culture for many centuries and its leaves were used as a traditional folk medicine.
OTHER SPECIES: The genus Cinnamomum has approximately 250 different species, many of which yield an essential oil on distillation. Amongst the most important are C. zeylanicum (cinnamon bark and leaf oils) and C. cassia (cassia oil). The single species C. camphora itself produces a wide range of essential oils including: camphor, ho wood and leaf oil, sassafras and ravintsara. All these essential oils, although derived from the same tropical tree or botanical species, differ in their chemical profile enormously depending on the country of origin as well as the part of the plant used to extract the oil: e.g. leaf or bark.
There are at least 6 different chemotypes of C. camphora essential oil due to this factor, including the camphor, linalool, 1,8-cineole, nerolidol, safrole and borneol types. For example, C. camphora, grown in Taiwan and Japan, is known as Ho oil, and has linalool as its major constituent, whereas in India and Sri Lanka the camphor type of C. camphora remains the most important. The variety of C. camphora cultivated in Madagascar contains high levels of 1,8-cineole and no camphor. In order to avoid any confusion, it has been suggested that Ravintsara should be labelled: ‘Cinnamomum camphora ct. 1,8-cineole.’
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: The term Cinnamomum is derived from the Greek root kinnamon or kinnamomon meaning ‘sweet wood’. The word ravint means leaf and sara means ‘good for you’ according to the Malagasy tradition, as the local people have long appreciated the therapeutic value of its leaves which were used in folk medicine to treat digestive complaints, headaches, colds and chest infections. It has also been used for culinary applications and employed as a herbal tea. The Malagasy people themselves believe that the original Ravintsara tree is an indigenous species: a ‘cousin’ of the well-known C. camphora species, which has since been introduced.
ACTIONS: Antibacterial, anticatarrhal, antifungal, anti-infectious, antimicrobial, antirheumatic, antiviral, decongestant, cicatrisant (wound healer), expectorant, immune and neurotonic.
EXTRACTION: Steam distilled from the leaves of the plant.
CHARACTERISTICS: Fresh, woody, slightly floral, balsamic, eucalyptus-like scent. It blends well with eucalyptus, rosemary, bay, frankincense, cardamon, pine, cypress, juniper and citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Ravintsara is akin to Eucalyptus globulus oil (as both are particularly effective for respiratory infections) due to its high 1,8-cineole content ranging from 45–55 per cent. Other major constituents include monoterpenes (sabinene 15 per cent, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene), sesquiterpenes (beta-carophyllene), monoterpenic alcohols (alpha-terpineol 7 per cent and terpineol) and esters (terpenyl acetate).
NOTE: Ravintsara essential oil contain at least 45 per cent 1,8-cineole compared to approximately 5 per cent found in Ravensara aromatica oil.
SAFETY DATA: Ravintsara oil is generally very well tolerated by the majority of the population, although like eucalyptus, it can cause sensitization in some individuals and should be used in moderation.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Shingles, herpes, verrucas, warts and athletes foot.
Circulation muscles and joints: Aching muscles and joints.
Respiratory system: Coughs, colds, influenza and other respiratory ailments such as asthma, bronchitis, sinusitis, laryngitis, otitis, tonsillitis and whooping cough.
Immune system: Viral infections especially air-borne infections.
Nervous system: Nervous debility
OTHER USES: Ravintsara oil is produced in a ‘pharmaceutical grade’ for the chemical and perfumery industry.... ravintsara
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: R. coronarium, compass plant, incensier.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A shrubby evergreen bush up to 2 metres high with silvery green, needle-shaped leaves and pale blue flowers. The whole plant is strongly aromatic.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now cultivated worldwide in California, Russia, Middle East, England, France, Spain, Portugal, Yugoslavia, Morocco, China, etc. The main oil-producing countries are France, Spain and Tunisia.
OTHER SPECIES: R. officinalis is the type used for oil production but it is generally not specified, although there are many different cultivars, for example pine-scented rosemary (R. officinalis var. angustifolius). See also Botanical Classification.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the earliest plants to be used for food, medicine and magic, being regarded as sacred in many civilizations. Sprigs of rosemary were burnt at shrines in ancient Greece, fumigations were used in the Middle Ages to drive away evil spirits, and to protect against plague and infectious illness.
