The meaning of the symbols of child seen in a dream.

See PREGNANCY AND LABOUR.... childbirth

This traditional term covers the neglect, physical injury, emotional trauma and sexual abuse of a child. Professional sta? responsible for the care and well-being of children now refer to physical injury as ‘non-accidental injury’. Child abuse may be caused by parents, relatives or carers. In England around 35,000 children are on local-authority social-service department child-protection registers – that is, are regarded as having been abused or at risk of abuse. Physical abuse or non-accidental injury is the most easily recognised form; victims of sexual abuse may not reveal their experiences until adulthood, and often not at all. Where child abuse is suspected, health, social-care and educational professionals have a duty to report the case to the local authority under the terms of the Children Act. The authority has a duty to investigate and this may mean admitting a child to hospital or to local-authority care. Abuse may be the result of impulsive action by adults or it may be premeditated: for example, the continued sexual exploitation of a child over several years. Premeditated physical assault is rare but is liable to cause serious injury to a child and requires urgent action when identi?ed. Adults will go to some lengths to cover up persistent abuse. The child’s interests are paramount but the parents may well be under severe stress and also require sympathetic handling.

In recent years persistent child abuse in some children’s homes has come to light, with widespread publicity following o?enders’ appearances in court. Local communities have also protested about convicted paedophiles, released from prison, coming to live in their communities.

In England and Wales, local-government social-services departments are central in the prevention, investigation and management of cases of child abuse. They have four important protection duties laid down in the Children Act 1989. They are charged (1) to prevent children from suffering ill treatment and neglect; (2) to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in need; (3) when requested by a court, to investigate a child’s circumstances; (4) to investigate information – in concert with the NSPCC (National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children) – that a child is suffering or is likely to suffer signi?cant harm, and to decide whether action is necessary to safeguard and promote the child’s welfare. Similar provisions exist in the other parts of the United Kingdom.

When anyone suspects that child abuse is occurring, contact should be made with the relevant social-services department or, in Scotland, with the children’s reporter. (See NONACCIDENTAL INJURY (NAI); PAEDOPHILIA.)... child abuse

The Children Act 1989 (Children Act) introduced major reforms of child-care law. It encourages negotiation and cooperation between parents, children and professionals to resolve problems affecting children. The aim is to enable children to stay within their own families with appropriate back-up from local-authority and professional resources. The emphasis is on empowering families rather than paternalistic control. The Act set up a court made up of three tiers – the High Court, county court and magistrates’ court – each with concurrent jurisdiction. The Act has been broadened, clari?ed and interpreted by subsidiary legislation, rules, case law and o?cial guidance. An equivalent act is in force in Scotland.... children act

Emotional and behavioural problems are common in children and adolescents, affecting up to one-?fth at any one time. But these problems are often not clear-cut, and they may come and go as the child develops and meets new challenges in life. If a child or teenager has an emotional problem that persists for weeks rather than days and is associated with disturbed behaviour, he or she may have a recognisable mental health disorder.

Anxiety, phobias and depression are fairly common. For instance, surveys show that up to

2.5 per cent of children and 8 per cent of adolescents are depressed at any one time, and by the age of 18 a quarter will have been depressed at least once. Problems such as OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER, ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER (HYPERACTIVITY SYNDROME), AUTISM, ASPERGER’S SYNDROME and SCHIZOPHRENIA are rare.

Mental-health problems may not be obvious at ?rst, because children often express distress through irritability, poor concentration, dif?cult behaviour, or physical symptoms. Physical symptoms of distress, such as unexplained headache and stomach ache, may persuade parents to keep children at home on school days. This may be appropriate occasionally, but regularly avoiding school can lead to a persistent phobia called school refusal.

If a parent, teacher or other person is worried that a child or teenager may have a mental-health problem, the ?rst thing to do is to ask the child gently if he or she is worried about anything. Listening, reassuring and helping the child to solve any speci?c problems may well be enough to help the child feel settled again. Serious problems such as bullying and child abuse need urgent professional involvement.

Children with emotional problems will usually feel most comfortable talking to their parents, while adolescents may prefer to talk to friends, counsellors, or other mentors. If this doesn’t work, and if the symptoms persist for weeks rather than days, it may be necessary to seek additional help through school or the family’s general practitioner. This may lead to the child and family being assessed and helped by a psychologist, or, less commonly, by a child psychiatrist. Again, listening and counselling will be the main forms of help o?ered. For outright depression, COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THERAPY and, rarely, antidepressant drugs may be used.... mental health problems in children

The maltreatment of children.

Child abuse may take the form of physical injury, sexual abuse, emotional mistreatment, and/or neglect; it occurs at all levels of society.

Being deprived or ill-treated in childhood may predispose people to repeat the pattern of abuse with their own children.

Children who are abused or at risk of abuse may be placed in care while the health and social services decide on the best course of action.... they generally heal without treatment child abuse

See puerperal fever.... childbed fever

The use of relaxation and other techniques to help cope with pain and minimize the use of drugs and medical intervention during childbirth.... childbirth, natural

A multidisciplinary diagnosis and advice team service for children suffering from emotional or behavioural problems in children. Indications of problems include poor performance at school, disruptive or withdrawn behaviour, lawbreaking, and drug abuse.

Child guidance professionals include psychiatrists, psychologists, and psychiatric social workers. For young children, play therapy may be used for diagnosis. Older children may be offered counselling, psychotherapy, or group therapy. Family therapy may be used in cases where there are difficulties between the child and 1 or both parents.... child guidance

Adoption was relatively uncommon until World War II, with only 6,000 adoption orders annually in the UK. This peaked at nearly 25,000 in 1968 as adoption became more socially acceptable and the numbers of babies born to lone mothers rose in a climate hostile to single parenthood.

Adoption declined as the availability of babies fell with the introduction of the Abortion Act 1968, improving contraceptive services and increasing acceptability of single parenthood.

However, with 10 per cent of couples suffering infertility, the demand continued, leading to the adoption of those previously perceived as di?cult to place – i.e. physically, intellectually and/or emotionally disabled children and adolescents, those with terminal illness, and children of ethnic-minority groups.

Recent controversies regarding homosexual couples as adoptive parents, adoption of children with or at high risk of HIV/AIDS, transcultural adoption, and the increasing use of intercountry adoption to ful?l the needs of childless couples have provoked urgent consideration of the ethical dilemmas of adoption and its consequences for the children, their adoptive and birth families and society generally.

Detailed statistics have been unavailable since 1984 but in general there has been a downward trend with relatively more older children being placed. Detailed reasons for adoption (i.e. interfamily, step-parent, intercountry, etc.) are not available but approximately one-third are adopted from local-authority care.

In the UK all adoptions (including interfamily and step-parent adoption) must take place through a registered adoption agency which may be local-authority-based or provided by a registered voluntary agency. All local authorities must act as agencies, the voluntary agencies often providing specialist services to promote and support the adoption of more di?cult-to-place children. Occasionally an adoption allowance will be awarded.

Adoption orders cannot be granted until a child has resided with its proposed adopters for 13 weeks. In the case of newborn infants the mother cannot give formal consent to placement until the baby is six weeks old, although informal arrangements can be made before this time.

In the UK the concept of responsibility of birth parents to their children and their rights to continued involvement after adoption are acknowledged by the Children Act 1989. However, in all discussions the child’s interests remain paramount. The Act also recognises adopted children’s need to have information regarding their origins.

BAAF – British Agencies for Adoption and Fostering – is the national organisation of adoptive agencies, both local authority and voluntary sector. The organisation promotes and provides training service, development and research; has several specialist professional subgroups (i.e. medical, legal, etc.); and produces a quarterly journal.

Adoption UK is an e?ective national support network of adoptive parents who o?er free information, a ‘listening ear’ and, to members, a quarterly newsletter.