It has been used for a wide range of complaints including respiratory and circulatory disorders, liver congestion, digestive and nervous complaints, muscular and rheumatic pain, skin and hair problems. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for ‘depressive states with general debility and indications of cardiovascular weakness’..
ACTIONS: Analgesic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antiseptic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, carminative, cephalic, cholagogue, choleretic, cicatrisant, cordial, cytophylactic, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, fungicidal, hepatic, hypertensive, nervine, parasiticide, restorative, rubefacient, stimulant (circulatory, adrenal cortex, hepatobiliary), stomachic, sudorific, tonic (nervous, general), vulnerary.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation of the fresh flowering tops or (in Spain) the whole plant (poorer quality).
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow mobile liquid with a strong, fresh, minty herbaceous scent and a woody-balsamic undertone. Poor quality oils have a strong camphoraceous note. It blends well with olibanum, lavender, lavandin, citronella, oregano, thyme, pine, basil, peppermint, labdanum, elemi, cedarwood, petitgrain, cinnamon and other spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly pinenes, camphene, limonene, cineol, borneol with camphor, linalol, terpineol, octanone, bornyl acetate, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant (in dilution only), non-sensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy. Not to be used by epileptics.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dandruff, dermatitis, eczema, greasy hair, insect repellent, promotes hair growth, regulates seborrhoea, scabies, stimulates scalp, lice, varicose veins.
Circulation muscles and joints: Arteriosclerosis, fluid retention, gout, muscular pain, palpitations, poor circulation, rheumatism.
Respiratory system: Asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough.
Digestive system: Colitis, dyspepsia, flatulence, hepatic disorders, hypercholesterolaemia, jaundice.
Genito-urinary system: Dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea.
Immune system: Colds, ’flu, infections.
Nervous system: Debility, headaches, hypotension, neuralgia, mental fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related disorders.
OTHER USES: Extensively used in soaps, detergents, cosmetics, household sprays and perfumes, especially colognes. Also used as a masking agent. Extensively employed in most major food categories, especially meat products, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks. Serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.... rosemary
FAMILY: Rutaceae
SYNONYMS: Garden rue, herb-of-grace, herbygrass.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An ornamental, shrubby herb with tough, woody branches, small, smooth, bluish-green leaves and greeny yellow flowers. The whole plant has a strong, aromatic, bitter or acrid scent.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region; found growing wild extensively in Spain, Morocco, Corsica, Sardinia and Algeria. It is cultivated mainly in France and Spain for its oil; also in Italy and Yugoslavia.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different types of rue, such as the summer rue (R. montana), winter rue (R.chalepensis) and Sardinian rue (R. angustifolia), which are also used to produce essential oils.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A favoured remedy of the ancients, especially as an antidote to poison. It was seen as a magic herb by many cultures and as a protection against evil. It was also used for nervous afflictions. ‘It helps disorders in the head, nerves and womb, convulsions and hysteric fits, the colic, weakness of the stomach and bowels; it resists poison and cures venomous bites.’.
ACTIONS: Antitoxic, antitussive, antiseptic, antispasmodic, diuretic, emmenagogue, insecticidal, nervine, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fresh herb.
CHARACTERISTICS: A yellow or orange viscous mass which generally solidifies at room temperature, with a sharp, herbaceous-fruity acrid odour. The winter rue oil does not solidify at room temperature.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly methyl nonyl ketone (90 per cent in summer rue oil).
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin (due to main constituent). Skin and mucous membrane irritant. Abortifacient. ‘Rue oil should never be used in perfumery or flavour work.’ .
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used at all in aromatherapy.’.