National Organisation for Counselling Adoptees and their Parents (NORCAP) is concerned with adopted children and birth parents who wish to make contact.

The Registrar General operates an Adoption Contact Register for adopted persons and anyone related to that person by blood, half-blood or marriage. Information can be obtained from the O?ce of Population Censuses and Surveys. For the addresses of these organisations, see Appendix 2.... child adoption

Behavioural problems range from mild, short-lived periods of unacceptable behaviour, which are common in most children, to more severe problems such as conduct disorders and refusal to go to school. Behavioural problems may occasionally occur in any child; specialist management is called for when the problems become frequent and disrupt school and/or family life. Some behavioural problems can occur whatever the family or home situation. In some cases, however, stressful external events, such as moving home or divorce, may produce periods of problem behaviour.

Behavioural problems that are common in babies and young children include feeding difficulties (see feeding, infant) and sleeping problems, such as waking repeatedly in the night. In toddlers, breath-holding attacks, tantrums, separation anxiety, and head-banging are problems best dealt with by a consistent and appropriate approach. Problems with toilet-training are usually avoided if the training is delayed until the child is physically and emotionally ready.

Between the ages of 4 and 8, behavioural problems such as nail-biting and thumb-sucking, clinginess, nightmares, and bed-wetting (see enuresis) are so common as to be almost normal.

They are best dealt with by a positive approach that concentrates on rewarding good behaviour.

In most cases, the child grows out of the problem, but sometimes medical help may be needed.... behavioural problems in children

See childbirth, natural.... natural childbirth

(in Britain) a confidential list of children whose social circumstances render them at risk of neglect or abuse. Each local authority maintains a register of children who are subject to a child protection plan, who will receive extra support and surveillance from health and/or social services. See also safeguarding.... child protection register

(CHAPS) a questionnaire designed to assess children’s hearing abilities in certain situations. It is used in the diagnosis of *auditory processing disorder.... children’s auditory performance scale

(Sure Start Children’s Centre) a building housing a range of services to support children up to five years of age and their families, including childcare, early education, parenting advice, and access to health advice. Over 3 000 ‘Sure Start’-branded Children’s Centres were established under Labour governments from 1997 to 2010. Many centres have subsequently closed, with the result that provision is no longer universal across the UK. See also health inequalities.... children’s centre

a clinical scoring system used to predict the one- and two-year survival rates of patients with chronic liver disease. The score is determined by the assessment of two clinical signs (the presence of ascites and *hepatic encephalopathy) and three biochemical markers (serum bilirubin level, serum albumin level, and prothrombin time).... child–turcotte–pugh score

Screening and surveillance uncover problems which then need careful attention. Most NHS districts have a CDT to carry out this task – working from child development centres – usually separate from hospitals. Various therapists, as well as consultant paediatricians in community child health, contribute to the work of the team. They include physiotherapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, psychologists, health visitors and, in some centres, pre-school teachers or educational advisers and social workers. Their aims are to diagnose the child’s problems, identify his or her therapy needs and make recommendations to the local health and educational authorities on how these should be met. A member of the team will usually be appointed as the family’s ‘key worker’, who liaises with other members of the team and coordinates the child’s management. Regular review meetings are held, generally with parents sharing in the decisions made. Mostly children seen by CDTs are under ?ve years old, the school health service and educational authorities assuming responsibility thereafter.

Special needs The Children Act 1989, Education Acts 1981, 1986 and 1993, and the Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Legislation 1979 impose various statutory duties to identify and provide assistance for children with special needs. They include the chronically ill as well as those with impaired development or disabilities such as CEREBRAL PALSY, or hearing, vision or intellectual impairment. Many CDTs keep a register of such children so that services can be e?ciently planned and evaluated. Parents of disabled children often feel isolated and neglected by society in general; they are frequently frustrated by the lack of resources available to help them cope with the sheer hard work involved. The CDT, through its key workers, does its best to absorb anger and divert frustration into constructive actions.