OTHER USES: Employed as a source of methyl nonyl ketone.... rue
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: Garden sage, true sage, Dalmatian sage.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen, shrubby, perennial herb up to 80 cms high with a woody base, soft, silver, oval leaves and a mass of deep blue or violet flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region; cultivated worldwide especially in Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Italy, Turkey, France, China and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several different species and cultivars which have been developed, such as the Mexican sage (S. azurea grandiflora) and the red sage (S. colorata) both of which are used medicinally. Essential oils are also produced from other species including the Spanish sage (S. lavendulaefolia) and clary sage (S. selarea) – see separate entries and Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: A herb of ancient repute, valued as a culinary and medicinal plant – called herba sacra or ‘sacred herb’ by the Romans. It has been used for a variety of disorders including respiratory infections, menstrual difficulties and digestive complaints. It was also believed to strengthen the senses and the memory.
It is still current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for inflammations of the mouth, tongue and throat.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, antispasmodic, astringent, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge, hypertensive, insecticidal, laxative, stomachic, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried leaves. (A so-called ‘oleoresin’ is also produced from the exhausted plant material.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow mobile liquid with a fresh, warm-spicy, herbaceous, somewhat camphoraceous odour. It blends well with lavandin, rosemary, rosewood, lavender, hyssop, lemon and other citrus oils. The common sage oil is preferred in perfumery work to the Spanish sage oil which, although safer, has a less refined fragrance.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Thujone (about 42 per cent), cineol, borneol, caryophyllene and other terpenes.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin (due to thujone). Abortifacient; avoid in pregnancy. Avoid in epilepsy. Use with care or avoid in therapeutic work altogether – Spanish sage or clary sage are good alternatives.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Used in some pharmaceutical preparations such as mouthwashes, gargles, toothpastes, etc. Employed as a fragrance component in soaps, shampoos, detergents, anti-perspirants, colognes and perfumes, especially men’s fragrances. The oil and oleoresin are extensively used for flavouring foods (mainly meat products), soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, especially vermouth. It also serves as a source of natural anti-oxidants.... sage, common
FAMILY: Asteraceae (Compositae)
SYNONYMS: Lavandula taemina, cotton lavender
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An evergreen, woody shrub with whitish-grey foliage and small, bright yellow, ball-shaped flowers borne on long single stalks. The whole plant has a strong rather rank odour, a bit like chamomile.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to Italy, now common throughout the Mediterranean region. Much grown as a popular border herb.
OTHER SPECIES: There are several varieties such as S. fragrantissima. It is not related to true lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) despite the common name.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It was used as an antidote to all sorts of poison, and to expel worms; also ‘good against obstruction of the liver, the jaundice and to promote the menses’.. It was used to keep away moths from linen, to repel mosquitos, and as a remedy for insect bites, warts, scabs and verrucae. The Arabs are said to have used the juice for bathing the eyes.
ACTIONS: Antispasmodic, antitoxic, anthelmintic, insecticidal, stimulant, vermifuge.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow liquid with a strong, acrid, herbaceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Only one principal constituent: santolinenone.
SAFETY DATA: Oral toxin. ‘There is no safety data available ... likely to be dangerously toxic.’.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None.
OTHER USES: Little used in flavour or perfumery work due to toxicity.... santolina
FAMILY: Lamiaceae (Labiatae)
SYNONYMS: S. obovata, Calamintha montana.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A bushy perennial subshrub up to 40 cms high with woody stems at the base, linear leaves and pale purple flowers.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the Mediterranean region, now found all over Europe, Turkey and the USSR. The oil is mainly produced in Spain, Morocco and Yugoslavia.
OTHER SPECIES: The creeping variety of the winter savory (S. montana subspicata) is also a well-known garden herb. See also summer savory (S. hortensis) and Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: It has been used as a culinary herb since antiquity, much in the same way as summer savory. It was used as a digestive remedy especially good for colic, and in Germany it is used particularly for diarrhoea.
When compared against many varieties of thyme, rosemary and lavender, recent research has shown ‘the net superiority of the anti microbial properties of essence of savory’..
ACTIONS: See summer savory.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the whole herb. (An oleoresin is also produced by solvent extraction.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A colourless or pale yellow liquid with a sharp, medicinal, herbaceous odour.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly carvacrol, cymene and thymol, with lesser amounts of pinenes, limonene, cineol, borneol and terpineol.