There are other groups of children who come to the attention of child health services. Community paediatricians act as advisers to adoption and fostering agencies, vital since many children needing alternative homes have special medical or educational needs or have behavioural or psychiatric problems. Many see a role in acting as advocates, not just for those with impairments but also for socially disadvantaged children, including those ‘looked after’ in children’s homes and those of travellers, asylum seekers, refugees and the homeless.

Child protection Regrettably, some children come to the attention of child health specialists because they have been beaten, neglected, emotionally or nutritionally starved or sexually assaulted by their parents or carers. Responsibility for the investigation of these children is that of local-authority social-services departments. However, child health professionals have a vital role in diagnosis, obtaining forensic evidence, advising courts, supervising the medical aspects of follow-up and teaching doctors, therapists and other professionals in training. (See CHILD ABUSE.)

School health services Once children have reached school age, the emphasis changes. The prime need becomes identifying those with problems that may interfere with learning – including those with special needs as de?ned above, but also those with behavioural problems. Teachers and parents are advised on how to manage these problems, while health promotion and health education are directed at children. Special problems, especially as children reach secondary school (aged 11–18) include accidents, substance abuse, psychosexual adjustment, antisocial behaviour, eating disorders and physical conditions which loom large in the minds of adolescents in particular, such as ACNE, short stature and delayed puberty.

There is no longer, in the UK, a universal school health service as many of its functions have been taken over by general practitioners and hospital and community paediatricians. However, most areas still have school nurses, some have school doctors, while others do not employ speci?c individuals for these tasks but share out aspects of the work between GPs, health visitors, community nurses and consultant paediatricians in child health.

Complementing their work is the community dental service whose role is to monitor the whole child population’s dental health, provide preventive programmes for all, and dental treatment for those who have di?culty using general dental services – for example, children with complex disability. All children in state-funded schools are dentally screened at ages ?ve and 15.

Successes and failures Since the inception of the NHS, hospital services for children have had enormous success: neonatal and infant mortality rates have fallen by two-thirds; deaths from PNEUMONIA have fallen from 600 per million children to a handful; and deaths from MENINGITIS have fallen to one-?fth of the previous level. Much of this has been due to the revolution in the management of pregnancy and labour, the invention of neonatal resuscitation and neonatal intensive care, and the provision of powerful antibiotics.

At the same time, some children acquire HIV infection and AIDS from their affected mothers (see AIDS/HIV); the prevalence of atopic (see ATOPY) diseases (ASTHMA, eczema – see DERMATITIS, HAY FEVER) is rising; more children attend hospital clinics with chronic CONSTIPATION; and little can be done for most viral diseases.

Community child health services can also boast of successes. The routine immunisation programme has wiped out SMALLPOX, DIPHTHERIA and POLIOMYELITIS and almost wiped out haemophilus and meningococcal C meningitis, measles and congenital RUBELLA syndrome. WHOOPING COUGH outbreaks continue but the death and chronic disability rates have been greatly reduced. Despite these huge health gains, continuing public scepticism about the safety of immunisation means that there can be no relaxation in the educational and health-promotion programme.

Services for severely and multiply disabled children have improved beyond all recognition with the closure of long-stay institutions, many of which were distinctly child-unfriendly. Nonetheless, scarce resources mean that families still carry heavy burdens. The incidence of SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME (SIDS) has more than halved as a result of an educational programme based on ?rm scienti?c evidence that the risk can be reduced by putting babies to sleep on their backs, avoidance of parental smoking, not overheating, breast feeding and seeking medical attention early for illness.

Children have fewer accidents and better teeth but new problems have arisen: in the 1990s children throughout the developed world became fatter. A UK survey in 2004 found that one in ?ve children are overweight and one in 20 obese. Lack of exercise, the easy availability of food at all times and in all places, together with the rise of ‘snacking’, are likely to provoke signi?cant health problems as these children grow into adult life. Adolescents are at greater risk than ever of ill-health through substance abuse and unplanned pregnancy. Child health services are facing new challenges in the 21st century.... child development teams (cdts)

Paediatrics is the branch of medicine which deals with diseases of children, but many paediatricians have a wider role, being employed largely outside acute hospitals and dealing with child health in general.

History Child health services were originally designed, before the NHS came into being, to ?nd or prevent physical illness by regular inspections. In the UK these were carried out by clinical medical o?cers (CMOs) working in infant welfare clinics (later, child health clinics) set up to ?ll the gap between general practice and hospital care. The services expanded greatly from the mid 1970s; ‘inspections’ have evolved into a regular screening and surveillance system by general practitioners and health visitors, while CMOs have mostly been replaced by consultant paediatricians in community child health (CPCCH).

Screening Screening begins at birth, when every baby is examined for congenital conditions such as dislocated hips, heart malformations, cataract and undescended testicles. Blood is taken to ?nd those babies with potentially brain-damaging conditions such as HYPOTHYROIDISM and PHENYLKETONURIA. Some NHS trusts screen for the life-threatening disease CYSTIC FIBROSIS, although in future it is more likely that ?nding this disease will be part of prenatal screening, along with DOWN’S (DOWN) SYNDROME and SPINA BIFIDA. A programme to detect hearing impairment in newborn babies has been piloted from 2001 in selected districts to ?nd out whether it would be a useful addition to the national screening programme. Children from ethnic groups at risk of inherited abnormalities of HAEMOGLOBIN (sickle cell disease; thalassaemia – see under ANAEMIA) have blood tested at some time between birth and six months of age.

Illness prevention At two months, GPs screen babies again for these abnormalities and start the process of primary IMMUNISATION. The routine immunisation programme has been dramatically successful in preventing illness, handicap and deaths: as such it is the cornerstone of the public health aspect of child health, with more potential vaccines being made available every year. Currently, infants are immunised against pertussis (see WHOOPING COUGH), DIPHTHERIA, TETANUS, POLIOMYELITIS, haemophilus (a cause of MENINGITIS, SEPTICAEMIA, ARTHRITIS and epiglottitis) and meningococcus C (SEPTICAEMIA and meningitis – see NEISSERIACEAE) at two, three and four months. Selected children from high-risk groups are o?ered BCG VACCINE against tuberculosis and hepatitis vaccine. At about 13 months all are o?ered MMR VACCINE (measles, mumps and rubella) and there are pre-school entry ‘boosters’ of diphtheria, tetanus, polio, meningococcus C and MMR. Pneumococcal vaccine is available for particular cases but is not yet part of the routine schedule.

Health promotion and education Throughout the UK, parents are given their child’s personal health record to keep with them. It contains advice on health promotion, including immunisation, developmental milestones (when did he or she ?rst smile, sit up, walk and so on), and graphs – called centile charts – on which to record height, weight and head circumference. There is space for midwives, doctors, practice nurses, health visitors and parents to make notes about the child.

Throughout at least the ?rst year of life, both parents and health-care providers set great store by regular weighing, designed to pick up children who are ‘failing to thrive’. Measuring length is not quite so easy, but height measurements are recommended from about two or three years of age in order to detect children with disorders such as growth-hormone de?ciency, malabsorption (e.g. COELIAC DISEASE) and psychosocial dwar?sm (see below).

All babies have their head circumference measured at birth, and again at the eight-week check. A too rapidly growing head implies that the infant might have HYDROCEPHALUS – excess ?uid in the hollow spaces within the brain. A too slowly growing head may mean failure of brain growth, which may go hand in hand with physically or intellectually delayed development.

At about eight months, babies receive a surveillance examination, usually by a health visitor. Parents are asked if they have any concerns about their child’s hearing, vision or physical ability. The examiner conducts a screening test for hearing impairment – the so-called distraction test; he or she stands behind the infant, who is on the mother’s lap, and activates a standardised sound at a set distance from each ear, noting whether or not the child turns his or her head or eyes towards the sound. If the child shows no reaction, the test is repeated a few weeks later; if still negative then referral is made to an audiologist for more formal testing.