SAFETY DATA: See summer savory.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE None. ‘Should not be used on the skin at all.’.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in perfumery work. The oil and oleoresin are employed to some extent in flavouring, mainly meats and seasonings.... savory, winter
FAMILY: Santalaceae
SYNONYMS: White sandalwood, yellow sandalwood, East Indian sandalwood, sandalwood Mysore, sanders-wood, santal (oil), white saunders (oil), yellow saunders (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A small, evergreen, parasitic tree up to 9 metres high with brown-grey trunk and many smooth, slender branches. It has leathery leaves and small pinky-purple flowers. The tree must be over thirty years old before it is ready for the production of sandalwood oil.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to tropical Asia, especially India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia and Taiwan. India is the main essential oil producer; the region of Mysore exports the highest quality oil, although some oil is distilled in Europe and the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: The Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum or Eucarya spicata) produces a very similar oil, but with a dry-bitter top note. The so-called West Indian sandalwood or amyris (Amyris balsamifera) is a poor substitute and bears no botanical relation to the East Indian sandalwood.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: One of the oldest known perfume materials, with at least 4000 years of uninterrupted use. It is used as a traditional incense, as a cosmetic, perfume and embalming material all over the East. It is also a popular building material, especially for temples.
In Chinese medicine it is used to treat stomach ache, vomiting, gonorrhoea, choleraic difficulties and skin complaints. In the Ayurvedic tradition it is used mainly for urinary and respiratory infections, for acute and chronic diarrhoea. In India it is often combined with rose in the famous scent aytar.
ACTIONS: Antidepressant, antiphlogistic, antiseptic (urinary and pulmonary), antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, astringent, bactericidal, carminative; cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, fungicidal, insecticidal, sedative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by water or steam distillation from the roots and heartwood, powdered and dried.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow, greenish or brownish viscous liquid with a deep, soft, sweet-woody balsamic scent of excellent tenacity. It blends well with rose, violet, tuberose, clove, lavender, black pepper, bergamot, rosewood, geranium, labdanum, oakmoss, benzoin, vetiver, patchouli, mimosa, cassie, costus, myrrh and jasmine.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: About 90 per cent santalols, 6 per cent sesquiterpene hydrocarbons: santene, teresantol, borneol, santalone, tri-cyclo-ekasantalal, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Acne, dry, cracked and chapped skin, aftershave (barber’s rash), greasy skin, moisturizer.
Respiratory system: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs (dry, persistent), laryngitis, sore throat.
Digestive system: Diarrhoea, nausea.
Genito-urinary system: Cystitis.
Nervous system: Depression, insomnia, nervous tension and stress-related complaints.
OTHER USES: Used to be used as a pharmaceutical disinfectant, now largely abandoned. Extensively employed as a fragrance component and fixative in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes – especially oriental, woody, aftershaves, chypres, etc. Extensively used in the production of incense. Employed as a flavour ingredient in most major food categories, including soft and alcoholic drinks.... sandalwood
FAMILY: Anacardiaceae
SYNONYMS: Peruvian pepper, Peruvian mastic, Californian pepper tree.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tropical evergreen tree up to 20 metres high with graceful, drooping branches, feathery foliage and fragrant yellow flowers. The berries or fruit have an aromatic, peppery flavour.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to South America; found growing wild in Mexico, Peru, Guatemala and other tropical regions, including California. It has been introduced into North and South Africa and the Mediterranean region. The fruits are collected for essential oil production in Spain, Guatemala and Mexico.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the mastic tree (Pistacia lentiscus) – see entry on mastic.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: In Greece and other Mediterranean countries an intoxicating beverage is made from the fruits of the tree. The fruit is also used as a substitute for black pepper in the growing areas. During World War II, the oil of black pepper was unavailable and was consequently replaced by schinus molle.
ACTIONS: Antiseptic, antiviral, bactericidal, carminative, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruit or berries. (An oil from the leaves is also produced in small quantities.)
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale green or olive, oily liquid with a warm, woody-peppery scent with a smoky undertone. It blends well with oakmoss, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, black pepper and eucalyptus.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Mainly phellandrene, also caryophyllene, pinene and carvacrol.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE See black pepper.