The doctor or health visitor will also go through the child’s developmental progress (see above) noting any signi?cant deviation from normal which merits more detailed examination. Doctors are also recommended to examine infants developmentally at some time between 18 and 24 months. At this time they will be looking particularly for late walking or failure to develop appropriate language skills.... child health

(English) From a dignified family Chylders, Chelders... childers

The schedule laid down by most countries to recommend which routine immunizations should be given to children and the intervals at which boosters should be administered. Such routine immunizations usually include tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis, polio, Hepatitis B, Haemophilus influenzae type b (H.I.B.) and after one year of age, measles, rubella and mumps vaccines.... childhood immunization schedule

see children’s centre.... sure start children’s centre

Drinking tea is considered to be good for every adult, thanks to the many health benefits various types of tea have. However, this isn’t the case when it comes to children, babies included. Find out more about the types of tea for children, as well as the ones they shouldn’t drink. Be careful with teas for children Teas have plenty of health benefits when it comes to children, as well. You just have to be careful with the type of tea you give your child to drink. Some can help a lot, especially when it comes to colds or stomach problems, but other types of tea might lead to unpleasant side effects. The biggest problem revolves around the caffeine content found in teas; these include the teas made from the Camellia sinensis plant: green tea, black tea, white tea, and oolong tea. If your child drinks one of these teas that contain caffeine, it might give him an upset stomach, sleeping problems, or it might make him easily irritable. Teas for children Considering the fact that children like sweet things, fruit-flavored teas should tempt them. Not only is the aromatic taste pleasant, but drinking fruit-flavored teas should definitely be healthier for children than drinking soda. The fruit-flavored teas for children include apple, banana, raspberry, strawberry, cherry, passion fruit, or mango. The children are bound to enjoy it both hot during winter, and cold during summer (either prepared as iced tea, or simply left to cool at room temperature). Herbal teas are also recommended, especially thanks to the health benefits they have. Benefits of teas for children You can prepare tea for your child if he has small health problems, such as coughing, nausea, colic, or even anxiety. Generally, it is recommended to prepare only half a cup of tea for children, not a full cup. Also, steeping time shouldn’t be as long as usual, as the tea shouldn’t be too strong; steeping time can be half the usual time. Use honey, stevia or fruit juice to sweeten it. With this, the result will be a pleasant-tasting tea for children. For colic, you can prepare a cup of chamomile tea or peppermint tea for your child. To treat nausea, as well as motion sickness, prepare ginger tea. Also, if your child is constipated, prepare oatmeal with flaxseed tea instead of water. The tea you should use for coughs depends on the type of cough. If your child has a mild cough, you can give him peppermint tea. If the child’s coughing is caused by a sore throat, prepare marshmallow root tea or slippery elm tea . Meanwhile, for coughs with congestion, licorice or coltsfoot tea is better. If your child has a fever, you can give him half a cup of the following types of tea: lemon balm, chamomile, peppermint, licorice or elder flower. Also, if your child has anxiety problems, try chamomile or oat straw tea; you can also prepare passionflower tea for children aged over 4, or skullcap tea for children aged over 6. Herbal tea can be good for children. You just have to pick the right one, in order to make sure it won’t end up harming your children.... teas for children

Difficulties and problems occurring after the onset of labour. Some complications are potentially life-threatening, especially if they impair the baby’s oxygen supply (see fetal distress). Premature labour may occur, with the delivery of a small, immature baby (see prematurity). Premature rupture of the amniotic sac can lead to infection in the uterus, requiring prompt delivery of the baby and treatment with antibiotic drugs.