OTHER USES: Used as a substitute for black pepper in perfumery and flavouring work.... schinus molle
FAMILY: Aristolochiaceae
SYNONYMS: Wild ginger, Indian ginger.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: An inconspicuous but fragrant little plant not more than 35 cms high with a hairy stem, two glossy, kidney-shaped leaves and a creeping rootstock. The solitary bell-shaped flower is brownish purple, and creamy white inside.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to North America, especially North Carolina, Kansas and Canada. The oil is produced in the USA mainly from wild-growing plants.
OTHER SPECIES: It should not be confused with ‘serpentaria oil’ from the Virginian snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria) which belongs to the same botanical family but contains asarone and is considered toxic.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: This plant has been employed for centuries in folk medicine but is now little prescribed. It used to be used for chronic chest complaints, dropsy, rheumatism and painful bowel and stomach spasms. It was also considered a ‘valuable stimulant in cases of amenorrhoea and colds’ and for ‘promoting a copious perspiration’. .
The name (of the Virginian variety at least) derives from its use in aiding the body to combat nettle rash, poison ivy and some snake bites.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried rhizomes and crushed roots.
CHARACTERISTICS: A brownish-yellow or amber liquid with a warm, woody-spicy, rich, gingerlike odour. It blends well with bergamot, costus, oakmoss, patchouli, pine needle, clary sage, mimosa, cassie and other florals.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Pinene, linalol, borneol, terpineol, geraniol, eugenol and methyl eugenol, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Non-toxic, non-irritant, nonsensitizing. Avoid during pregnancy.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE May possibly be used for its antispasmodic qualities, for example for period pains or indigestion.
OTHER USES: Occasionally used in perfumery work. Mainly used as a flavouring agent with other spicy materials, especially in confectionery.... snakeroot
FAMILY: Valerianaceae
SYNONYMS: Nard, ‘false’ Indian valerian root (oil).
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A tender aromatic herb with a pungent rhizome root.
DISTRIBUTION: Native to the mountainous regions of northern India; also China and Japan (see other species). The oil is mainly distilled in Europe or the USA.
OTHER SPECIES: Closely related to the common valerian (Valeriana officinalis) and the Indian valerian (V. wallichii) with which it shares many qualities. There are also several other similar species, notably the Chinese spikenard (N. chinensis) which is also used to produce an essential oil. Not to be confused with aspic or spike lavender (Lavandula latifolia), nor with essential oils from the musk root (Ferula sumbul) which is collected from the same area. The roots of several other plants are also commonly sold as ‘Indian valerian root’.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION: Spikenard is one of the early aromatics used by the ancient Egyptians and is mentioned in the Song of Solomon in the Bible. It is also the herb which Mary used to anoint Jesus before the Last Supper; ‘Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus, and wiped his feet with her hair; and the house was filled with the odour of the ointment.’.
The oil was also used by the Roman perfumers, or unguentarii, in the preparation of nardinum, one of their most celebrated scented oils, and by the Mughal empress Nur Jehan in her rejuvenating cosmetic preparations. It was also a herb known to Dioscorides as ‘warming and drying’, good for nausea, flatulent indigestion, menstrual problems, inflammations and conjunctivitis.
ACTIONS: Anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, bactericidal, deodorant, fungicidal, laxative, sedative, tonic.
EXTRACTION: Essential oil by steam distillation from the dried and crushed rhizome and roots.
CHARACTERISTICS: A pale yellow or amber coloured liquid with a heavy, sweet-woody, spicy-animal odour, somewhat similar to valerian oil. It blends well with labdanum, lavender, oakinoss, patchouli, pine needle, vetiver and spice oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS: Bornyl acetate, isobornyl valerianate, borneol, patchouli alcohol, terpinyl valerianate, terpineol, eugenol and pinenes, among others.
SAFETY DATA: Probably similar to valerian, i.e. non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME: USE
Skin care: Allergies, inflammation, mature skin (rejuvenating), rashes, etc.
Nervous system: Insomnia, nervous indigestion, migraine, stress and tension.
OTHER USES: Little used these days, usually as a substitute for valerian oil.... spikenard
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