Slow progress in the 1st stage of a normal labour due to inadequate contractions of the uterus is usually treated with intravenous infusions of synthetic oxytocin. If the mother cannot push strongly enough, or contractions are ineffective in the 2nd stage of labour, the baby may be delivered by forceps delivery, vacuum extraction, or caesarean section. Rarely, a woman has eclampsia during labour, requiring treatment with anticonvulsant drugs and oxygen, and induction of labour or caesarean section. Bleeding before labour (antepartum haemorrhage) or during labour may be due to premature separation of the placenta from the wall of the uterus or, less commonly, to a condition called placenta praevia, in which the placenta lies over the opening of the cervix. Blood loss after the delivery (postpartum haemorrhage) is usually due to failure of the uterus to contract after delivery, or to

retention of part of the placenta. If the baby lies in the breech position (see breech delivery), caesarean section may be necessary. Multiple pregnancies (see pregnancy, multiple) carry an increased risk of premature labour and of problems during delivery. If the mother’s pelvis is too small in proportion to the head of her baby, delivery by caesarean section is necessary.... childbirth, complications of

Massive and long continued medication should be avoided, parents acquiring some ability to distinguish between the purely miserable and the critically ill. It is easy to become alarmed at the sight of a child in the throes of a convulsion or feverishness when there may be a tendency to over-prescribe. German Chamomile tea is a splendid children’s remedy. Liquid Extract and Tincture doses for children are 1 drop and 2 drops, respectively, for each year of age.

Anti-depressants should not be given for bed-wetting, drugs for sleep problems or strong laxatives for the chronically constipated. Mild herbal alternatives exist. Fresh carrot juice daily helps a child to avoid some complaints. Some herbs are not advised for children under 12, except under the care of a qualified practitioner.

Parental smoking habits are known to be responsible for crying and digestive symptoms in infants. Sleeplessness. German Chamomile or Balm tea: children 2-10 years quarter to half a cup; over 10 years: 1 cup. Babies: 3-6 teaspoons in feeding bottle – sweeten with honey if necessary.

Night seizures, with screaming: Passion Flower tea. 1 heaped teaspoon to cup boiling water; infuse 5-15 minutes. Strain. A few teaspoons at bedtime. When a brain storm starts place pinch of salt on the tongue. Calcium deficiency. Nettle tea. Carrot juice. Cod Liver oil with fresh orange juice.

Colic. Any tea: Dill, Catnep, Spearmint or Fennel. Few teaspoons frequently. Abdominal massage: 3 drops Chamomile oil in teaspoon olive oil.

Constipation. Prune or carrot juice. Dandelion coffee.

Cough. Oil of Thyme – few drops in water.

Crusta Lacta (milk rash). Weak teas: Plantain, Heartsease, Red Clover. Anoint with St John’s Wort oil. Buttermilk, Wheatgerm.

Diarrhoea. Teas: Yarrow, Tormentil. Breast feeding during the first 4-6 months of life reduces the risk of children’s diarrhoea.

Digestion, weak. Teas: Fennel, Caraway, Dill. 1 teaspoon crushed seeds to cup boiling water. Infuse 15 minutes in a covered vessel. Teaspoon doses for under 2s; half-1 cup thereafter. Also for flatulence. Feverishness. Alarm at a baby’s fever and fractiousness may attract complete medical treatment including nose drops, cough linctus, antipyretics and antibiotics, together with something to let the parents get some sleep. Avoid where possible. Mild fevers: teas – Yarrow, Marigold, Thyme, Elderflowers and Peppermint, Catmint, Carragheen Moss. Sweeten with honey. Topical: Flannels wrung out in these hot teas. Zinc can cut short the common cold. Echinacea tablets/capsules offer antiviral protection.

It is common for a child to convulse with fever. A feverish child, kept cool, is less likely to have convulsions. Remove most of child’s clothes so he can lose heat through the skin. Fruit juices (Vitamin C) in abundance. Do not feed solid foods. Wash in lukewarm (not cold) water.

Eyes. Deep hollows under the eyes reveal exhaustion, for which blood and nerve tonics and iron supplements are indicated.

Growth problems. Under-developed children respond well to herbal aids: Gentian, Ginseng, Horsetail, Marigold, Oats, German Chamomile, Wood Betony, Kelp, Alfalfa. Supplementation with brewer’s yeast, Calcium, Pollen and Zinc yield convincing results.

Hyperactivity. Nerve restoratives for highly-strung children: Teas: Lime flowers, Chamomile, Lemon Balm, B-vitamins. Porridge. Tablets: Passion flower, Valerian, Skullcap. Vitamins B6 and C. Powders: formula. Passion flower 2; Valerian 1; Liquorice 1. Dose: 250mg (one 00 capsule or one-sixth teaspoon) thrice daily.

Irritability and impaired school performance may be due to Tartrazine and other additives, sugar, and anticonvulsant drugs. See previous paragraph.

Infection. Infection of the upper respiratory tract may manifest as inflammation of the middle ear, nasal discharge or tonsillitis. Echinacea tablets, powder or liquid extract indicated. For specific infection such as measles, see under MEASLES, or other appropriate entry.

Skin. Reject cow’s in favour of goat’s milk. See appropriate entry for each skin disease (ECZEMA, etc). Care of skin after bathing: St John’s Wort oil, Evening Primrose oil. ... children

The acquisition of physical, mental, and social skills in children.

Although there is wide variation in individual rates of progress, most children develop certain skills within predictable age ranges.

For example, most infants start to walk at 12–18 months.

Capability for new skills is linked to the maturity of the child’s nervous system.

Individual rates of maturity are determined genetically and modified by environmental factors in the uterus and after birth.

Development is assessed in early childhood by looking at abilities in 4 main areas: locomotion; hearing and speech; vision and fine movement; and social behaviour and play.

(See also developmental delay.)... child development

The increase in height and weight as a child develops. The period of most rapid growth occurs before birth. After birth, although growth is still rapid in the first few years of life, especially in the first year, the rate of

growth steadily decreases. Puberty marks another major period of growth, which continues until adult height and weight are reached, usually at about age 16–17 in girls and 19–21 in boys.

Body shape changes during childhood because different areas grow at different rates. For example, at birth, the head is already about three quarters of its adult size; it grows to almost full size during the first year. Thereafter, it becomes proportionately smaller because the body grows at a much faster rate.

Growth can be influenced by heredity and by environmental factors such as nutrition and general health. Hormones also play an important role, particularly growth hormone, thyroid hormones, and, at puberty, the sex hormones.

A chronic illness, such as cystic fibrosis, may retard growth. Even a minor illness can slow growth briefly, although the growth rate usually catches up when the child recovers. In some cases, slow growth may be the only sign that a child is ill or malnourished, in which case it is known as failure to thrive. However, short stature does not necessarily indicate poor health. Abnormally rapid growth is rare. Usually, it is a familial trait, but it may occasionally indicate an underlying disorder, such as a pituitary gland tumour causing gigantism. (See also age; child development.)... growth, childhood

(in Britain) a special clinic for the routine care of infants and preschool children, formerly known as a child welfare centre. Sometimes these clinics are staffed by doctors, *health visitors, and clinic nurses; the children attending them are drawn from the neighbourhood around the clinic. Alternatively, general practitioners may run their own child health clinic on a regular basis, with health visitors and other staff in attendance; it is unusual for children not registered with the practice to attend such clinics. The service provides screening tests for such conditions as *congenital dislocation of the hip, suppressed squint (see cover test), and impaired speech and/or hearing. The *Guthrie test may also be performed if this has not been done before the baby leaves hospital. The staff of child health clinics also educate mothers (especially those having their first child) in feeding techniques and hygiene and see that children receive the recommended immunizations against infectious diseases. They also ensure that the families of children with disabilities receive maximum support from health and social services and that such children achieve their maximum potential in the preschool period. See also community paediatrician.... child health clinic